Fiber Optics Communications

NATURE OF LIGHT

Wave Nature of Light

Light is an electromagnetic wave having a very high oscillation frequency and a very short wavelength.

In fiber optics and any other field of expertise concerning light signals, it is more pronounced to express it in wavelength
rather than frequency.

General Subdivision

a. Infrared – Band of light wavelengths that are too long to be seen by the human eye. (770 nm to 100,000 nm)
b. Visible Light – Band of light wavelengths to which the human eye responds. (390 nm to 770 nm)
c. Ultraviolet – Band of light wavelengths that are too short to be seen by the human eye. (10 nm to 390 nm)

Wavelength, Frequency, & Amplitude

a. Wavelength – The wavelength of a monochromatic wave is the distance between two consecutive wave peaks.
b. Frequency – Corresponds to the number of wavelengths that pass by a certain point in space in a given amount of
time.
c. Amplitude – The amplitude of an electromagnetic wave corresponds to the maximum strength of the electric and
magnetic fields and to the number of photons in the light.

Wave Properties of Light

a. Reflection – Phenomenon of wave motion, in which a wave is returned after impinging on a surface. When energy,
such as light, traveling from one medium encounters a different medium, part of the energy usually passes on while
part is reflected.
b. Refraction – The change in direction that occurs when a wave of energy such as light passes from one medium to
another of a different density, for example, from air to water.
c. Diffraction – The bending or spreading out of waves as they pass around the edge of an obstacle or through a
narrow aperture.
d. Absorption – The reduction in the intensity of radiated energy within a medium caused by converting some or all of
the energy into another form.
e. Dispersion – The separation of visible light or other electromagnetic waves into different wavelengths.

Particle Nature of Light

Light behaves as though it were made up of very small particles called photons.

Ray Theory of Light

A number of phenomena are adequately explained by considering light as narrow rays and this area of optical science
concerns the application of laws of reflection and refraction of light in the design of lenses.

 In a vacuum, ray travel at a velocity of 3x108 m/s.

  Rays travel in a straight path unless deflected by some change in the medium.
 When ray is reflected, the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of refraction (Specular Reflections)
 If any power crosses the boundary (refraction occurs), the transmitted ray directions is given by Snell’s Law or
Fresnel Law.

LENSES

Lens, in optical systems, glass or other transparent substance so shaped that it will refract the light from any object and
form a real or virtual image of the object.

Ray Paths through a Thin Lens

 Rays traveling through the center of the lens are undeviated. Ray1
 Incident rays traveling parallel to the lens axis pass through the focal point after emerging from the lens. Ray2
 An incident ray traveling parallel to a central ray in the focal plane after transmission through the lens. Ray3
 An incident ray passing trough the focal point travels parallel to the lens axis after it merges from the lens. Ray4

Object Position

The position of the objects and focused image are related by the thin lens equation.

Beam Focusing

a. Spot Size (wo) – The distance at which the beam intensity has dropped to 1/e2 of its peak value.

b. Beam Diffraction (θ) – For longer distances, diffraction theory shows that the beam diverges at a constant full angle.
TRANSMISSION MEDIA

1. Single-Mode Step-Index Fiber – Single mode uses step-index fiber and a highly focused light source that limits the
light beam to a small range of angles close to the horizontal. The core itself has a small diameter and lower density
making the path of the light almost horizontal. The propagation time for all signals are almost equal. Delays are
negligible. This is the most expensive propagation mode for fiber-optics commonly used for long distance telecom
lines.

2. Multi-Mode Step-Index Fiber – The core is evenly dense. The light travels straight until it reaches the interface of
the core and cladding. The abrupt change causes it to be reflected back to the core. Step-index refers to the abrupt
change of direction of the light. There are multiple paths with varying lengths, therefore varying transmission time
which limits the data rate. This is the least expensive propagation mode and its commonly used for local area
networks.
 3. Multi-Mode Graded-Index Fiber (GRIN) – The graded-index core fiber has a core material whose refractive index
varies with distance from the fiber. The core is densest at the center and the density decreases gradually towards
the edge of the core. This varying density allows the light to bend. This allows focusing the signals more efficiently
than step-index. This propagation mode is moderately expensive compared to the other two modes and is
commonly used for telephone lines.

FIBER LOSSES

Absorption – Absorption is caused by three different mechanisms:

a. Absorption by atomic defects in the glass composition.

b. Extrinsic absorption by impurity atoms in the glass material.
c. Intrinsic absorption by the basic constituent atoms of the fiber material.

 Material Absorption – Are those due to the molecules of the basic fiber material either glass or plastic that can be
overcome only by changing the fiber material.
 Ultraviolet absorption – Caused by valence electrons in the silica material from which fibers are manufactured.
 Infrared absorption – Result of photons of light that are absorbed by the atoms of the glass core molecule.
 Ion resonance absorption – Caused by OH- ions in the material that has been trapped in the glass during manufacturing
process which can be minimized by drying the glass in chlorine gas to leach out the water vapor
 Hydrogen Effects – The hydrogen either can interact with the glass to produce hydroxyl ions and their losses or it can
infiltrate the fiber and produce its own loss. The solution is to eliminate the hydrogenproducing source or to add coating
to the fiber that is impermeable to hydrogen.

Scattering Losses – Occurs when a wave interacts with a particle in a way that removes energy in the directional
propagating wave and transfer it to other directions.

 Linear Scattering – Primarily characterized by having no change in frequency in the scattered wave
o Rayleigh Scattering – Results from light interacting with the inhomogeneities (submicroscopic irregularities) in
the medium that are much smaller than the wavelength of the light.

o Mie Scattering – Occurs at inhomogeneities that are comparable in size to a wavelength and can be reduce by
carefully controlling the quality and cleanliness of the manufacturing process.
 Non-Linear Scattering – High values of electric field within the fiber lead to the presence of non-linear scattering
interactions that causes significant power to be scattered in the forward, backward, or sideways directions.
o Brillouin Scattering – Modeled as a modulation of the light by the thermal energy in the material mainly in the
backward directions.

o Raman Scattering – The non-linear interaction produces a high-frequency phonon and a scattered photon
predominately in the forward directions.
Macrobending – Refers to a large-scale bending, such as that which occurs intentionally when wrapping the fiber on a
spool or pulling it around a corner.

Microbending – Occurs when a fiber is sheathed within a protective cable. The stresses set up in the cabling process
cause small axial distortions to appear randomly along the fiber. Developed during deployment of the fiber, or can be due
to local mechanical stresses placed on the fiber often referred to as cabling or packaging losses.

Connector Losses –

PULSE SPREADING IN FIBER

Dispersion – The spreading (in time-domain) of light pulses as it propagates down the fiber end.

a. Material Dispersion (DM) – Pulse at different wavelengths has different velocities.

b. Waveguide Dispersion (Chromatic dispersion) – Pulses at different wavelengths (but propagating in the same
mode) must travel at slightly different angles.

c. Modal Dispersion (Modal Delay Spreading) – A pulse at a single wavelength splits power into modes that travel at
different axial velocities because of the path differences.

d. Total Dispersion – At any wavelength the total dispersion is the root mean square combination of material, modal
and waveguide dispersion.
DIODE LIGHT DETECTORS
Light Sensors

Photovoltaic

Photovoltaic light sensors are also called solar cells. The light sensors for photovoltaic cells respond to light levels by
generating current or voltage and storing it in silicon cells for use as emergency or alternative energy. In low light situations
photovoltaic sensors don't generate current. Photovoltaic cells are small and generate low wattage, but they commonly
come in panels for large amounts of current. These light sensors respond only to light visible on the human scale.

Light Dependent

Light-dependent sensors are inexpensive and commonly used for gauging and responding to light levels. These light
sensors work as automatic switches for different devices. They belong to a group called photoresistors because their
resistance increases as light levels increase, which is why they're commonly present in outdoor lights like streetlamps. As
light levels increase, their resistance increases and turns the lights off or down.

Photo Diode

Digital technology like cameras, video recorders and remote controls use photo diodes to detect light levels ranging from
infrared to the visible spectrum. Photo diodes respond to levels of infrared and act as switches. Remote controls, for
example, transmit different light levels to the light sensors in your television to perform a function. Photo diodes respond
instantly to slight changes in light and generate a relatively small amount of current.

Proximity

Proximity light sensors respond to changes in infrared light to detect motion or proximity to another object. Proximity sensors
help robotic machines navigate obstacles and avoid bumping into objects. They are also used for devices in vehicles that
sound an alarm when the vehicle is close to bumping into an object. Proximity light sensors are common in outdoor lights
to detect motion for security purposes.