By Hui Bian

Office for Faculty Excellence

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• My office is located in 1001 Joyner library,
room 1006
• Email: bianh@ecu.edu
• Tel: 252-328-5428
• You can download sample data files from:
http://core.ecu.edu/ofe/StatisticsResearch/

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• What is bivariate relationship?
–The relationship of two
measures/variables.
–The direction of the relationship
–The strength of the relationship
–Whether the relationship is statistically
significant
• Measures of association—a single
summarizing number that reflects the
strength of the relationship. This statistic
shows the magnitude and/or direction of a
relationship between variables.
• Magnitude—the closer to the absolute value
of 1, the stronger the association. If the
measure equals 0, there is no relationship
between the two variables.
• Direction—the sign on the measure
indicates if the relationship is positive or
negative. In a positive relationship, when
one variable is high, so is the other. In a
negative relationship, when one variable
is high, the other is low.
• Measurement
• Nominal: Numbers that are simply
used as identifiers or names represent
a nominal scale of measurement such
as female vs. male.
• Ordinal: An ordinal scale of measurement
represents an ordered series of relationships
or rank order. Likert-type scales (such as "On a
scale of 1 to 10, with one being no pain and
ten being high pain, how much pain are you in
today?") represent ordinal data.
• Interval: A scale that represents quantity and
has equal units but for which zero represents
simply an additional point of measurement is
an interval scale. The Fahrenheit scale is a
clear example of the interval scale of
measurement. Thus, 60 degree Fahrenheit or -
10 degrees Fahrenheit represent interval data.
• Ratio: The ratio scale of measurement is
similar to the interval scale in that it also
represents quantity and has equality of
units. However, this scale also has an
absolute zero (no numbers exist below
zero). For example, height and weight.
• Relationship based on measurement
–Two scale variables (two quantitative
variables)
–Two categorical variables (nominal or
ordinal)
–One categorical and one scale variable
• Statistical analyses for testing
relationships between two
quantitative variables
–Correlation
–Linear regression
• Pearson Correlation r
–Measures linear association
–It is the standardized regression
coefficient (doesn’t depend on
variables’ units)
–It is between -1 and +1
–The larger the absolute value of r, the
strongly the degree of linear
association
• Pearson Correlation r
–Pearson’s correlation coefficient
assumes that each pair of variables is
bivariate normal.
–There is no causal relationship
between two variables.
• Example: we want to know the
correlation between height and weight.
–Step 1: check the linear relationship
between two variables using Scatter
plot.
–Step 2: use Bivariate correlation to get
Pearson correlation.
• In SPSS, got to Graphs > Chart Builder
• Pearson correlation r: go to Analyze >
Correlate > Bivariate
• SPSS output
• Use Linear regression to test the
relationship between weight and height.
–We want to use height to predict
weight .
• Regression Equation
– Ypredicted = a + bx

Ypredicted : predicted score of dependent

variable
X: predictor
a: intercept
b: slope/regression coefficient
• Regression line

Y
Regression line

Intercept

0
Slope X
• Residuals
–The difference between observed and
predicted values of the dependent
variable.
–We use residuals to check the
goodness of the prediction equation.
• Least square
– We use Least Square Criterion to estimate parameters.
– Lease Square means the sum of the squared estimated
errors of predictions is minimized.

The line best fits the

data.
The vertical distance
between observed
values of y and line
Residuals or errors = is the residual.
y(observed score-
predicted score)
• Simple linear regression
–Go to Analyze > Regression > Linear
• Click Statistics and click Plots
• SPSS output
• SPSS output

Adjust R2 means 27% variance of weight is

explained by height.
• SPSS output
• SPSS output: distribution of residuals
• Statistical analyses for testing
relationships between two
categorical variables
–Contingency tables(Crosstabs)
–Correlation
–Regression: linear, logistic regression,
ordinal, and multinominal regression
• Crosstabs in SPSS: “Crosstabs
procedure offers tests of
independence and measures of
association and agreement for
nominal and ordinal data. “
• From SPSS, a bunch of tests are
used to test association
• Chi-square: for two by two table and For
tables with any number of rows and
columns.
– It measures the discrepancy between the
observed cell counts and what expected if the
rows and columns were unrelated.
• Fisher’s exact test: for tables that have a
cell with an expected frequency of less
than 5.
• Example: we want to know if that the
number of drug (Drgu_N) use is
associated with sex (Q2).
• Go to Analyze > Descriptive Statistics >
Crosstabs
• Click Statistics
• Click Cells
• SPSS output
• SPSS output: bar chart
• Results
–Look at the percentages within grade

P = .00 < 0.05, so

there is a significant
association between
sex and number of
drug use.
• Correlation
–Pearson correlation coefficient: for
quantitative, normally distributed
variables.
• Kendall’s tau-b or Spearman: for data are
NOT normally distributed or have
ordered categories. it is a nonparametric
statistic.
• Spearman's rank-order correlation:
measures the strength of association
between two ranked variables.
• Example: we want to measure
correlation between drinking (Q43)
and marijuana use (Q49)
• Go to Analyze > Correlate > Bivariate
• SPSS output
• Logistic regression
–Dependent variable: one
dichotomous/binary variable
–Independent variables: continuous or
categorical
• The goal of logistic regression is to
determine the probability of a case
belonging to the 1 category of dependent
variable or the probability of event
occurring (event occurring is always
coded as 1) for a given set of predictors.
The Y-axis is P
(probability),
which indicates
the proportion
of 1s at any
given value of
X.

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• Logistic regression equation
– log(p/1-p) = a + bx
– Logit (p) = a + bx
 p: probability of a case belonging to category
1
 p/1-p: odds
 a: constant
 b: regression coefficient, about whether p
increases/decreases as x increases
• Odds
Odds of Success = Probability of
Success/Probability of failure
If Probability of Success = .75, then the
probability of failure = 1 - .75=.25, then
odds of Success = .75/.25 =3
• Odds
–Odds of Success > 1 means a success is
more likely than a failure.
–Odds of Success < 1 means a success is
less likely than a failure
• Odds ratio is the ratio of odds
• Example: we want to know the
association between Ever feel sad or
hopeless (Q26r) (independent
variable) and marijuana use (Q49r)
(Dependent variable)
• Contingency table
• Q49r is our dependent variable, in another
word, we want to know the probability of
using marijuana (Use group and coded as 1).
• The probability of a student using
marijuana is 3998/13242=.302
• We want to know whether this
proportion is the same for all levels of
Sad group.
• Odds of a Sad student using marijuana =
1345/2653 = .51
• Odds of a Happy student using marijuana =
1999/7245 = .28
• Odds ratio of using marijuana between Sad
and Happy students = .51/.28 = 1.82 ( Happy
group is the reference category)
• Logistic regression
• Go to Analyze > Regression >Binary
Logistic
• Click Categorical: No group is the reference

Check First as
Reference
category and click
Change
• Click Options
• SPSS output

The coding table is very important for understanding the

results. The column of Parameter coding is the coding used in
data analysis which matches with our coding of variable Q26r.
We want them to match so that we don’t have our minds
boggle when interpret results.
• SPSS output: Model summary

We only have one model here. That is why the results of step, block,
and model are same.
• SPSS output

Q26r is a significant predictor. B value is positive, which means there is a

positive relationship between feelings and marijuana use. Exp (B) is odds
ratio, which means people who felt sad and hopeless 1.84 times more
likely used marijuana than people who didn’t have that kind of feelings.
• Statistical analyses for testing
relationships between one
categorical variable and one scale
variables
–Correlation
–T test, ANOVA
–Regression
• Test means: t tests and Analysis of variance
– T tests
• one sample t test
• Independent-samples t test
• Paired-samples t test
– Analysis of variance (ANOVA)
• One-way/two-way between subject design
• One-way/two-way within subject design
• Mixed design
• Go to Analyze > Compare Means
• Student’s T test
– The method assumes that the results follow the
normal distribution (also called student's t-
distribution) if the null hypothesis is true.
– The paired t-test is used when you have a paired
design.
– The independent t-test is used when you have an
independent design.
• Independent-samples t test
– Example: we want to know if there is a
difference between sex groups (Q2) in
height (Q6).
– Go to Analyze > Compare Means >
Independent-Samples T Test
• Test variable: Q6 (dependent
variable)
• Grouping variable: Q2 (two groups:
female and male)
• Coding of Q2: 1= Female and 2=
Male
Click Define Groups, type 1 for Group 1 and
2 for Group 2 based upon the coding of Q2
• SPSS output
• Mean height of females = 1.62, SD = .07
• Mean height of males = 1.76, SD = .09
• t = -94.28, df = 12470.68, p = .00
• Conclusion: there is significant difference
between female and male groups in
height.
• Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)
– Used to compare means of two or more
than two groups
– One-way ANOVA (between subjects): there
is only one factor variable
– Example: we want to know if there is
difference in height (Q6) among four grade
groups (Q3)
• Original coding of Q3
• We need to recode Q3 in order to get
rid of the last category.
–Then the new variable has four
categories
–Go to Transform > Recode into a
different variable
• Recoding Q3 into Q3r
• Go to Analyze > General Linear Model >
Univariate
• SPSS output
• SPSS output

F(3, 12545) = 60.83, p = .00. There was a

difference in height among four grade levels.
• Post Hoc tests
–We have already obtained a significant
omnibus F-test with a factor of four
levels.
–We need to know which means are
significantly different.
• Click Post Hoc button
• Results of Post Hoc tests
Meyers, L. S., Gamst, G., & Guarino, A. J. (2006).
Applied multivariate research: design and
interpretation. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage
Publications, Inc.
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