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A Dead and Buried Place
You hold your breath as adrenaline courses through your veins. Bullets fly as the heroes
jump into a rolling mine cart. The people who are after them jump into carts too. You wince. You
thought that at least this time they had gotten away without any extra thrills, apparently not. The
mine cart swerves, and the people inside duck from the bullets. You startle as they almost tip into
a pool of lava, but manage to avoid death once again. They go into a tunnel that is boarded up
with a sign saying “Danger” and you groan with exasperation and stress. You tense as they fly
off one end of the rails, but sigh as they slam down on the other side, at least this time they didn’t
fall to their deaths. Just as you think they are going to be okay, a huge amount of water comes
crashing through the tunnel. As the heroes pull off their escape, the entire time you are on the
edge of your seat, not wanting to breathe too deeply or blink, so as to not miss even a second.
The seat beneath you is warm and comforting as you sink back into it, breathing out a sigh of
relief and relaxing as the protagonist has escaped certain doom once again. The movie you are
watching is Indiana Jones: The Temple of Doom . This scene was one of the most memorable in
the entire series, full of anticipation and adrenaline filled maneuvers, enough to keep you on the
edge of your seat the entire time. Of course with Indiana Jones, the relief you feel at the end of
the scene is bound not to last.
This is not my only experience with archaeology, but it is one of my most memorable. In
fact, I have been fascinated by archaeology for a long time. When I was little, and my family
went to Russia to visit family and friends there, I spent hours with my grandma looking at
arrowheads and other small artifacts that my grandparents, my dad, and my uncle had dug up at
their small lake cabin (or dacha ). The process and the actual idea of being able to dig something
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up that has been hidden in the ground for hundreds, if not thousands, of years has always excited
me. And then, once I got older, my dad began to watch the Indiana Jones series with me, and I
was gone, hook, line, and sinker. Even though my interest veered off in different directions
sometimes, it always returned to archaeology, and so I decided that this was something I could be
happy doing for the rest of my life. The fact that I am going to study this in college, as well as
my lifelong fascination with it, led me to ask the question: How has culture influenced the study
of archaeology, and how has the study of archaeology helped perpetuate a country's unique
culture?
The study of archaeology and culture have had a long and fluctuating relationship. In the
past, culture and cultural norms such as popular culture have had minimal effects on the study of
archaeology and the public perception of it. However, with the rise of phenomena such as
Indiana Jones, Tomb Raider, and Ancient Aliens the public’s attention on archaeology has grown
exponentially. Arguments can be made for positive and negative effects, but the fact that the
influence exists is widely acknowledged. Archaeology, as a field, has had an impact on culture
for as long as it has been alive, even though that influence has varied in intensity. In fact, the
entire cultural identities of countries have been created due to archaeological discoveries.
Although it may not seem like it, cultural, social, and political movements and ideas and popular
culture can have an effect on the perception of archaeology; and the study of archaeology can
have a significant impact on the cultures it studies (or at least, their modern versions).
Popular culture can have a positive and negative effect on the public perception of
archaeology, especially in the United States. When Indiana Jones came out three decades ago, it
“inspired a [new] generation of moviegoers” (Berlin) and changed the perception of archaeology
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drastically. Fred Hiebert, the new curator for a National Geographic Indiana Jones exhibit,
believes that Indiana Jones has broadened the field of archaeology and made it more exciting for
people all around the world. “These films introduced so many people to archaeology,” says
Hiebert, “We can document their impact statistically, based on the number of archaeology
students before and after the first film. Some of the best archaeologists in the world today say
Indiana Jones was what sparked their initial interest” (Qtd. in Berlin).
Although popular culture, such as films like Indiana Jones , can have positive effects on
the field of archaeology by introducing more people to it, it also creates harmful misconceptions.
These misconceptions can diminish the actual importance and value of archaeology.
Archaeology “provides a history and heritage to many cultures” and a more “objective account”
than can be found otherwise, helping people plan for the future more effectively by studying
patterns from the past (Pennsylvania). Salam Al Kuntar, a professor at Rutgers University with a
Ph.D. in Archaeology explains that “the way that archaeology is portrayed in popular culture is
totally false” and that the way archaeology is portrayed in Indiana Jones “is not the way that
archaeology is done, [it] is like treasure hunting.” She also states that Indiana Jones fuels
misconceptions about the importance of fieldwork in the profession of archaeology, and
diminishes the significance of lab work, research, ethics, and bureaucracy.
Popular culture has falsely portrayed the actual work archaeologists do and instead
romanticized the fieldwork and simplified all of the necessary processes. Bonnie Effros and
Guolong Lai state in the introduction of Unmasking Ideology in Imperial and Colonial
Archaeology that “myths of the Indiana Jones type, which portray archaeologists conquering and
exploring exotic landscapes in search of hidden treasures, have encouraged the public to dream
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romantically of archaeological adventures abroad”, but there are “underlying tensions between
such fictional accounts and the ugly realities they elide” (Effros and Lai, xxi). The film industry
wants not to portray the truth, but rather to tell a story, one that excites and brings viewers in.
Often, books that are written about archaeology and movies made about it “deal with the
adventurous and mythical properties of discovery and fieldwork, with no reference to the real
world of professional experience and hardship” (Kristiansen). Salam Al Kuntar confirms that
“they’re not there to show how archaeology works, the science stuff, they are really looking for
excitement, and that faces us even now.” Al Kuntar reviews scripts for documentaries on
occasion and has noticed this phenomenon there too. She says that “it’s a struggle with the
scriptwriters, to verify some facts, or make them use specific words,” like in one specific
documentary “there isn’t any evidence from the texts we have” that what they are trying to
portray is actually true. These documentaries are advertised as truthful accounts of the past, but
when they include information that cannot be backed up with archaeological evidence, they
undermine the integrity of historians and archaeologists and change the way that they are
perceived by society. Popular culture such as fiction films and documentaries have a significant
effect on the public’s view and perception of archaeology, but it is not the only factor that has an
impact.
Cultural phenomena such as colonialism have had notable impacts on both the study of
archaeology and the acquisition of artifacts. Unmasking Ideology in Imperial and Colonial
Archaeology , a volume of collected essays on the ethics and implications of imperial and
colonial archaeology, states that “archaeology, imperialism, colonialism, capitalism, and war”
have been entangled for centuries, going back to the very existence of these terms (Effros and
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Lai, xxi). Imperial powers have often expanded their political power and influence under the
pretense of “‘discovering’ archaeological sites or ‘saving’ world heritage” (Effros and Lai, xvii).
And as a result, indigenous peoples have often fallen prey to such sentiments, forced to stand by
as their sacred lands were destroyed, pillaged, and confiscated, and their “artifacts looted”
(Effros and Lai, xxii). Harold Garrel, a graduate student studying archaeology at UC Berkeley,
agrees that “colonial powers have long gained pleasure from subjugating other countries under a
guise of the search for knowledge or the safekeeping of artifacts and monuments, things that
they really had no business doing.”
There are countless specific examples of the humongous effect that colonialism has had
on archaeology and the subjugated cultures. The British Museum has been a high profile and
visible example in recent times. It is now housing several priceless artifacts that should be
returned to their rightful places. They play significant roles in history and are located in a
country that used to be a huge imperial power. The Rosetta Stone and Nefertiti Bust from Egypt,
Elgin Marbles from Greece, KohiNoor Diamond from India, Old Fisherman from Aphrodisias
and Sion Treasure from Turkey, Iraqi Jewish Artifacts and the Babylonian Ishtar Gate from Iraq,
and Imperial Treasures from China, are all priceless artifacts that should be returned to the
countries they came from (Mascarenhas). These artifacts, some once items of cultural
significance and pride for the countries in which they originated, are now tainted with the
knowledge that they were stolen with no intention of return. People are ignorant of the history of
these worldrenowned objects, seeing no further than the surface, diminishing the suffering and
struggle that happened behind the scenes to bring them from their homelands. What could have
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been a symbol of national pride and history is now nothing more than one of colonization and
suffering.
Often our perception of the past is shaped by the Western European perception of it, from
the point of view of imperial powers and colonizers. Chinese archaeology, as an example,
changed and restructured itself several times, rejecting Confucianism and trying to find a new
philosophy, all because of Western Imperialistic influences. European Imperial powers caused
great political and cultural conflicts in China, with two Opium Wars having some of the most
significant impacts on Chinese cultural identity. This, in turn, caused the subsequent “critique of
Chinese traditional histories” and “emerging interest in social Darwinism” (Liu & Jones). With
this intrusion of Western culture the “development of Chinese history” was faced with a
predicament: “European dominated perspectives” or “indigenous traditions” (Liu & Jones).
Since the beginning of archaeology in China, it has had a “central role in establishing a new
social ideology for modern China”, and the application of western ideas to “local Chinese
archaeological contexts” sought to prove that “the West and the East had diverged” and that this
made the East lesser than the West in some way (Liu & Jones). European powers have a history
of forcing and manipulating science into proving their ideas and superiority, even when the
science itself does not prove it.
Other cultural and social movements have also had effects on the study and perception of
archaeology. Gender archaeology, a means of studying past cultures and societies using their
material culture and examining gender relations and identities present, has been around for a
while. However, with the rise of feminism as a social movement, it has become even more
present and relevant, and the evidence of sexism in the study of archaeology has become
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apparent. This is a very important type of archaeological process which can tell archaeologists
much about the social structure of the time they are studying. For example, the traditional study
of monasticism in the middle ages often “ignored the differences between monasteries and
nunneries by downplaying the importance of nunneries as a focus of a particularly female
religious experience and depicting them as unsuccessful and poor counterparts to monasteries”
(Alexandri). There were, in fact, important differences between the two, stemming from the
different goals and expectations. Monasteries had a “clear aim toward selfsufficiency”, while
nunneries were “dependent on local communities” (Alexandri). Many archaeologists and
historians have ignored the evidence that the differences between monasteries and nunneries
were not based on the fact that nunneries were places of female religious experience. As
genderbased stereotypes have left their mark on archaeology as a field as well, and if something
was related to women, it was written off as less successful, and any other factors were often
ignored.
Another movement, materialism, a human tendency to place significant value on material
objects, has made a tremendous impact on the study of archaeology. “Archaeology looks at the material
evidence of culture” explains Salam Al Kuntar, without material culture, archaeologists would have
nothing to study. However, others believe that archaeology should transcend the limitation of only
studying the material realm, “the processes of culture change must be studied... at all of those points
where ideas or ‘cultural choices’... intersect with economy, technology, and the more immediately
materialistic aspect of culture” (Fiedel). Garrel also supports this, saying, “many of the traces left behind
by past civilizations only existed because of the materialistic greed of past societies, especially the
wealthier ranks, and these artifacts now tell us about what these people saw as valuable and about the
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social classes of these now gone cultures.” All of these different movements have had a profound impact
on the study and perception of archaeology, but the reverse can be said as well.
The study of archaeology can have a profound effect on the cultures of populations, both past
and present, as well as the public perception of these cultures. In many instances, archaeological
findings have been interpreted incorrectly, or archaeology has only focused on a specific time period,
falsely emphasizing that period’s importance in the development of that culture. For example, in Mayan
archaeology, monumentality has often been overemphasized, and it has:
Prioritized the characteristics of the Classic period in particular as being key
components to an authentic Maya heritage. This perception has spatially and
temporally hindered the public’s understanding of the diversity and resilience
among the ancient Maya. Archaeologists' interpretations have a significant
influence on the emergence of public attractions about the ancient Maya and what
the public perceives as ‘authentic’ Maya civilization. (The Past in the Present)
Archaeologists should be as careful as possible when presenting their findings to avoid such
results and keep archaeology as objective as possible. When people misinterpret archaeological
findings, it can have serious implications for the way that modern society views and understands
past cultures.
Politics and bureaucracy are a very significant part of the study of archaeology, especially since
it is a very international field. Political ideologies such as nationalism are often very influenced by
archaeology and use it to gain power in the country of choice. Salam Al Kuntar comments on this
phenomenon as well as her own personal experience with it, “archaeology shaped the entire national
narratives of a lot of countries.” In the Middle East, where she grew up, most countries have used
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archaeology to build their national identities. “Iran, Israel, Palestine, [...] archaeology shaped the whole
argument about the right to the land, and Israelites, and coming back… So nationalism and archaeology
they’re very much influential”, Al Kuntar explains. Archaeological sites become aspects of national
pride, and artifacts, museums, and sites help build the national identities of the countries they are in. In
fact, Al Kuntar says that Ataturk, the founder of the Republic of Turkey “commissioned a German
archaeologist to write up the whole story about [how] the Turks are related to the Hittites, the ancient
inhabitants of Anatolia” and basically create the national narrative of Turkey. In Africa as well,
“archaeology is a vital intellectual component in fostering national identity and historical
consciousness”, and the current political situation has resulted in a “lack of funding” and “great
difficulties for current archaeological work in Africa” (Bourguignon).
Another example of this can be seen in Bulgarian archaeology, where “ interest in archaeological
heritage had been of great importance prior to World War II” (The Past in the Present). However, after
World War II Bulgaria was incorporated into the Soviet Union bloc “which had major effects on the
practice, scope, and funding of archaeological research” (The Past in the Present). Overall the effect of
the political and social changes and upheaval in Bulgaria was that it was “typed as backwards, oriental,
and exotic”, which caused “isolation and a desire to fit into the western world”, and Bulgarian
archaeology is only now recovering from the effect that communism had on it (The Past in the Present).
France is another example of a place where politics play a very important role in the study of
archaeology. In recent times populist parties have dominated the French political scene and
“monopolized discussions of heritage”, using the past to “bolster antiimmigration, antiglobalization,
and antiEuropean agendas of the far right and far left” (The Past in the Present). This has been a pattern
that draws from a well known and accepted national narrative, one that is far less complicated than what
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archaeologists say it is; however, they have not been able to correct some of these national narratives.
Archaeology and archaeological discoveries can have a very significant impact on the cultural identity
of entire nations, as they can confirm or change the known facts about the history and origins of the
country and its population.
In a reality where archaeology is often recognized because of popular culture such as Indiana
Jones or Lara Croft, it is important to realize what archaeology really is, and the impact it has had on our
world. Popular culture has had some positive impact on the study of archaeology, attracting more
attention and interest, but the negative effects outweigh the positive in my opinion. Because people who
know archaeology solely because they watch Indiana Jones or Tomb Raider will not give the field the
respect it deserves, and instead, these people will romanticize a highly academic and researchheavy
field. Cultural and social movements and ideologies have left their marks on the study of archaeology.
Colonialism and imperialism have had a negative impact on archaeology, halting its growth, while
movements such as feminism have encouraged archaeology to grow in different directions. I was
surprised to hear of the influence that politics and bureaucracy have on archaeology, especially how
politics can completely change the course of archaeology in a country, or even stop it in its tracks. The
study of archaeology has had a profound impact on the development of every country’s national and
cultural identity, and it will continue to do so, even as new discoveries and findings might change what
we know and accept as the truth. Children, especially students in middle and high school, should be
educated on the realities of this field so that they do not fall prey to popular misconceptions and fail to
understand the monumental importance of archaeology and the impact it had in shaping the world we
live in today.
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Works Cited
Alexandri, Alexandra. "Gender and Material Culture: The Archaeology of Religious Women."
Antiquity , vol. 68, no. 261, 1994, p. 898+. Student Resources In Context ,
http://link.galegroup.com/apps/doc/A16352323/SUIC?u=wal55317&sid=SUIC&xid=490
7232b. Accessed 4 Feb. 2019.
Al Kuntar, Salam. Ph.D. in Archaeology. “Personal Interview”. 3 Mar. 2019.
Berlin, Jeremy. “How Indiana Jones Actually Changed Archaeology.” National Geographic,
National Geographic Society, 14 May 2015,
https://news.nationalgeographic.com/2015/05/150514indianajonesarchaeologyexhibit
nationalgeographicmuseum/ . Accessed 17 Jan. 2019
Bourguignon, Erika. “Encyclopedia of Precolonial Africa: Archaeology, History, Languages,
Cultures and Environments.” Research in African Literatures, vol. 31, no. 2, 2000, p.
238. Student Resources In Context.
http://link.galegroup.com/apps/doc/A62650160/SUIC?u=wal55317&sid=SUIC&xid=ed0
9d3f6 . Accessed 4 Feb. 2019.
Effros, Bonnie, and Guolong Lai. Unmasking Ideology in Imperial and Colonial Archaeology
Vocabulary, Symbols, and Legacy . Cotsen Institute of Archaeology Press, University of
California, Los Angeles, 2018. Accessed 9 Mar. 2019.
Fiedel, Stuart J. “New World Archaeology and Culture History, Collected Essays and Articles.”
American Antiquity, vol. 58, no. 1, 1993, p. 174+. Student Resources In Context,
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Garrel, Harold. Graduate Student of Archaeology (UC Berkeley). “Personal Interview”. 6 April
2019.
Kristiansen, Kristian. “Should archaeology be in service of ‘popular culture’? A theoretical and
political critique of Cornelius Holtorf’s vision of archaeology.” Antiquity , vol. 82, no.
316, 2008, p. 488+. Student Resources In Context,
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604e77 . Accessed 6 Feb. 2019.
Liu, Xinyi, and Martin Jones. “When Archaeology Begins: The Cultural and Political Context of
Chinese Archaeological Thought.” Bulletin of the History of Archaeology, Ubiquity
Press, 7 May 2008, www.archaeologybulletin.org/articles/abstract/10.5334/bha.18103/. 8
Feb. 2019.
Mascarenhas, Hyacinth. “9 Priceless Artifacts Museums Should Return to Their Home
Countries.” Mic , Mic Network Inc., 11 Dec. 2013,
mic.com/articles/76321/9pricelessartifactsmuseumsshouldreturntotheirhomecount
ries#.ZyGcgjitH. 6 Feb. 2019.
Pennsylvania Historical & Museum Commission. “PHMC Value of Archaeology.” P HMC >
Pennsylvania Architectural Field Guide ,
www.phmc.state.pa.us/portal/communities/archaeology/resources/valuearchaeology.htm
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“The Past in the Present: Mediating Cultural Heritage.” Wonderwerk Cave,
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