FIRE SAFETY

PRINCIPLES
4.0
Intro Definition and Causes of Fire
2

Fire is a rapid oxidation process

accompanied by the evolution
of heat, light, flame and the
emission of sound.

The Fire Triangle: Fuel (Fire Load)

Three elements - fuel,
oxygen and heat - are
required to start a fire.
The oxidation process
will not be possible
without any one of these
elements. Oxygen (Ventilation) Heat (Ignition)
Intro Classes of Fire
3

Fire involving: How to Suppress:

Class A: Ordinary combustible

Use Water
materials such as wood,
cloth, paper, rubber and
plastics, etc.
Class B: Flammable or combustible Exclude air from
burning materials
liquids, flammable gases.
Class C: Energized electrical No Water; Use electrically
non-conductive
equipment extinguishing agents such
as gaseous systems

Class D: Combustible metals such Heat-absorbing

as potassium, sodium, medium which is not
reactive with
magnesium and other burning metals
reactive metals
Intro Fire Growth
2

Stages

Stage 1: Pre-flashover or Involves flaming combustion of an

item and may lead to a spread of
growth phase fire; or a smoldering, poorly-
ventilated fire with substantial
smoke.

Rapid change from a local fire to

Stage 2: Flashover one involving all combustible
materials in a room.

All materials in compartment are

Stage 3: Fully developed fire alight; maximum rate of heat
(Stable phase) release is dependent on either
available ventilation or quantity of
fuel.

Stage 4: Decay (Cooling Gradual consumption of fuel in the

compartment.
Period)
Intro Fire Growth
2

Architectural Intervention This graph shows where active and passive

during Fire Growth fire protection will play an important part

during the development of fire.

Active Fire Protection Passive Fire Protection

Detection, activation and suppression Resistance to heat and flames of fire rated constructions

Temperature Time

Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3 Stage 4

Slow rate of Development of heat Load bearing capacity of materials is maintained.

burning and flames Prevention of fire spread to other compartments.
Intro Behavior of Fire and Smoke
1

Vertical Shaft or Duct

Suspended Ceiling
(Stack Effect)
Ceiling Void

Smoke and Flame

likely to re-enter Enclosed Area

Vertical Shaft or Duct

1.00 m

Outlet to
open air

Outlet to Enclosed
adjoining space
Area
Intro Fire Spread
2

Internal Fire Spread due to:

Through Air Ducts

Through Through Ceiling and

Vertical Collapsed Partitions
Shafts

Origin of Fire

Through Non-Fire
Rated Doors

Internal Fire Spread

between Rooms and Floors
Intro Fire Spread
External Fire Spread due to:

Congested High Fire Load Areas

Intro Fire Spread
External Fire Spread due to:

Loss of Integrity of Fire Wall

Intro Fire Spread
2

External Fire Spread due to:

Convection
Ignition of Materials
Currents

Ignition of Materials Ignition of Materials

Ignition of Materials

Origin of Fire

Proximity of Buildings
Aims in
Fire Safety Design
A To prevent fire

B To safeguard the lives of

occupants and firefighters

C To reduce damage on the

building, its contents, and on
surrounding buildings
Basic
Principles
1 Fire Avoidance
2 Fire Detection
3 Fire Growth Restriction
4 Fire Containment
5 Fire Control
6 Smoke Control
7 Escape Provisions
Basic
Fire Avoidance 1
Principles 1

Definition & Implication

Reducing the possibility of accidental ignition of
construction materials, as well as fittings and
fixtures.

This implies:

a. keeping separate heat

sources and materials which
might ignite readily through
proper planning and zoning
b. need to specify materials to
reduce the risk of fire starting
c. reducing fire load
Basic
Fire Avoidance 1
Principles 1

Fire Zoning (eg. Hospitals)

1. Life Risk Areas – areas in which all occupants are ambulant and
able to move unaided away from a fire
- eg. Outpatient department; Service Zone
For Most Buildings
2. High Fire Risk Areas – areas which, due to their function, are
For Hospitals

more usually susceptible to an outbreak of fire, or to a rapid spread of

fire or smoke.
- eg. Kitchen or Boiler Room

3. High Fire Load Areas – areas which, because of their

construction or contents, contain large amounts of combustible
materials, thereby constituting a fire load in excess of that normally
found
- eg. Gas Storage, Linen Closets

4. High Life Risk Areas – areas in which persons may reside and
are not able to move unaided away from a fire.
- eg. Intensive Care Unit, Operating Department
Basic
PrinciplesFire Avoidance1
Fire Zoning (eg. Hospitals)
LEGEND:
LIFE RISK
HIGH LIFE RISK
HIGH FIRE RISK
HIGH FIRE LOAD
Basic
Fire Avoidance 1
Principles 2

Choice of Materials and Knowledge

1
on Material Performance
Concrete Masonry
-high fire resistance - high fire resistance
- disintegrates at 400-500°C - cracks at 575°C
- holes in concrete will - are subject to high
expose steel structural temperatures during
members manufacture

Steel Calcium Silicate

- does not burn - excellent thermal shock
- may buckle in fire resistance
- high conductivity spreads - up to 1000°C
heat - suitable for cladding
- loses half its strength in structural members
550°C

Timber Glass
- combustible - standard float, toughened
- little loss of strength and laminated glass panes do
as charcoal formed not provide any fire resistance
insulates wood core - monolithic fire-rated glass is
- spreads flames available
Basic
Fire Avoidance 1
Principles 2

1
Knowledge on Fire Load
“the amount of material which is able to
burn and release heat and smoke”

In a compartment, limiting fuel will

help reduce the dangers of heat and
smoke.

Building contents make up the

majority of the fire load, since most
fires start from the ignition of these
contents.
The total amount of fuel in a building, its accessibility to fire
engines, the availability of water, etc. will determine the level
of fire resistance and the maximum size of a building
compartment.
Basic
PrinciplesFire Detection2
Visual Fire Detection
To visually expose FIRE RISK and FIRE LOAD
areas to building occupants.

Lounge
Patient Room
Sto

Patient Room

Nurse Station
Basic
PrinciplesFire Detection2
Visual Fire Detection

fire-prone areas provide peepholes

should be visually on doors
accessible
Basic
PrinciplesFire Detection2
Mechanical Fire Detection
Makes use of manual and automatic (electric/
electronic) methods of informing the occupants in
charge that a fire has occurred in a given location.

Fire alarm systems must be

Heat and smoke alarm systems accessible in all zones especially in
inside Fire Risk and Fire Load fire-prone areas.
areas.
Basic
Fire Growth Restriction3
Principles
Aimed at ensuring that the growing fire is extinguished
immediately and at providing adequate time for firemen to
arrive, control the fire and evacuate the occupants.

Manual Means of Restricting

5
Fire Growth
Actively extinguishing or slowing down
the development of a fire before the full
involvement of the room. This is done
by the room’s local occupants.
Means:
1. Fire Extinguisher
2. Water Supply
3. Fire Blanket
4. Bucket of Sand
Basic
Fire Growth Restriction3
Principles
4
Rating of Fire Extinguishers :
Class A Extinguishers will put out fires in ordinary
combustibles, such as wood and paper. The numerical rating
for this class of fire extinguisher refers to the amount of water
the fire extinguisher holds and the amount of fire it will
extinguish

Class B Extinguishers should be used on fires involving

flammable liquids, such as grease, gasoline, oil, etc. The
numerical rating for this class of fire extinguisher states the
approximate number of square feet of a flammable liquid fire
that a non-expert person can expect to extinguish

Class C Extinguishers are suitable for use on electrically

energized fires. This class of fire extinguishers does not have
a numerical rating. The presence of the letter “C” indicates that
the extinguishing agent is non-conductive

Class D Extinguishers are designed for use on flammable

metals and are often specific for the type of metal in question.
There is no picture designator for Class D extinguishers.
These extinguishers generally have no rating nor are they
given a multi-purpose rating for use on other types of fires
Basic
Fire Growth Restriction3
Principles
4
Types of Fire Extinguishers :

Dry Chemical extinguishers are usually rated for multiple purpose use. They
contain an extinguishing agent and use a compressed, non-flammable gas as a
propellant

Halon extinguishers contain a gas that interrupts the chemical reaction that takes
place when fuels burn. These types of extinguishers are often used to protect
valuable electrical equipment since them leave no residue to clean up. Halon
extinguishers have a limited range, usually 1.2 to 1.8 meters. The initial application
of Halon should be made at the base of the fire, even after the flames have been
extinguished

Carbon Dioxide (CO2) extinguishers are most effective on Class B and C (liquids
and electrical) fires. Since the gas disperses quickly, these extinguishers are only
effective from 1.0 to 2.4 feet. The carbon dioxide is stored as a compressed liquid in
the extinguisher; as it expands, it cools the surrounding air. The cooling will often
cause ice to form around the “horn” where the gas is expelled from the extinguisher.
Since the fire could re-ignite, continue to apply the agent even after the fire appears
to be out
Basic
Fire Growth Restriction3
Principles
Mechanical Means of
6
Restricting Fire Growth
Sprinkler Specifications:

-Categories: General Use, Institutional,

Residential, Attics, Special Hazards,
Storage
Sprinklers can be spaced
-3 heads: upright, pendent and sidewall from 3.6 to 6.0 meters apart.
-Rated to 175 psi
 Basic
Fire Containment4
Principles
Definition and Implication
Assumes that measures to control a growing fire
may not be successful, hence its maximum size
needs to be restricted both to reduce the risk
and to allow effective firefighting.
Extend CHB
walls up to This implies:
slab
1. Fire cladding of structural components to ensure stability
of structural frames.
2. The use of fire-rated walls and slabs to contain fire in
rooms, sub-compartments and compartments so as to
segregate areas where fire may occur.
Provide 1 m. 3. Others:
ledge to prevent
spread of fire - plugging all holes; extending CHB walls up to the slab;
- providing a 1-meter ledge to prevent fire from creeping up
exterior walls into the floor above through windows.
Basic
Fire Containment4
Principles
2
Concepts of Fire Compartmentation
Definition Objectives
-To limit fire and smoke spread
Containing fire- -To allow longer escape time
prone areas by -To reduce the maximum potential size of the fire
means of fire-
resistive
enclosures
Room

Sub-Compartment

Compartment

Fire-Rated
Surface

Compartment The more combustible the contents of a building, the

smaller the compartment should be.
Sizes
Joints must be filled with non-combustible materials
to prevent the spread of smoke or flame.
Basic
Fire Containment4
Principles
Concepts of Fire Compartmentation
LEGEND:
Department
Rooms
Basic
Fire Containment4
Principles
3
Fire Rating of Construction Systems
Concrete Masonry Wall Units
2 Hour 4 Hour

4” 6”

Gypsum Walls
1 Hour 2 Hour
Wood Steel Wood Steel

-One layer 12mm type X -One layer 16mm type X

veneer base nailed to each
side of 50mmX100mm wood
studs 400mm O.C.
gypsum wallboard or veneer
base applied to each side of
40mm metal studs 600mm
O.C.
-Two layers 16mm type X gypsum -Two layers 16mm type X gypsum
wallboard or veneer base applied wallboard or veneer base applied
to each side of 50mmx100mm to each side of 62mm metal studs
wood studs 600mm O.C. 400mm O.C.
Basic
Fire Containment4
Principles
3
Fire Rating of Construction Systems
Ceiling Systems
1 Hour 2 Hour 3 Hour

STEEL
12mm gypsum wallboard 12mm gypsum wallboard RUNNERS
applied to drywall resilient applied to drywall furring 12mm
3-16mm FIRE
furring channels 600mm O.C. channels. Furring channels 25mm RATED
and nailed to wood joists 600mm O.C., attached with 18 PANELS
400mm O.C. Wood joists gauge wire ties open web 35mm x 22mm
ANGLE
supporting 25mm T&G finish steel joists 600mm O.C. WIRE MESH
RUNNER
floor. supporting rib metal lath on 28
CORNER
gauge corrugated steel and REINFORCEMENT
62mm concrete slab.
Basic
Fire Containment4
Principles
3
Fire Rating of Construction Systems
Door Openings For 1.2m X 3.0m single hollow metal doors (ga.20 steel face), with
labeled single-point or 3-point latching hardware, steel hinges or pivots

1 Hour 2 Hour 3 Hour

125mm
min

1.370m 0.83m
max max

-Maximum glass area: 0.83 sq.m 125mmglass area 0.063 sq.m

-For openings in walls or partitions
between rooms and corridors having a fire
resistance rating of 1 hour or less
-Maximum
min
-6mm thk Wire glass in a steel frame
-For openings in enclosures of vertical
communications through buildings and in
2-hour rated partitions providing horizontal
fire separations
-Flush Metal Door
-No Glass Permitted
-3mm clearance at jambs
-10mm clearance at non-combustinle floor
-For openings in fire walls or walls that
divide a single building into fire areas
Basic
Fire Containment4
Principles
Load Bearing Capacity, Integrity
2
and Insulation
Load Bearing Capacity Integrity Insulation

Collapse or Passage of Temperature

excessive flame increase
deflection

Structural Performance: Ability to resist the *Insulated building elements will

Building still stands development of crack or not ignite in fire and will ensure
passage of human beings without
during an emergency perforations so as not
damage on the other side of the
to allow passage of separating element.
Ability to carry load
smoke and flame
without collapsing Ability to prevent heat transfer
from one face to the other face.
Basic
Principles Fire Control5
Definition and Implication
Covers those devices and systems which aid
firefighters in actively extinguishing the fire and
bringing it to an end earlier than a free-burning fire.

Access Road

ensure that all areas inside

and outside the building
are covered by reach of
access road for firetrucks the firehose
Basic
Principles Fire Control5
Site Access for Fire Control8:
L T-TURN

CUL-DE-SAC

W
Fire apparatus should have
unobstructed access to
buildings.
Bollards and fences used for traffic
control must allow for sufficient
open road width for fire truck
30m> DEAD END
Prevent time-consuming, hazardous
back-ups at dead-ends by using T-
turns and cul-de-sacs

MAX. 90 METERS

FIRE HYDRANT
0.3m
SIAMESE
CONNECTION

Place hydrants at max. 3 meters Hydrant must be Utility poles, kiosks, sculpture,
from curb. Siamese connection unobstructed; Fire hose fountains, plant boxes can impede
to standpipes must be visible connection should be at fire rescue operations
and within 60m from hydrant least 0.3m above grade
Basic
Principles Fire Control5
Firetrucks
Aerial Apparatus
30 m.
Specifications:

25 m.

20 m.
75 ° (safe 75 ° 75 °
angle)

8.5 m. 6.7 m. 5.6 m.

Approx. 10 storeys Approx. 8-9 storeys Approx. 6-7 storeys
Basic
Principles Fire Control5
Concept of the Firefighting Shaft
Provides access to a building, especially in high
rise buildings, for fire brigades.
Elevator
Is fully-equipped with firefighting equipment, shaft Wet and Dry
Risers
service elevator, stair and lobby.

Provides a sufficiently secure operating base

and a rest area in between firefighting
operations.

Fire-rated
doors
Basic
PrinciplesSmoke Control6
2
Definition and Techniques
Measures which can assist to some extent
occupants in the fire zone but are particularly
needed for others in adjacent areas or
compartments.
Venting
Techniques of Smoke
Control
Extraction of Smoke
Ceiling Reservoir a. SMOKE CONTAINMENT/
BARRIER – technique of
Smoke Plume restricting the movement of
smoke by the provision of fire
resisting elements.
Shop

b. SMOKE DISPERSAL –
Mall
Smoke Barrier technique of clearing smoke
locally by provision of natural
Make Up Air cross-ventilation or mechanical
venting.
Basic
PrinciplesSmoke Control6
2
Definition and Techniques
c. PRESSURIZATION – technique whereby air is blown into
spaces which are designed to be kept clear of smoke.

High
Uses barriers including Pressure
walls, floors and
doors, to contain Low
Pressure
pressurized air
generated by
mechanical means to
keep smoke away
from protected areas
such as escape
staircases and
corridors.
Basic
Escape Provisions7
Principles
Definition
Cover a range of passive or active systems which
permit the occupants to move or be moved to a
place of safety within or to the outside of a building.

CORRIDOR SYSTEM:
direct, not tortuous
simple lay-out
no barriers, cul-de-sacs, bottlenecks
doors open out, not in
easily detectible, not hidden from view

FIRE ESCAPE:
fire escape stairs designed to be used daily for familiarity
of escape route
well-maintained (not used as storage of junk)
Basic
Escape Provisions7
Principles
1
Protected Escape Routes
To provide safety, This can be Escape Route Leading to:
the routes must achieved by: Protected Escape
be properly Route
- Compartmentation
protected from Place of Safety Place of Safety

the effects of fire - Fire resistance of

a. Protected Escape Route
and smoke for an escape route
structure
acceptable time Protected Lobby

period, usually a - Use of smoke Place of Safety

minimum of 60 control systems to
keep smoke out of Place of Safety
minutes. escape routes b. Protected Lobby

Protected escape routes are designed in such a Stairway

Enclosure
way that they lead to a place of safety, and once Place of Safety

inside the occupants are safe from the Place of Safety

immediate danger from fire and smoke.
c. Protected Stairway Enclosure
Basic
Escape Provisions7
Principles
1
Alternative Means of Escape

Place of Place of
Safety Safety

exit courtyard

Alternative
Means of Escape subcomp-
compart- subcomp-
-Doors should be as far ment artment
artment
as possible from each
other; preferably on courtyard
opposite walls Access through
-Both doors should not
subcomp-
Courtyards
open into the same
subcomp- artment
compartment artment
Basic
Escape Provisions7
Principles
1
Design of Fire Resisting Doors
Additional width to
allow for door
swing

Reqd.
width of
escape
route

Design
width

90° min 90° min

Design
width
Basic
Escape Provisions7
Principles
Primary Considerations in the
Design for FIRE Safety
of Hospitals1

1. The presence of patients with various degrees

of dependency and immobility on one hand
and the constant presence of staff on the
other.

2. It is assumed that there should be no reliance

on external; rescue or such manipulative types
of escape appliances as chutes or fire ladders.

3. The staff would be fully responsible in

assisting patients within their area of control
to a place of safety in an emergency.
Basic
Escape Provisions7
Principles
1
Progressive Horizontal Evacuation
FIRE SAFETY
PRINCIPLES

END