Power System Operation Control

and Restructuring
Power System Operation Control
and Restructuring

S. K. Gupta
Professor & Chairman
Department of Electrical Engineering
DCR University of Science & Technology
Murthal (Sonepat) Haryana, India

I.K. International Publishing House Pvt. Ltd.

NEW DELHI
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 Dedicated to
Almighty

GOD SHIVA
My Spiritual Teacher

SISTER SHIVANI
My Loving Bhabhi

Late Smt. ASHA GUPTA

 Preface

The growth of electrical power in India after independence has been phenomenal. The installed
capacity of India in the year 1950 was 2300 MW which has become more than 182 thousands
MW at the end of December 2012. This shows a very rapid growth in the generation,
transmission, distribution and utilization of electrical power after independence. As on now, a
restructured electricity market has been established in various forms and degrees in many
countries including developing countries like India. This has increased competition in various
companies at transmission, generation and distribution levels and provides new choices and
economic benefits to consumers. competition at various levels opens new paradigms in the field
of technological development and resource management.
This book is an attempt to understand how to arrange reliable, secure, stable power in
competitive environment. Load frequency control is essential for successful operation of power
systems, especially interconnected power systems. To accomplish this, it becomes necessary to
automatically regulate the operations of main steam-valves or hydro gates in accordance with a
suitable control strategy, which in turn controls the real power output of electric generators. Apart
from PI controller, fuzzy gain scheduling of PI controllers, adaptive controller with self-adjusting
gain, Artificial Neural Networks, Hybrid neuro fuzzy (HNF) control strategy, Bacteria Foraging
Optimization techniques have been applied to AGC problem.
This book has been written for undergraduate and postgraduate courses of power systems in
various Indian universities. While developing the course contents due care of syllabi, scheme and
course curricula of various universities has been taken. Thus, the book includes topics such as
optimal dispatch, load flow studies, state estimations, fault analysis, automatic generation control,
excitation control, stability, modeling of power components, HVAC & FACTS, restructuring
power systems.
This book gives the students, practitioners, researchers and teachers the facility of advanced
learning of the recent topics.
I hope this book shall be accepted widely as a textbook by power engineers and students.

S.K. Gupta
 Acknowledgements

I thank to all my undergraduate and postgraduate students who are in fact the source of input.
I express my sincere thanks to my father Sh. Hari Shankar Gupta, mother Smt. Sarswati
Gupta who cultivated the values to serve the nation and develop the potential by motivation and
caused me to grow and empowering to do best of my level in the field of academics. Their well
wishes are always with me. I appreciate the patience, support and cooperation of my wife Seema
Gupta, daughters Diksha & Pearl during writing of this book.
The author acknowledges the help received from various journals, books and other literature.

Suggestions, criticism for improvements the book would be highly appreciated and accepted.

S.K. Gupta
 Contents

Preface vii
Acknowledgements ix
1. Introduction 1
1.1 Major Problems of Power Sector 4
1.2 Measures for Energy Conservation 4
1.3 Energy Saving in Power Utilization 5
1.4 History of Electrical Power Generation 6
1.5 Capacity Addition Targeted for the 11th Plan (Sectorwise) 9
1.6 Power Substation Line Diagram 10
2. Load Flow Analysis 14
2.1 Bus Admittance Matrix 14
2.2 Topology 18
2.3 Primitive Matrix, Bus Incidence Matrix 19
2.4 Formation of YBus Using Singular Transformation 22
2.5 Formation of Zloop by Direct Method 23
2.6 Formation of Zloop Using Singular Transformation 25
2.7 Load Flow Problem 28
2.8 DC Power Flow Method 46
3. Optimal Load Dispatch 59
3.1 Generator Operating Cost 59
3.2 Economic Dispatch Problem 60
3.3 Economic Dispatch Including Transmission Losses 61
3.4 Transmission Loss Formula Derivation 64
3.5 Optimal Hydrothermal Scheduling 68
3.6 Classification of Hydro Plants 68
xii G Contents

3.7 Long-Range Problem 69

3.8 Short-Range Problem 70
3.9 Short-Range Fixed Head Hydrothermal Scheduling 72
4. Short Circuit Studies 110
4.1 Balanced Fault 110
4.2 Symmetrical Components 114
4.3 Unsymmetrical Fault 121
4.4 Systematic Fault Analysis Using Bus Impedance Matrix 129
4.5 Unsymmetrical Fault Analysis Using Bus Incidence Matrix 131
4.6 Algorithm for Formation of Bus Impedance Matrix 135
4.7 Open Conductor Faults 139
4.8 Cable Faults and Their Location 140
5. Modeling 168
5.1 Modeling of Synchronous Machine 168
5.2 Conversion of One Frame to Other Frame of Reference 181
5.3 Model of Synchronous Generator 183
5.4 Transmission Line Model 186
5.5 Mechanical System Model 189
5.6 Transfer Function of Speed Governor 193
5.7 Governing of Hydro Units 194
5.8 Penstock Turbine Model 195
5.9 Model for a Vessel 197
5.10 Reheat Type Steam Turbine Model 199
5.11 Model of Induction Motor 201
5.12 Load Modeling 202
5.13 Constant Current Model 204
5.14 Constant Impedance Model 205
6. Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition 207
6.1 Need of SCADA System 207
6.2 Advantages of SCADA 208
6.3 General Definition and Its Components 209
6.4 Hardware Architecture 210
6.5 Remote Terminal Unit 211
6.6 Protocol 215
6.7 Discrete Control 217
6.8 Analog Control 218
 Contents G xiii

6.9 Master Terminal Units 220

6.10 Software Architecture 220
6.11 Communication Interface 220
6.12 Amplitude Modulation 222
6.13 Frequency Modulation (FM) 225
6.14 Phase Modulation (PM) 227
6.15 Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM) 228
6.16 Pulse Time Modulation (PTM) 229
6.17 Communication Medium 229
6.18 Power Line Carrier Communication (PLCC) 229
6.19 Radio Telemetry 231
6.20 Satellite Communication 236
6.21 PSTN (Leased Telephone Line) 237
6.22 Fibre Optics 238
6.23 SCADA in Power Grid 240
6.24 SCADA in Power Distribution 242
6.25 Real Time Systems 243
7. Restructuring Power System 246
7.1 Structure of the Market 246
7.2 Different Entities in Deregulated Electricity Market 248
7.3 Power Trading Restructuring Models 249
7.4 Transmission Pricing 252
7.5 Factors Demanding of Deregulation 253
7.6 Associated Terms 255
7.7 Open Access 256
7.8 Potential Problems and Key Issues in Deregulation 257
7.9 Power Pools 261
7.10 Methods of Tackling the Transmission Congestion 263
7.11 Transmission Wheeling Pricing Method 264
7.12 The Deregulation Process Worldwide 265
7.13 Determination of Atc 267
7.14 Atc Fundamentals and Importance of Atc 268
7.15 Algorithm for Atc Determination 269
7.16 Different Methods of Atc Determination 278
7.17 Enhancement of Atc with Facts 279
7.18 Static Atc Determination Using DC Load Flow Based Approach 280
7.19 Static Atc Determination Using AC Load Flow Based Approach 284
xiv G Contents

7.20 Transmission Congestion Cost Calculations in Restructured

Electricity Markets 373
7.21 Congestion Management Using Real Power Rescheduling
and Load Curtailment 377
7.22 Congestion Management Using Real and Reactive Power
Rescheduling and Load Curtailment and Tcsc 387
7.23 Mathematical Formulations for Congestion Management 388
7.24 Optimal Location of Tcsc 400
8. Automatic Generation Control 446
8.1 Introduction to Avr and Alfc Loops 447
8.2 Modeling of an Isolated Generating System 447
8.3 Complete Block Diagram Representation of Lfc of an Isolated Area 453
8.4 Application of Integral Controller 458
8.5 Concepts and Theory of Multi-Area Power System 461
8.6 Two-Area Load Frequency Control 462
8.7 Application of Modern Control Theory 475
8.8 Need of Intelligent Control Techniques 481
8.9 Basics of Fuzzy Logic 482
8.10 Fuzzy Logic PI Controller (Flpi) for Two-Area Power System 490
8.11 Four-Area Power System 500
8.12 Application of Fuzzy Logic PI (Flpi) Controller to Four-Area Power System 523
8.13 Governor Deadband 527
8.14 Generation Rate Constraint (Grc) 529
8.15 Boiler Dynamics 530
8.16 Fuzzy Logic PI Type Controller 531
8.17 Simulink Model of Flpi for Four-Area Power System with
Non-Lineariti and Bd 532
8.18 Single Area Lfc Considering Reheat Turbine 536
8.19 Block Diagram of Two-Area Lfc Considering Reheat Turbine 541
8.20 Five Area Lfc 544
8.21 Artificial Neural Network 552
8.22 Algorithm for Ann Controller and Plant for Single Area 568
8.23 Bacterial Foraging 573
8.24 E. Coli 575
8.25 Steps of Bacterial Foraging 576
8.26 Algorithm of Bacterial Foraging 578
8.27 Two-Area Thermal Hydropower System 582
 Contents G xv

9. Power System Stability 595

9.1 Stability Problem is Generally Divided into Three Major Categories 596
9.2 Dynamics of Synchronous Machine and Swing Equation 598
9.3 Equal Area Criterion: Stability Analysis 600
9.4 Dynamic Analysis 608
9.5 Steady State Stability with Automatic Voltage Regulator 612
9.6 Transient Analysis: Solution of Swing Equation 613
9.7 Multi-Machine System 618
9.8 Two Machines Connected Through Transmission Line 618
9.9 Swing Equation of Two Coherent Machines 619
9.10 Swing Equation of Two Non-Coherent Machines 619
9.11 Stability of Multi-machine System 620
9.12 Techniques for Improving Transient Stability 622
9.13 Modes of Oscillations 624
10. Excitation, Voltage Stability and Control 645
10.1 Excitation Systems 645
10.2 Rotating Self-excited Exciter with Direct Acting
Rheostatic Type Voltage Regulator 650
10.3 Buck Boost Excitation System 651
10.4 Ieee-Type-1 Excitation System Model 654
10.5 Excitation System with Pid Controller as Stabilizer 657
10.6 Static Excitation System 658
10.7 Brushless Excitation System 660
10.8 Type-3 Excitation System Static with Terminal Potential
and Current Supplies 663
10.9 Rotating Main and Pilot Exciters with Indirect Acting
Rheostatic Type Voltage Regulator 663
10.10 Voltage Stability Concept 665
10.11 Voltage Stability Limit for Large Demand of ‘P’ and ‘Q’. 667
10.12 Voltage Collapse 670
10.13 Voltage Control 671
10.14 Shunt Compensator 672
10.15 Series Compensation 681
10.16 Tap Changing Transformer 685
10.17 Booster Transformer 691
10.18 Three-Phase Induction Regulators 692
xvi G Contents

11. Load Frequency Control Under Deregulation Environment 706

11.1 Present Indian Power Industry Scenario 706
11.2 Indian Power Industry Restructuring 707
11.3 Challenges in Load Frequency Control 708
11.4 Contract Participation Factor (Cpf) 709
11.5 Disco Participation Matrix (Dpm) 710
11.6 Ace Participation Factors 711
11.7 Transaction During Contract Violation/Pool Based Transaction 712
11.8 Four-Area Load Frequency Control Using Pid Controller 713
11.9 Two-Area Thermal-Thermal Power System 731
11.10 Two-Area Thermal-Hydropower System 736
11.11 Three-Area Hydro-Thermal-Hydropower System 740
11.12 Three-Area Thermal-Hydro-Thermal Power System 747
12. Extra High Voltage Transmission and Facts 761
12.1 Challenges To Ehv Transmission 761
12.2 Need of Compensation 762
12.3 Application of Shunt Compensation 762
12.4 Application of Series Compensation 763
12.5 Series Compensation Scheme 764
12.6 Problems Associated with Series Compensation 769
12.7 Torsional Natural Frequencies and Mode Shapes 771
12.8 High Voltage DC Transmission (Hvdc Transmission) 776
12.9 Configuration of DC Transmission Links 777
12.10 Rectifying and Inverting Components 778
12.11 Circuit Components 780
12.12 Types of Configurations for DC Links 780
12.13 Parallel Operation of AC and DC Systems 781
12.14 Indian Scenario 782
12.15 Facts 783
12.16 Development of Facts Devices 785
12.17 Shunt Controllers 786
12.18 Static Var Compensators 787
12.19 Static Synchronous Compensator (Statcom) 808
12.20 Static Synchronous Generator 808
12.21 Series Controllers 809
12.22 Controlled Series Compensation 811
 Contents G xvii

12.23 Thyristor Switched Series Capacitor 819

12.24 Thyristor Controlled Series Reactor 819
12.25 Static Synchronous Series Compensator 819
12.26 Model of Transmission Line 823
12.27 Combined Controllers 831
12.28 Unified Power Flow Controller 832
12.29 Voltage Sourced Converters 842
12.30 Square-Wave Voltage Harmonics for a Single Phase Bridge 845
12.31 Three-Phase Full-Wave Bridge Converter 846
12.32 Induction Machine Damping Unit (Imdu) 851
12.33 Modeling of Facts Devices 851
13. The Laws, Challenges and Issues in Competitive Market 857
13.1 Power Reforms and the Electricity Act (2003) 857
13.2 Rights of Generating Companies 858
13.3 Transportation of Electricity 858
13.4 Open Access for Consumers 860
13.5 Introducing Competition in Generation 862
13.6 Current Status of Conditions Precedent 866
13.7 Limitations to Competition 867
13.8 The Road Ahead 870
13.9 Report of the Task Force on Measures for Operationalising Open
Access in the Power Sector 870
13.10 Assessment of the Demand-Supply Gap 877
13.11 Details on the Provisions on Open Access in the Sample Two States 883
13.12 Relevant Extracts of the Tariff Policy, 2006 885
13.13 Trading Margin 887
Bibliography 889
Index 893
1 Introduction