98- 7-29 M2!

59 ; N EDO ffftfeyi DOE/OST I # 4/10

,0150
in K hi
TK//: 7(7-2Z.-e/T(?
A ?

Ma rch 11 & 12, 1997

at Sendai, Japan

Sponsored by

New Energy and industrial Technology

D=^veiopment Organization
 DISCLAIMER

Portions of this document may be illegible

electronic image products. Images are
produced from the best available original
document.
DISTRIBUTION OF THIS DOCUMENT IS UNLIMITED
FOREIGN SALg TOWED
 PROCEEDINGS
of
NEDO INTERNATIONAL
GEOTHERMAL SYMPOSIUM

March 11&12, 1997

at Sendai, Japan

Sponsored by

ISEDO
New Energy and Industrial Technology
Development Organization
 Organization
Sponsor: New Energy and Industrial Technology
Development Organization(NEDO)
Support: International Energy Agency (IE A)
International Geothermal Association (IGA)
Ministry of International Trade and Industry(MITI)
Cooperation: New Energy Foundation(NEF)
Japan Geothermal Energy Association(JGEA)
The Geothermal Research Society of Japan
 Foreword

The New Energy and Industrial Technology Development Organization ( NEDO ) was
established as the core of new energy technical development in Japan. NEDO has held
an international symposium every year since 1990 as a means to contribute to the
development and promotion of new energy. The 1996 symposium will feature as its
theme “geothermal energy”.

In recent years, global environmental issues are attracting considerable attention on

an international level. In this light, the third Conference of Treaty Powers (COP 3),
which is based on the Climatic Change Framework Treaty, is scheduled to be held in
Japan in December 1997.

There is increasing emphasis on the need to aggressively address energy and

environmental problems in an integrated manner. This contributes part to raise
expectations worldwide vis a vis the role of NEDO (New Energy and Industrial
Technology Development Organization), an organization whose mandate includes the
tackling of both energy and global environmental problems.

Geothermal energy has a worldwide electrical generating capacity of more than

7,000MW. In addition to power generation, it is used extensively for heating, melting
snow, and greenhouse culture. Moreover, geothermal energy generates far less GO%,
which causes the greenhouse effect, when compared with fossil fuels, and is both clean
and renewable. Considering the interrelation between global environment on one hand,
and the demand vs. supply of energy in the coming century on the other, we must exert
greater effort in the development of geothermal energy. Even in Japan, known as a
volcanic archipelago hence blessed with abundant geothermal energy, the development
of this form of energy has stagnated owing to competition with less expensive forms, such
as natural gas.

Against this background, an International Geothermal Symposium will be held for

company representatives, policy makers, and researchers in the field of geothermal
energy. At the plenary session, based on the experience of geothermal energy
development in each country and on its future prospect, strategy for expanded use of
geothermal energy will be discussed, centering on the Asia/Pacific region. Further, in the
technical session, whose central themes are IEA study and technical cooperation, more
than thirty research reports will be presented in three parts: l)“Environment impacts of
geothermal energy development”; 2)“Development of hot dry rock technology”; 3)
“Development of deep geothermal resources”.

l
 The symposium is backed by IEA, which in 1997 is slated to launch a co-operative
programme on geothermal energy research and technology; by IGA, which has been
playing a leading role in geothermal energy development around the globe and plans to
hold the WGC2000 in Japan during the year 2000; and by MITI, which has been
promoting geothermal energy development in Japan consistently.

March, 1997 Hachio IWASAKI

Chirman, New Energy and Industrial Technology
Development Organization ( NEDO ), Japan

n
 CONTENTS

Plenary Session page

1. The World Energy Outlook and the Role of International Energy Technology Co-operation ....... 1
Hans J.Koch
Director, Energy Technology and R&D International Energy Agency (IEA), France
2. Worldwide Geothermal Development and International Cooperation .............. ......... 8
Ingvar B. Fridleifsson
President, International Geothermal Association (IGA), Iceland
3. Advancements in Earth Science and their Application to Geothermal Energy Development ....... 16
Takeo Sato
Director-General, MITI-Agency of Industrial Science and Technology (AIST), Japan
4. Geothermal Development in USA and Future Direction .............................. 23
Phillip M.Wright
President, Geothermal Resources Council, U S A.
5. Perspectives of the Geothermal Development in Italy and the Challenge of Environmental ........... 31
Conservation
Aldo Baldacci and Fabio Sabatelli
Ente Nazionale per 1'Energia Electrica (ENEL), Italy
6. Government Regulations on Geothermal Development and Environmental Protection .................... 42
in Indonesia
Roes Aryawijaya
Directorate General of Oil and Gas, Ministry of Mines and Energy (MIGAS), Indonesia
7. Strategy for Geothermal Energy Development in Indonesia, Facing the year 2020 .............................. 50
Vincent T. Radja
Perusahn Listrik Negara (PLN), Indonesia
8. Present and Future Geothermal Development in the Philippines ............................... 58
Nazario C. Vasquez and Samson P. Javellana
Philippine National Oil Company-EDC (PNOC), Philippine
9. Mexican Geothermal Development and Future Direction ..................... ....... 67
Jaime Mario E. Vaca-Serrano
Comision Federal de Electricidad (CFE), Mexico
10. Recent Developments in the New Zealand Geothermal Industry ............................ 76
Trevor M. Hunt
Institute of Geological & Nuclear Science (GNS), New Zealand
11. Present Situation and Future of Utilization of Geothermal Energy in China ..................... 86
Zhou Huang
Deptof Communication & Energy State Planning Commission P.R. China, China
Wu Fangzhi,
Electric Power Research Institute, Ministry of Electric Power, P. R. China, China

Appendix 89

iii
 Technical Session 1
"Deep Geothermal Resources Session"

1. R&D of Deep Geothermal Resources in Italy .......................................................... 99

Plinio Baldi, Armando Ceccarelli and Adolfo Fiordelisi
ENEL S.pA. - Divisione Produzione- PGE-GEM, Italy
2. Deep Geothermal Resources in the Philippines: An Update of Two PNOC EDC ............................... 107
Exploration Project
Francisco G. Delfin Jr
Philippine National Oil Company-EDC (PNOC), Philippine
3. Deep Well Geothermal Development in Cerro Prieto, B. C. Mexico ................................................ 114
Jaime Mario E. Vaca-Serrano and Hector Gutierrez Puente
Comision Federal De Electricidad (CFDE), Mexico
4. Contributions from I1E, Mexico to the Deep Geothermal Resources Task of the IEA
Geothermal Implementing Agreement ....................... 123
Eduardo R. Iglesias
Institute de Investigaciones Electicas ( HE) , Mexico
5. Deep Geothermal Resources in the TVZ: Research Strategies and Directions at IGNS .................. 131
Bruce W. Christenson
Wairakei Research Centre,Institute of Geological &Nuclear Science (GNS), New Zealand
6. Deep Exploration of the OHAAKI Geothermal Field .................. 141
Brian S. Carey
Contact Energy Limited (CEL), New Zealand
P F Bixley
Mandalanusantara, Jakarta, Indonesia
J Anderson
B J Hughes Services, Jakarta, Indonesia
7. Mathematical Modelling of Heat and Mass Transport in Deep Geothermal Reservoirs .................. 147
Graham Weir
Industrial Research Limited (IRL), New Zealand
8. Corrosion in Volcanic Gases ............................................... 154
Keith A. Lichti, Susan J Swann and Stephen P White
Industrial Research Limited (IRL), New Zealand
Norio Sanada, Yoshiaki Kurata, Hiroshi Nanjo and Jun Ikeuchi
Tohoku National Industrial research, AIST, MITI, Japan
Bruce W Christenson
Institute of Geological and Nuclear Science (GNS), New Zealand
9. New Drilling System Concept Could Reduce Geothermal Drilling Costs ..................................... 164
John C.Rowley
Pajarito Enterprises, U. S. A.
Seiji Saito
Japan Metals and Chemicals (JMC), Japan
Roy Long
US DOE Morgantown ETC, U. S. A.
10. Development of A High Temperature Borehole Fluid Sampler ............................................... 170
Nigel Halladay
CSM Associates Ltd. (CSMA), England

IV
11. Development of Drilling and Production Technology for Deep Geothermal Resources ..................... 179
Shinichi Isaka, Terumichi Ikawa and Tsukashi Akazawa
New Energy and Industrial Technology Development Organization (NEDO), Japan
12. Research on Drilling Techniques for Deep Geothermal Wells ............................................... 187
Hirokazu Karasawa, Tetsuji Ohno and Hideo Kobayashi
National Institute for Resources and Environment, AIST, MITI, Japan
13. Prospects for the Evaluation and Development of Materials under IEA Research Collaboration
Program on Deep Geothermal Resources ................................................ 192
Norio Sanada
Tohoku National Industrial Research Institute, AIST, MITI, Japan
Keith A Lichti
Materials Performance Technologies, Industrial Research Limited, New Zealand
14. Scope of Modeling of Deep Geothermal Systems in an IEA Co-operative Programme........................ 200
Hirofumi Muraoka, Hiroshi Shigeno and Tsuneo Ishido
Geological Survey of Japan, Japan
Toshihiro Uchida
New Energy and Industry Technology Development Organization (NEDO), Japan
15. Reservoir Engineering Approach to Deep Geothermal Systems ................................................. 208
Tuneo Ishido and Yusaku Yano
Geological Survey of Japan, AIST, MITI, Japan
16. Deep Geothermal Resources Survey Project in the Kakkonda Geothermal Field ........................ 215
Toshihiro Uchida, Kohei Akaku, Hiroyuki Kamenosono and Norio Yanagisawa
New Energy and Industial Technology Development Organization (NEDO), Japan
Munetake Sasaki
NEDO, currently Geological Survey of Japan, Japan
Shin ichi Miyazaki and Nobuo Doi
Japan Metals and Chemicals Co.Ltd ( JMC )
17. Scientific Concept in the Possibility of Finding Geothermal Resources
in Kalimantan/Borneo Mainland ...................................................... 223
Vincent T.Radja
Perusahn Listrik Negara (PLN) , Indonesia

Technical Session 2
"Environmental Session"

1. Effects of Development on Geothermal Systems Deduced from Gravity and Thermal

Measurements: Japanese Case Studies ................................ 235
Sachio Ehara, Yasuhiro Fujimitsu, Jun Nishijima and Akira Ono
Kyushu University, Japan
2. Environmental Impacts during Geothermal Development: Some Examples from ............... 242
Central America
Sue Goff and Fraser Goff
Los Alamos National Laboratory (LANL), U. S. A.
3. Precursory Changes to Natural Thermal Features during Testing of the Wairakei and ............... 251
Broadlands-Ohaaki Fields
Trevor M. Hunt and R B Glover
Institute of Geological & Nuclear Science (GNS), New Zealand

v
 4. Emission, Dispersion and Reaction of US in Steam from Geothermal Fields in Iceland ............... 261
Hrefna Kristmannsdottir, Magnus Sigurgeirsson, Halldor Armannsson and
Hreinn Hjartarson
The Icelandic Meteorological Institute (IMI), Iceland
5. Effect of Bore Closure at Rotorua, New Zealand ............................................. 270
Bradley Scott
Institute of Geological & Nuclear Sciences (GNS), New Zealand
Ashley D Cody
Geological Consultant, New Zealand
6. Geophysical Monitoring in the Sengan (Hachimantai) Thermal Area, Northeast Japan ............... 277
Toshiyuki Tosha and Mituhiko Sugihara
Geological Survey of Japan, Japan
7. Changes in the Beppu Hydrothermal System (Japan) Due to Exploitation ................ 281
Yuki Yusa, Shinji Ohsawa and Koichi Kitaoka
Kyoto University, Japan
8. Hydrologic Changes Associated with Geothermal Development in Long Valley ............... 289
Caldera, California
Michael L. Sorey
U. S. Geological Survey (USGS), U. S. A.
9. Reinjection Lesson from Sibayak Geothermal Field, North Sumatera-Indonesia ............... 292
Syafei Sulaiman and Kris Pudyastuti
PERTAMINA, Indonesia
10. Geothermal Space -Heating of the CNR Research Campus in Pisa: Problems in Environmental
Monitoring 296
Aristide Rossi and Paolo Square!
International Institute for Geothermal Research, Italy

Technical Session 3
"Hot Dry Rock Session"

1. Substainablity of Geothermal Energy Utilization 301

Phillip M. Wright
Energy & Geoscience Institute University of Utah, U. S. A.
2. Hot Dry Rock in the USA : Where is it going? ........................................... 311
David Duchane
Los Alamos National Laboratoly (LANL), U. S. A.
3. Review of Fenton Hill Project HDR Test Results ............................................ 316
Donald Brown
Los Alamos National Laboratoly (LANL) , U. S. A.
4. Australia's Favourable Geological Environment for Economic Extraction of HDR Energy:
and Current Proposals 324
Doone Wyborn and Frame Chopra
Austrarian National University (ANU), Auatralia
Malcolm Somerville
Australian Geological Survey Organisation (AGSO), Australia

vi
5. An Attempt Towards A Conceptual Model Derived from 1993-1996 Hydraulic ............................ 329
Operations at Soultz
Andre Gerard, J. Baumgartner and R. Baria
SOCOMINE , France
R. Jung
Bundesanstalt fur Geowissenschaften und Rohstoffe, Germany
6. Geothermal R&D in Switzerland : Achievements and Prospests ................................................. 342
Ladislaus Rybach
institute of Geophysics, ETH , Swizerland
7. Development of Hot Dry Rock Technology at Hijiori Test Site ................................ 351
- Program for a Long Term Circulation Test -
Masahiro Nagai and Norio Tenma
New Energy and Industrial Technology Development Organization (NEDO), Japan
8. Reservoir Evaluation of the Hijiori Hot Dry Rock Geothermal System ................................ 357
Isao Matunaga
National Institute for Resources and Environment, Japan
9. Present Status and Tasks of the Ogachi HDR Project ................................ 363
Koichi Kitano
Central Research Institute of Electric Power Industry (CRIEPI), Japan

vn
PLENARY SESSION
 THE WORLD ENERGY OUTLOOK AND THE ROLE OF INTERNATIONAL ENERGY
TECHNOLOGY CO-OPERATION

Hans J0rgen KOCH

Director, Energy Efficiency, Technology and R&d
International Energy Agency

ABSTRACT

The IEA was established after the 1973 oil shock as an independent international organisation to safeguard energy supplies
through collective actions between countries. One of the most important tools doing this is the IEA technology programme
which currently includes some 40 multilateral collaboration projects, called Implementing Agreements, covering most
relevant technology aspects of energy supply and end use.

Present IEA World Energy Outlook forecasts a continued growth in world energy demand and in a continued dependence
on fossil fuels as the primary fuels. Projected green house gas emissions in 2010 are thus 35-50 per cent above the 1990 level.
Increased use of Renewables will be necessary to change this negative trend and to reach the long term goal of a sustainable
energy system. The developments of many Renewables are promising but R&D-efforts and market experiments must continue
in order to increase their shares of total energy supply.

Geothermal energy1 plays an increasingly significant role in many countries. However, there is still huge untapped potential
in both developed and developing countries. The new IEA Implementing Agreement on Geothermal Energy Research will
be a vital new tool strengthening the international cooperation in geothermal energy research and thus in the development
of geothermal energy as a commercial environmentally sound energy source.

Geothermal energy is in this paper included in the Renewable Energy concept, even if geothermal
resources strictly speaking are not renewable on a human time scale.
- 1 -
1. INTRODUCTION

During the last couple of years there has been a growing awareness of the need to change today’s fossil fuelled-based
economy into one which mainly relies on more environmentally sustainable energy sources. This will be a long term process
and encompass a multitude of actions concerning supply and use of energy.

As in every large scale societal change technology will be a key driver for this process. But technology does not develop in
a vacuum. It develops because the people, the knowledge, the sufficient money - and most important- the determination to
succeed is there. In some cases this can be an entire market driven process. This is typically the case for less radical
technological development. In other, typically where the risks are higher or where there are externalities which the market
price mechanism does not take into account, there is a need for public support to the R&D-process.

The overall objective of this paper is to show how the new IEA international collaboration project on Geothermal energy
research and technology will provide a means to accelerate the progress of geothermal energy technologies. Doing this, it
focuses on three topics:

• The operations of the International Energy Agency and its multilateral technology programme
« Renewable energy technologies’ role in the future world energy supplies
• The importance of Geothermal energy research and development

2. The Operations of the International Energy Agency and its Multilateral Technology Programme

The International Energy Agency

The International Energy Agency is an international governmental organisation which was created in 1974. The IEA is the
energy forum for 23 industrialised countries, including the USA, Japan, all 15 European Union Member Countries, three other
European countries, Turkey, Australia and New Zealand. The LEA is also to an increasing degree giving attention to issues
in non-member countries as their importance in world energy supply and demand issues is increasing.

The establishment of the IEA was in response to the first oil shock to ensure its Members' collective energy security. At that
time, the essence of energy security was seen as an uninterrupted oil supply. Attention focused primarily on developing
emergency preparedness measures to respond to a major disruption in the international flow of crude oil, and on promoting
long-term cooperation and research and development activities among Members to reduce their dependence on imported oil.

While these activities continue today as fundamental elements of the Agency's work, they have been complemented in recent
years by increasing awareness of the significance, for energy policy and for energy security, of two further factors: concern
over the environmental impact of energy-related activities, and the growing globalization of energy issues, as different
countries' economies and energy markets become increasingly interdependent. This includes international collaboration on
environmental impacts of energy-related activities and co-operation with non-LEA countries.

Some of the more noticeable outputs of the IEA include:

• reviews of member and non-member countries’ energy policies

• policy studies on important energy policy relevant topics
• production of energy statistics and a monthly oil market report, both regarded as the landmark in their areas
• fostering international collaboration in energy technology.

The IEA energy technology collaboration has three cornerstones:

• annual reviews of national energy technology policies and R&D-progranimes

The IEA experts review the effectiveness of present policy programmes and suggest improvements. To increase the impact
the work is done in close co-operation with the government in the reviewed county.

• sponsoring of state-of-the art reviews and conferences on promising energy technologies

This include a multitude of activities often done in parallel including publication of reports, preparations of conferences,

- 2 -
presentations and suggestions for further actions from involved parties.

• providing a framework and secretariat legal and administrative support for international collaboration on energy
technology research, development and demonstration, or the exchange of information.

The IEA role is to identify areas of co-operation and then support the researchers in the establishment and management of
the research co-operation. The IEA also manages a review process of the agreements to increase the effectiveness of the co­
operation.

The IEA Energy Technology Collaboration Programme

The IEA Energy Technology Collaboration Programme provides a framework for experts to work co-operatively and share
results. Each project is set up under an Implementing Agreement which provides the legal contractual mechanism for
establishing the objectives of the projects and the rights and commitments of its participants.

There are presently around 40 active IEA Implementing agreements, each with between three and twenty countries
participating. As an average there are 10 Participants in Each Agreement, and thus in total around 400 participants, directly
coordinating research expenditures of more than USD 100 million per annum. Thus, the Implementing Agreement provide
very substantial leveraging of domestic expenditures.

There has been a strong emphasis over the last five years to strengthen the participation of Non-Member countries and it is
with great delight that we see the Republic of Korea, the Russian Federation, China, Brazil and many more participating in
implementing agreements. Almost half of the implementing agreements now have participants from non-IEA member
countries.

The types of benefits from participating in an Implementing Agreement typically include sharing costs, pooling resources,
and avoiding unproductive research paths. Further, participants are able to spread the risks associated with the choice of
research priorities. These outcomes of collaboration enable the research and development objectives of national energy
technology programmes to be better achieved at lower cost. International collaboration also has important benefits for
technology demonstration and diffusion, disseminating information about the latest technological developments and their
commercial utilisation.

The success of the Technology Collaboration programme is shown by the fact that the number of Implementing agreements
as well as the number of participants and projects constantly grows. Since 1991 the number of participants has for instance
increased by 40 per cent.

3. Renewable Energy Technologies’ Role in the Future World Energy Supplies

The world energy outlook

The IEA annually publishes its perspective on Global Energy Demand and Energy Supply issues in its World Energy Outlook
(WEO). The 1996 edition tells a rather clear story of energy growth and increasing carbon dioxide emission from now to
2010.

Prognosticating the future is an insecure activity and therefore the IEA uses two cases in its energy forecast. The Capacity
Constraints case is based on historical trends in energy-use improvement and on increasing energy prices. The Energy Savings
case combines high efficiency in energy use with flat energy prices. Here follow some highlights from the outlook:

• World primary energy demand is expected to continue to grow. Between 1993 and 2010 the growth is projected to
be between 34 and 46 per cent.

• Fossil fuels will continue to be the word’s primary fuel and will account for nearly 90 per cent of total primary
energy demand in 2010.

• The main growth-area will be China and South-East Asia where the energy demand could more than double by
2010. Coal — the most carbon intensive of all conventional fossil fuels — will continue to be the major fuel in this
high-growth area.

• World oil demand is projected to rise from 70 million barrels per day at present to between 92 and 97 million barrels

- 3 -
 per day in 2010. Furthermore, OECD oil import dependence will continue to rise from 50 to around 60 per cent.

The implications for increasing greenhouse gas emissions from this development are clear:

• By 2010, world carbon emissions could be between 36 and 49 per cent above their 1990 level.

• C02 emissions in Rest of the World countries are likely to have overtaken those in the OECD countries by 2010.

• The increase in China alone will be of the same magnitude as for the whole OECD-region.

The scope for renewables

The picture presented above may look a bit bleak in terms of meeting the goals set out for instance in the UN Framework
Convention on Climate Change. But there is also a good side of the World Energy outlook in the context of Renewable
energy. With a primary energy demand expected to nearly double over the next fifteen to twenty years there is ample room
for technologies that become competitive.

And further, a lot of interesting things are happening out there right now. We are seeing growth in the contributions of
renewables to commercial energy supplies. Renewables, mostly in forms of hydropower and biomass, contribute about 18%
to the world's electricity needs today. Excluding large-scale hydro and biomass use, the current contribution of all other
renewables is about 2%.

Recent case studies on renewables applications across OECD countries indicate that the cost of delivered energy from
renewable energy plants are generally falling and, already today, many technologies can be economic in selected markets
and selected regions.

• According to World Energy Outlook energy produced from new renewable energy sources is expected to grow at
an annual average rate of almost 10 per cent until 2010 in DEA countries.

• The World Energy Council predicts that by 2020 the contribution of renewables to world energy supplies will rise
to over 20 per cent under current policies; they suggest that under ecologically driven policies the renewables
contribution to energy supplies could even rise to almost 30 per cent by 2020.

• Even stronger growth is predicted by the UN in its 'Blue Book' which assumes that renewable’s share of world
electricity production could be 60 per cent by 2050.

Kev Issues for Renewables

How the development and market deployment of Renewable energy technologies can be enhanced is discussed in the
forthcoming IEA-publication Renewable Energy Technologies: Key Issues In Developing Their Potential. This report argues
that there are clear motives why an increased deployment of Renewables will be possible as they have additional benefits
which are being increasingly recognised at both the national and the local level.

• Renewables' modularity makes it possible to tailor them to particular needs and circumstances, making them
particularly valuable for niche markets, where the energy requirements are small and therefore the costs of
conventional electricity supply, either through grid extension or by diesel-generator sets, are high.

• Production and end-use of renewable technologies can offer prospects of increased employment opportunities
particularly in non-urban areas and can offset energy imports.

• And of course there are various environmental benefits associated with the use of renewables, in particular with
respect to global warming and acid rains.

However, there are also several, mainly economic, barriers to enhanced use of renewables

• Lack of market confidence: By building up a substantial track record some renewable energy technologies are
starting to prove their cost-effectiveness and reliability in the commercial market.

• Limited utility interest and involvement in integrating renewables into supply networks on an appropriate timescale.

— 4 —
• Limited industrial and manufacturing industry interest in development and demonstration programmes.

• Limited financing options for Renewables projects. Some characteristics of Renewables deter investors:
Renewables installation costs (initial costs) are higher per kilowatt than those of fossil fuel sources - even when
lower operating costs make the Renewables sources cost competitive on a life cycle basis.

The Wav Ahead

If Renewable energy technologies are to make an increasing impact in the world energy markets then considerably more effort
will be required to effectively bring them to the market place as competitive options for current and emerging energy supplies.
But this will not happen if we work in isolation, we must continue to strive to work together on these tasks and challenges
so that we can share the tasks and efforts, duplication of efforts and learn from each other's experiences. The EEA will
continue to play a role in this process, both through its mechanisms for policy dialogue and for technology collaboration.

Leadership will need to come from government and industry. Governments have a clear responsibility to provide the
framework for sustainable economic development, but many of the decisions to apply specific technologies fall to industry,
utilities and individuals.

At this point I must add a few words of caution.

• In real terms, many government energy technology R&D budgets have declined since 1985.

IEA Government Energy R&D Budgets (million US dollars at 1995 prices)

Country 1985 1995 % change 1985 to last

available year

United States 3214 2915 -9

Germany 1589 406 -74

Italy 1137 290 -75

Sweden 156 64 -59

Switzerland 138 182 +32

United Kingdom 708 83 -88

Denmark 17 147 +183

Source: country submissions and OECD Economic Outlook

Furthermore, initial responses from IEA Member countries suggest that private sector energy R&D spending has
also declined in many countries and that nearer term R&D is increasingly favoured. It also appears that increasing
competition in the electricity sector, at least in the short run, may be resulting in significant decreases in energy
technology R&D budgets in the United States and the United Kingdom, and in a focus on shorter term energy
technology R&D.

Private industry prefers to invest in energy technology that is either near to commercialisation or required by environmental
or other regulations and standards. In several IEA countries, corporate R&D expenditures are being reoriented, as we have
seen, towards shorter-term, quicker-payback projects, as a reaction to corporate restructuring and financial market pressures.
Longer-term, higher-risk and more uncertain energy projects are thus less likely to be undertaken in the private sector. As
will be discussed in a forthcoming DEA-report on Capital stock turnover in the energy industry the slowed renewal of the
capital stock resulting from competition can also act as a hinder towards the fast diffusion of new environmentally friendly
technologies.

These trends may very well be overreactions from governments and companies as the market changes from one regulatory
regime to a different one and my comments should not be interpreted as if I resist increased competition in the energy

_ 5 _
industry. On the contrary, the empirical evidence that competition in the long run promotes technological advances mainly
through a more efficient use of resources is devastating. But, it is vital that this radical change does not mean a 5-10 year
stop in the long term energy R&D leading to slowed down developments and lost competence as research teams are being
separated.

In this context I would also like to mention our recent study Enhancing the Market Deployment of Energy Technology: A
Survey of Eight Technologies which, as the title indicates discusses key issues in relation to the market deployment of new
energy technologies.

4. Current and Future Role of Geothermal Energy

Geothermal energy is the thermal energy stored in rocks and fluids within the earth. It is estimated that approximately 10%
of the world’s land mass contains accessible hydrogeothermal resources that could theoretically provide hundreds of
thousands of megawatts of energy for many decades.

Presently, Geothermal energy plays a significant role in some OECD countries, such as Japan, the western parts of the
United States, Mexico and New Zealand. In Iceland nearly all buildings are heated using geothermal energy, and at present
geothermal energy provides about a third of the electrical power needs of El Sal vador and the Philippines.

On the whole the current use is however just a fraction of the potential and also limited compared with the most important
Renewable energy sources that is hydro and bio energy.

Technology Shares in OECD Electricity Capacity

Technology Share (per cent)

Conventional steam 52 per cent

Hydroelectric 22 per cent

Nuclear 16 per cent

Gas turbine 5.1 percent

Combined cycle 3.4 per cent

Internal combustion 0.8 per cent

Renewables 0.5 per cent

Geothermal 0.3 per cent

Other thermal 0.2 percent

Source: OECD/IEA statistics (1994 data).

See also, OECD Experience and Perspective on Electricity Generation Technologies, paper presented by John Paffenbarger, IBA,
at Seminar-Workshop on ASEAN 2020, Bandung, Indonesia, 11-13 June 1996.

As you all know, geothermal resources are strictly speaking not Renewable on a human time scale. Reservoirs can become
depleted in a matter of decades and thus require careful phasing, conservation and reservoir management policies. On the
other hand, geothermal resources do not share the intermittent quality of many Renewable energy sources and can deliver
energy as required. However, the environmental characteristics of Geothermal energy makes it relevant from a policy point
of view to group it with Renewable energy sources.

Geothermal energy is used in two ways - for electricity generation or direct use as heat. The temperature of the extracted
fluids greatly influences the use to which the resource is put. High-temperature fields can favourably be used for electricity
generation and low-to-medium temperature resources, which are more plentiful than high-temperature resources, are
commonly used for direct-heat applications.

— 6 —
Geothermal energy has had a long history of use in applications as therapeutic hot baths, space and water heating, and
agricultural growth stimulation. Even as a source for generating electricity its history is more than 90 years. However, there
remain a multitude of important R&D-issues in order to increase the use of this attractive energy source.

About two years ago the IEA therefore started to scan the interest between its member countries to set up a collaborative
project in the form of an Implementing Agreement on Geothermal energy research and technology. The response has been
quite strong with 16 countries having expressed interest in the implementing agreement and with eight possible research
areas defined. So far five countries, United Kingdom, New Zealand, Japan, US, Switzerland, as well as the European Union
have decided to join the Implementing Agreement and there are more countries considering participating. Three of the
research areas, formally called annexes, have been approved;

• Environmental Impacts of Geothermal Energy Development

• Hot dry rock
• Deep Geothermal resources

We expect several others research proposals to be developed and approved within short.

5. Concluding Remarks

Available forecasts for world energy supply and demand indicate a development which will lead to increased stress on our
common environment and a continued dependence on fossils fuels as the worlds’ primary fuels. In the long run the
dependence on fossil fuels has to be reduced and the share of more environmentally sustainable energy sources, such as
geothermal energy, has to increase.

This will not happen by accident, but only if we devote the necessary intellectual and financial resources and take the
necessary decisions to develop the alternatives and give them a reasonable competitive situation. Leadership will need to
come from government and industry as well as from the research society.

Intensified international collaboration can provide a means to accelerate progress effectively and to develop new and
improved energy technologies by sharing limited financial and human resources, and by broadening the prospects of market
deployment in all countries. It is therefore with great pleasure I welcome that a new Implementing Agreement on
Geothermal Energy research and technology is added to the increasingly long list of energy technology areas with a
functioning IEA Implementing Agreement and I wish present and future participants in the collaboration projects success
in the accomplishment of their tasks.

- 7 -
 WORLDWIDE GEOTHERMAL DEVELOPMENT
AND INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION

Ingvar B. FRIDLEIFSSON

United Nations University Geothermal Training Programme,

Orkustofnun, Grensasvegur 9, 108 Reykjavik, Iceland

ABSTRACT

Geothermal energy has come of age as an energy source. It is found in most parts of the world and is harnessed
by conventional technology. Commercial production on the scale of hundreds of MW has been undertaken for over three
decades both for electricity generation and direct utilization. Some 80 countries have identified geothermal resources, and
about 50 have quantifiable geothermal utilization at present. Electricity is produced from geothermal in 21 countries (total
production 38 TWh/a) and direct application is recorded in 35 countries (34 TWh/a). Geothermal electricity production
is equally common in industrialized and developing countries, but plays a more important role in the latter. Apart from
China, direct use is mainly in the industrialized countries and Central and Eastern Europe. Most of the developing countries
as well as Central and Eastern European countries still lack trained manpower, but there is a surplus in many industrialized
countries. During 1973-1992, investments in geothermal energy amounted to approximately 22 billion USD. The large
share of the private sector in the investments shows its confidence in this energy source. Data presented in the WEC Survey
of Energy Resources 1995 on the "new renewables" (geothermal, solar, wind, and tidal energy) shows that geothermal has
the largest installed electrical capacity (61%) and electricity production (81%) in the world of these four sources. A
summary is given on the activities of the International Geothermal Association (IGA) and other international cooperation
in geothermal energy. Some sections of the present paper have previously been published in Fridleifsson (1996).

GEOLOGICAL ENVIRONMENT OF GEOTHERMAL RESOURCES

Geothermal energy, in the broadest sense, is the natural heat of the Earth. Immense amounts of thermal energy
are generated and stored in the Earth's core, mantle, and crust. The heat is transferred from the interior towards the surface
mostly by conduction, and this conductive heat flow makes temperatures rise with increasing depth in the crust on average
25-30°C/km. This is called the geothermal gradient. The recoverable thermal energy theoretically suitable for direct
applications has been estimated at 2.9 x 1024 Joules, which is about 10,000 times the present annual world consumption
of primary energy without regard to grade (Armstead, 1983). Most of the Earth's heat is, however, far too deeply buried
to be tapped by man, even under the most optimistic assumptions of technological development. Geothermal energy has
at present a considerable economic potential only in areas where thermal water or steam is concentrated at depths less than
3 km in restricted volumes analogous to oil in commercial oil reservoirs. The drilling technology is similar for geothermal
fluid as for oil. But as the energy content of a barrel of oil is much greater than an equivalent amount of hot water, the
economic requirements for permeability of the formations and the productivity of the geothermal wells are much higher
than for oil wells. Geothermal production wells are commonly 2 km deep, but rarely much over 3 km at present.

Exploitable geothermal systems occur in a number of geological environments. High temperature fields used for
conventional power production (with temperatures above 150°C) are largely confined to areas with young volcanism,
seismic and magmatic activity. Low temperature resources can, on the other hand, be found in most countries. They are
formed by the deep circulation of meteoric water along faults and fractures, and by water residing in high porosity rocks
such as sandstone and limestone at sufficient depths for the water to be heated by the Earth's geothermal gradient. Such
formations are widespread in all continents, and, for example in China, geothermal water can be produced from drill holes
in most provinces. The heat resources in hot but dry (low porosity) rock formations are found in most countries, but are
as yet not economically viable for utilization.

Geothermal utilization is commonly divided into two categories, i.e. electricity production and direct application.
Conventional electric power production is limited to fluid temperatures above 150 C, but considerably lower temperatures
can be used with the application of binary fluids (outlet temperatures commonly about 70 °C). The ideal inlet temperatures
into houses for space heating is about 80 °C, but by application of larger radiators in houses or the application of heat
pumps or auxiliary boilers, thermal water with temperatures only a few degrees above the ambient temperature can be used

- 8 -
beneficially. The use of ground source heat pumps for space heating and space cooling is, for example, expanding at a very
fast rate both in the USA and in Europe. The direct utilization of geothermal heat utilizes mostly known technology and
straightforward engineering. However, in some cases the technology is complicated by dissolved solids or gases in the
geothermal fluid. The technology, reliability, economics, and environmental acceptability of geothermal steam and water
has been demonstrated throughout the world.

WORLD DISTRIBUTION OF GEOTHERMAL UTILIZATION

At the World Geothermal Congress (WGC'95) convened by the International Geothermal Association (IGA) in
Florence (Italy) in May 1995, there were participants from over 70 countries, and country updates were presented from
48 countries. These were summarized by Freeston (1996) and Huttrer (1995). Evaluating available data after the WGC'95,
Stefansson (1995) described the status of geothermal development in 83 countries, and quantified the use of geothermal
energy in 47 of these. He reported the worldwide installed capacity for electricity generation 6.543 MWe and the installed
capacity for direct use 9.047 MW,. The figures for the produced (or consumed) energy are, however, quite similar.
Annually, about 38 TWh are generated in geothermal power plants, whereas the annual use of direct heat amounts to about
34 TWh (Stefansson, 1995). Table 1 shows the installed capacities and energy production in 1994 (electricity generation
and direct use) in the 25 leading geothermal countries around the world (data from Stefansson, 1995).

Electricity is being produced from geothermal resources in 21 countries. There are 15 countries with an installed
capacity over 10 MWe, thereof 6 industrialized countries (total installed capacity 4.088 MW ; Russia included) and 9
developing countries (total installed capacity 2.441 MWe). There are 8 countries (4 developing and 4 industrialized) with
over 100 MWe, and 4 with over 500 MW, installed (Italy 626 MWe, Mexico 753 MW„ Philippines 1.051 MWe, and USA
2.817 MWe).

Quantified direct use of geothermal resources is known in some 35 countries (Stefansson, 1995). There are 30
countries with an installed capacity of over 10 MW„ thereof 12 industrialized countries (total 4.920 MW,), 11 Central and
Eastern European countries (total 1.616 MW,), and 7 developing countries (total 2.491 MWJ. There are 13 countries (2
developing, 4 Central and Eastern European, and 7 industrialized) with over 100 MW, installed, and 4 countries with over
500 MW, installed (China 2.143 MW„ Hungary 638 MW„ Iceland 1.443 MW„ and USA 1.874 MW,).

Based on this, one can generalize by saying that geothermal electricity production is equally common in
industrialized and developing countries. Looking at the share of geothermally generated electricity in individual countries,
it is clear that geothermal energy plays a much more significant role in the electricity production of the developing
countries than the industrialized ones. Good examples of this are El Salvador, Kenya, Nicaragua, and the Philippines. In
all of these countries, 10-20% of the electricity for the national grid is generated with geothermal steam. Costa Rica is likely
to join this group of countries shortly, as Mainieri and Robles (1995) expect some 15% of the electricity of the country
to be generated by geothermal in year 2000. In Mexico, 4,6% of the electricity generated in 1994 was from geothermal
(Quijano-Leon and Gutierrez, 1995). Geothermal electricity in Indonesia may reach a similar level (3-4%) in the next
decade or so (Radja, 1995). Geothermal electricity is unlikely to be of equal significance for the energy sector of individual
industrialized countries due to the high electricity consumption per capita in these countries and the lack of sufficient
geothermal resources. The only present exception to this statement is Iceland, where 5% of the electricity is being produced
from geothermal (the remaining 95% by hydro).

The world distribution of direct utilization is different. With the exception of China, the direct utilization is a
serious business mainly in the industrialized and Central and Eastern European countries. This is to some extent
understandable, as most of these countries have cold winters where a significant share of the overall energy budget is
related to space heating. Furthermore, in many industrialized countries the sun is not reliable for drying. Space heating is
the dominant type of direct use (34%) of geothermal, but other common types are bathing (14%), greenhouses (14%), heat
pumps (13%) for air cooling and heating, fish farming (9%), and industry (9%). Freeston (1996), in his refined summary
of the country updates of the WGC'95, states that it is evident from the papers that there is a large potential for the
development of low to moderate enthalpy direct use across the world which is not being exploited due to financial
constraints and the low prices of competing forms of energy. The main potential for direct utilization in the developing
countries is at present mainly in various drying processes (fruits, fish etc.). Space cooling with geothermal energy will
hopefully become an important sector for geothermal utilization in the future.

— 9 —
 Table 1. Electricity generation and direct use of geothermal energy in 1994

Electricity generation Direct utilization

Installed Annual Installed Annual
capacity output capacity output
MWe GWh MW, GWh

China 28 98 2.143 5.527

Costa Rica 60 447 - -
El Salvador 105 419 - -
France 4 24 456 2.006
Georgia - - 245 2.136
Hungary - - 638 2.795
Iceland 50 265 1.443 5.878
Indonesia 309 1.048 - -
Italy 626 3.417 308 1.008
Japan 299 1.722 319 1.928
Kenya 45 348 - -
Macedonia - - 70 142
Mexico 753 5.877 28 74
New Zealand 286 2.193 264 1.837
Nicaragua 70 - - -
Philippines 1.051 5.470 - -
Poland - - 63 206
Romania 2 - 137 765
Russian Fed. 11 25 210 673
Serbia - - 80 660
Slovakia - - 100 502
Switzerland - " - 110 243
Tunisia - - 90 788
Turkey 20 68 140 552
USA 2.817 16.491 1.874 3.859
Others 7 40 329 1.935

Total 6.543 37.952 9.047 33.514

Electric generation cost with geothermal energy is commonly around 4 US cents/kWh. The production cost/kWh
for direct utilization (space heating, horticulture, fish farming, industry, bathing etc.) is highly variable, but commonly
under 2 US cents/kWh.

Utilization of geothermal resources to supply electricity and direct heat is energy efficient and competitive with
other energy sources both in terms of the economics and the thermodynamic efficiency. The cascade use of the thermal
fluid whereby the high enthalpy fluid is used for electricity generation and the lower temperature fluid is passed through
a series of different uses is practised in many countries, e.g. Iceland, Italy and Japan, raising the overall efficiency. There
is also the prospect of extracting a number of valuable minerals from the thermal fluids. This is also done in an energy
efficient manner.

COMPARISON WITH OTHER "NEW AND RENEWABLES"

Table 2 is compiled from the Survey of Energy Resources 1995 published by the World Energy Council in
conjunction with the 16th World Energy Congress in Tokyo. Since the detailed data on the different energy resources and
their application is given in the same units, the Survey gives a good opportunity to compare the development of the
different energy resources. The table shows the installed capacity (MW-electric) and the electricity production per year
(GWh/y) for geothermal, wind, solar and tidal resources.

In comparison with wind, solar and tidal energy, geothermal is clearly an advanced energy source with 61% of
the total installed capacity and 86% of the total electricity production of these four sources. The relatively high share in
the electricity production reflects the reliability of geothermal plants which commonly have a load factor and availability

-10-
factor of 80-90%. This demonstrates one of the strongest comparative points of geothermal energy, i.e. that it is available
day in and day out throughout the year. It is not dependent on whether it is day or night as solar energy is, or whether the
wind blows strongly or not. It has an inherent storage capability and can be used both for base load and peak power plants.
However, in most cases, it is more economical to run the geothermal plants as baseload suppliers. But turning the plants
off during the rainy season, when hydropower plants have plenty of water, will in many cases serve to replenish the
geothermal reservoir and lengthen its economically useful lifetime.

Table 2. Electricity from four energy resources in 1994

Installed capacity Production per year

MWe % GWh/y %

Geothermal 6.456 61 37.976 86

Wind 3.517 33 4.878 11
Solar 366 3 897 2
Tidal 261 3 601 1

Total 10.600 44.352

Source: WEC Survey of Energy Resources, (WEC 1995)

The question of geothermal resources being renewable can be debated. Due to the steady heat flow from the inner
parts of the Earth, geothermal resources can be regarded as renewable. But on the time scale normally used in human
society, geothermal resources are not renewable. They are renewable only if the heat extraction rate does not exceed the
replenishment rate. But the same can be said for e.g. fuel wood and many types of biomass. The tree that you bum is not
renewable; it turns into energy, ash and gases. But you can grow a new tree, given enough time. A geothermal system can
in many cases be recharged as a battery.

Utilizing the natural flow from geothermal springs does not affect them. Exploitation through drill holes and by
the application of downhole pumps nearly always leads to some physical or chemical changes in the reservoir and/or its
near vicinity which lead to a reduction and may lead to the depletion of the geothermal resource so far as a particular
energy utility is concerned. The key to a successful geothermal project is to secure by careful reservoir evaluation and
monitoring that the geothermal reservoir will last through the lifetime (or at least the depreciation time) of the respective
geothermal installations.

Fridleifsson and Freeston (1994) referred to geothermal resources as being sustainable resources, where by careful
matching of utilization with field performance, the enthalpy, temperature, mass removed, reservoir pressure, etc. can
achieve an equilibrium and performance can be maintained, at least over the life of the mechanical plant. This may mean
that the initial performance of a plant may exceed the equilibrium condition and as the field is developed and utilized a run
down occurs in these parameters down to the equilibrium condition. Each field is likely to be unique in this respect, and
its performance will depend on many factors, including the amount and quality of the recharge if any, whether there is
reinjection and where it is sited relative to the production zone, reservoir characteristics of permeability, porosity,
temperature, etc.

Properly implemented, geothermal energy is a sustainable resource and benign to the environment. The emission
of greenhouse gases is minimal compared to fossil fuels. The removal of hydrogen sulphide from high temperature steam
and the reinjection of spent geothermal fluids into the ground make the potential negative environmental effects negligible.

INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION

The International Geothermal Association (IGA) was established in 1989. It has about 2,000 members in over
50 countries. It is a scientific, educational and cultural organization established to operate worldwide. It is a non-political,
non-governmental, non-profit organization. The objectives of the IGA are to encourage research, development and
utilization of geothermal resources worldwide through the compilation, publication and dissemination of scientific and
technical data and information, both within the community of geothermal specialists and between geothermal specialists
and the general public. The IGA cooperates and communicates with national and international governmental, institutional
and private agencies in matters relating to the development and utilization of geothermal resources. It aims to serve as a
public forum to provide objective and unbiased information on the nature of geothermal energy and its development. It

— 11 —
has published the quarterly IGA News since 1990.

An important milestone in the work of the IGA was the World Geothertnal Congress in Florence (Italy) in May
1995 with participation from over 70 countries. There were 1,031 registrants, 282 accompanying persons, and 138
exhibitors. There were 535 scientific and technical papers published in the proceedings of the congress. The next World
Geothermal Congress is planned to be held in Japan in June in the year 2000.

The membership of the IGA consists of individual members, corporate members, institutional members, student
members and affiliated members, which are by far the most numerous. The affiliated members join the IGA through their
national geothermal associations.There are about twenty national geothermal associations in the world. Twelve of these
have already signed an affiliation agreement with the IGA. They are in the following countries: Canada, Georgia, Hungary,
Indonesia, Lithuania, Mexico, New Zealand, Poland, Romania, Russia, Slovakia, and the USA. It is hoped that the national
geothermal associations in Japan, China, Germany, Philippines, and Switzerland will join the IGA shortly. That will bring
the membership of the IGA to over 3,000.

The national geothermal associations have a wide range of activities in their countries such as seminars,
conferences and training courses, and several of them publish a newsletter or a magazine. The largest of the national
associations is the Geothermal Resources Council (GRC) in the USA. It mainly focuses on the needs of the geothermal
community in the USA with its publications (GRC Bulletin, the Transactions of its Annual Meeting (conference) and
special publications), training courses and seminars. It has always had a number of international members and has been
fairly active internationally through the years with workshops and training courses in several countries. The GRC
organized very successful international geothermal symposia in Hawaii in 1985 and 1990. These served a similar role as
the United Nations symposia in Rome (1960), Pisa (1970), San Francisco (1975), and the World Geothermal Congress
in Florence (1995). Prior to the establishment of the IGA inl989, the GRC functioned in many ways as the main forum
for international cooperation in geothermal energy.

The idea to establish the IGA was first considered at the UN Symposium on Geothermal Energy held in Pisa
(Italy) in 1970. It was, however, not until in 1986 that a group of international geothermal specialists relaunched the idea
within the GRC and an organizational working group was set up (see article in IGA News, No. 1, 1990). The working
group met in the USA, New Zealand, Mexico and Italy. Senior members of the GRC were instrumental in establishing the
IGA together with prominent geothermal specialists from Iceland, Italy, Mexico, and New Zealand. The IGA was formally
founded in May 1989 in CasteInuovo V.C. (Larderello, Italy). The association is registered under the laws of New Zealand.
The IGA Secretariat was first established in Pisa (Italy). It was moved from there to Berkeley (California, USA) in 1991,
moved to Taupo (New Zealand) in 1995, and it is expected to move again in 1998.

The division of work between the national associations and the IGA is basically in that the former focus on
activities in their own countries and in cooperation with their nearest neighbours whereas the IGA works internationally.
The first regional branch of IGA, the European Branch, was established in 1992. Its functions are to promote geothermal
development in Europe, to stimulate participation of European members in all IGA activities, to promote educational
activities and organize meetings and other events of geothermal interest in Europe, to collect news for IGA News in
Europe, and to disseminate IGA material among the European membership. It is expected that similar regional branches
will be established in the future in other continents in order to decentralized the activities of the IGA and focus its activities
not only on world issues but also on regional issues in geothermal.

The IGA, through its widely distributed membership, has many advantages to serve and support international
organizations that want to promote geothermal development. As yet, however, the IGA has very limited funds for its
activities. One of the priority issues on the agenda of the IGA is the dissemination of knowledge and technical transfer.
This activity is expected to complement the international geothermal training schools, which are financed through the aid
programmes of the host countries and to some extent by the United Nations system. The IGA is considering, through its
education committee, to start a series of travelling courses (2 weeks) whereby a small group of experts would visit several
countries and give the same course to a large group of geothermalists in individual countries or groups of countries. In this
way, a larger number of people in the recipient countries would have the opportunity of getting in contact with up to date
technology in their respective fields than is possible at the international schools. IGA is seeking financing for this activity.

In addition to the activities of the IGA, the GRC and other national geothermal associations, there is a wide range
of international cooperation activities in professional associations (mainly in science and engineering), under the auspices
of the various agencies of the United Nations (such as UNDP, UN University, UNESCO, ECLAC, ESCAP, International
Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), and multilateral organizations such as the European Commission, the International Energy
Agency, the Latin American Energy Organization (OLADE) etc. Several professional associations include geothermal

-12-
energy sessions in their regular conferences, and geothermal interest groups have been established within some, such as
the working group on Water-Rock Interaction within the International Association of Geochemistry and Cosmochemistry
which has held international symposia every three years since 1974 partly dealing with geothermal matters. Bilateral
agencies (such as the Japan International Cooperation Agency and the US AID) have also been instrumental in initiating
and organizing as well as funding geothermal cooperation in various parts of the world.

A large part of the funding of geothermal projects in the developing countries has come through loans from
multilateral banks such as the World Bank (IDA and IBRD), the regional development banks (Asian Development Bank,
Interamerican Development Bank, African Development Bank, European Investment Bank, Nordic Investment Bank etc.),
and through export credit agencies (especially the export-import banks of Japan and the USA).

MANPOWER DEVELOPMENT

One of the main constraints of geothermal energy development in many countries is a shortage of skilled
manpower (geoscientists and engineers) with practical experience. The developing countries rely heavily on foreign
consultants, but in many cases the consultants have to work for a considerable time in a given country to be able to adjust
their expertise to the special characteristics of the geothermal resources in that country. It is very important to secure that
the experience obtained during exploration and development of a particular field be maintained within the country when
the consultants depart. This is best done by assigning fully qualified local experts to work as counterparts with the foreign
consultants.

The lack of trained professionals has been addressed by aid programmes supporting the training of geothermal
technologists. Such programmes have been operated since the 1970's at the geothermal schools in Iceland (the United
Nations University Geothermal Training Programme in Reykjavik), Italy (the International School of Geothermics in Pisa,
but the annual courses in Pisa have not been held since 1993), Japan (the Geothermal Research Centre at Kyushu
University), Mexico (Autonomous University of Baja California in Mexicali), and New Zealand (the Geothermal Institute
at the University of Auckland). However, the number of fully funded training places available per year is limited to about
50 (Iceland 16, Japan 15, New Zealand 20, Mexico 1 or 2) which is not sufficient as more and more countries are starting
to use geothermal resources. The training at these centres is for scientists and engineers with university degrees. Some
developing countries, for example the Philippines, have already built up a strong core of geothermal experts with the
assistance of the international training centres and by suitably qualified staff working side by side with foreign consultants.
Most of the developing countries, however, have a long way to go towards becoming self sufficient in the expertise needed
to harness the geothermal energy resources that may reside unused in the countries.

The pioneering countries of geothermal development (Hungary, Iceland, Italy, Japan, New Zealand, and the USA)
started basically from scratch in developing their geothermal resources. Engineers, geologists, chemists, and physicists
combined forces within each country. The first groups of geothermal specialists were commonly built at government
agencies such as the USGS (USA), DSIR (New Zealand), and the State Electricity Authority (later named Orkustofhun,
Iceland). Much experience was drawn from established disciplines such as groundwater hydrology, mineral exploration,
oil exploration, oil production etc. Many key people in the early days of geothermal development first met at the United
Nations Conference on New Sources of Energy in Rome in 1961. That meeting was a milestone in international cooperation
in geothermal energy research and development.

The large attendance at the United Nations Symposium on the Development and Utilization of Geothermal
Resources in Pisa in 1970, showed that geothermal energy was already at that time taken seriously as an energy source in
a large number of countries. At the onset of the first oil crisis in late 1972, there were well established geothermal specialist
groups working in several countries. The oil crisis caused a wave of interest for new and renewable energy sources all over
the world. Geothermal energy obtained a lot of attention, as, unlike most other "new" energy types, it was already an
established commercial energy source in the pioneer countries mentioned above. International agencies, in particular within
the United Nations system, had already after the Rome and Pisa conferences started providing technical assistance to the
developing countries in geothermal exploration. This work was intensified. The late 1970’s and early 1980’s were boom
years for geothermal consultants, as their services were requested both at home and abroad. Many international geothermal
"experts" received their hands-on-training in consultancy work during these years. The overseas work was both in the
developing countries and in the industrialized countries (such as in Europe).

This boom basically ended in 1985 with the sharp drop in oil prices on the world market. Since then, relatively
few newcomers have been on the geothermal scene. Geothermal work has been drastically cut in many countries. There
has been a large reduction in the number of personnel working in geothermal development in many industrialized countries.
Many of these people transferred to work in environmental projects, nuclear waste disposal projects, oil and mineral

— 13 —
exploration. There has, however, been a high growth rate in geothermal development in several countries during much or
parts of the period 1985-1995. This has particularly been the case in countries whjere geothermal energy has shown to be
the least cost alternative to meet the expansion of the energy demand in the countries/regions concerned. Examples of such
countries are China, Costa Rica, Iceland, Indonesia, Nicaragua, Philippines, and for a part of the time in California (USA).
If (or when) the oil prices rise again to the levels of 1979-1984, it is very likely that a large number of countries will again
start a progressive policy to develop their geothermal resources. The dust will be cleared off many project proposals from
the 1980's that were put on the shelf. In our discussion on manpower requirements in geothermal, we should not forget that
oil prices may start soaring again.

Significant experience in geothermal exploration and development is available in some 30 countries (Fridleifsson,
1995). But the manpower resources are unevenly distributed in the world. As mentioned earlier, a number of geothermal
experts have become redundant in several of the industrialized countries since the mid-1980's and turned to other work.
The developing countries have kept relatively more of their experts in geothermal work. Several developing countries have
built up strong groups of geothermal professionals. Many of the key people of these groups have received training at the
international geothermal schools operated in Iceland, Italy, Japan, and New Zealand. But most of the training has taken
place on the job in the respective countries. More training is needed for people from many developing countries and the
countries of Central and Eastern Europe at both professional and technician levels. In addition to long and short courses
at the international schools, regional courses and specialized courses travelling from country to country should be
considered. Many of these countries have completed initial surveys and in some cases have started utilization projects of
their geothermal resources and are at a stage of wishing to develop the resources using up-to-date technology. They are,
however, handicapped both by the lack of finance and an infrastructure of trained personnel.

INVESTMENTS AND FUTURE DEVELOPMENT

At least 80 countries are potentially interested in geothermal energy development. Of these, some 50 have
quantifiable geothermal utilization at present. A worldwide survey (Fridleifsson and Freeston, 1994) showed the total
investments in geothermal energy during 1973-1992 to amount to approximately 22 billion USD. During the two decades,
30 countries invested each over 20 million USD, 12 countries over 200 million USD, and 5 countries over 1 billion USD.
During the first decade, 1973-1982, public funding amounted to 4.6 billion USD and private funding to 3 billion USD.
During the second decade, 1983-1992, public funding amounted to 6.6 billion USD and private funding to 7.7 billion USD.
It is of special interest to note that the private investments in geothermal rose by 160 % whereas the public investments
rose by 43% for the period 1983-1992 as compared to 1973-1982 respectively. This shows the confidence of private
enterprises in this energy source and demonstrates that geothermal energy is commercially viable.

The growth rate of geothermal development has in the past been significantly affected by the prices of the
competing fuels, especially oil and natural gas, on the world market. As long as the oil and gas prices stay at the present
level, it is rather unlikely that we will see again the very high annual growth rates for geothermal electricity of 17% as was
the case during the oil crises in 1978-1985. The growth rate is, however, quite high due to the fact that geothermally
generated electricity is the lowest cost option for many countries. In 1990, there were about 5,800 MWe operational in
electric power plants in the world, and about 6,800 MWe in 1995. This gives a growth of about 16% over the period. The
WGC'95 country reports summarized by Huttrer (1995) indicate that the world installed capacity may rise to some 10,000
MWe by the year 2000. The present author, however, finds the figure likely to become closer to 8,500 MWewith the largest
additions (already planned or under construction) in the Philippines, Indonesia, Mexico, and Costa Rica. The participation
of private operators in steam field developments through BOT (Build, Operate and Transfer), BOO (Build, Own and
Operate) contracts and JOC (Joint Operation Contracts) have significantly increased the speed of geothermal development
in countries such as the Philippines (Javellana et al., 1995) and Indonesia (Radja, 1995).

For the direct applications, the growth rate situation is more speculative at present, but again highly affected by
the competing prices of oil and gas on the world market. The large potential and the growing interest for the development
of direct applications in China for fish farming, greenhouses and municipal space heating, and the great surge of
installations of geothermal heat pumps in recent years exemplified by the USA, Switzerland etc., give a cause for optimism
for the growth rate of direct applications. This growth rate should perhaps be expected to be higher than that for electric
generation, both because low temperature geothermal resources are available in a much greater number of countries and
because direct application projects tend to be less capital intensive than the electric development. But private enterprise
has, as yet, focussed more on electricity production for the national grids than on direct utilization which is commonly more
site specific.

The introduction of C02 and other pollution taxes would significantly benefit geothermal development, as
geothermal is one of the cleanest energy sources available on the world market. This may have an effect on the

-14-
development rate. Such an effect is clearly seen from the financial incentive schemes recently introduced by several electric
utilities in the USA encouraging house owners to use groundwater heat pumps for space cooling/heating purposes and thus
reduce the peak loads on their electric systems. The Geothermal Heat Pump Consortium has recently established a USD
100 million 6-year program to increase the geothermal heat pump unit sales from 40,000 to 400,000 annually, and thus
reduce greenhouse gas emissions by 1.5 million metric tonnes of carbon equivalent annually (Pratsch, 1996). One third
of the funding comes from the US Department of Energy and the Environmental Protection Agency, whereas two thirds
come from the electric power industry. The same type of development might be seen in other parts of the world in the next
decade or two.

REFERENCES

Armstead, H.C.H. (1983). Geothermal Energy (2nd Edn.). E & F.N. Spon, London, pp.404.

Freeston, D. (1996). Direct uses of geothermal energy 1995. Geothermics, 25, in press.

Fridleifsson, I.B. (1995). Human resources in geothermal development. Proc. 17th New Zealand Geothermal Workshop,
7-12.

Fridleifsson, I.B. (1996). Present status and potential role of geothermal energy in the world.. Proc. World Renewable
energy Congress IV: Renewable Energy, Energy Efficiency and the Environment, 34-39, Pergamon.

Fridleifsson, I.B. and Freeston, D. (1994). Geothermal Energy Research and Development. Geothermics, 23, 175-214.

Huttrer, G.W. (1995). The status of World Geothermal Power Production 1990-1994. Proc. World Geothermal Congress
1995, 3-14.

Javellana, S.P., Randle, J.B., Dolor, F.M., Medado, M.A., de Jesus, M.V., and Barnett, P R. (1995). Establishing the power
plant contracts for the Leyte geothermal power project. Proc. World Geothermal Congress 1995, 289-292.

Mainieri, A., and Robles, E. (1995). Costa Rica country update report. Proc. World Geothermal Congress 1995, 81-85.

Pratsch, L.W. (1996). Geothermal, a household word by the year 2000. GRC Bulletin, 25, 25-31.

Quijano-Leon, J.L., and Guiterrez, L.C.A. (1995). Present situtation of geothermics in Mexico. Proc. World Geothermal
Congress 1995, 245-250.

Radja, V.T. (1995). The role of geothermal energy in the context of future electric power supply in Indonesia. Proc. World
Geothermal Congress 1995, 173-190.

Stefansson, V. (1995). Geothermal Energy. Commentary prepared for the 1995 WEC Survey of Energy Resources. Report
of Orkustofmm, the National Energy Authority of Iceland.

WEC (1995). WEC Survey ofEnergy Resources. World Energy Council, London, pp. 294.

-15-
 ADVANCEMENTS IN EARTH SCIENCE AND THEIR APPLICATION TO
GEOTHERMAL ENERGY DEVELOPMENT

Takeo SATO '

Director-General
Agency of Industrial Science and Technology

ABSTRACT

1. Preface

I am currently employed at the Agency of Industrial Science and Technology. In order to

carry forward a balanced policy which combines economic growth, assurance of stable energy
supply, and preservation of the environment, we at the Agency of Industrial Science and
Technology have formulated the New Sunshine Project. We are also implementing a
number of technological development projects with the aim of maintaining sustainable
growth and solving energy and environmental problems at the same time.

As a geologist, I was involved for an extended period of time in research on ore deposits,
including black ore deposit, at the Geological Survey of Japan Therefore, I would like to
make this keynote speech in my capacity as the Director-General of the Agency of Industrial
Science and Technology and as an earth scientist with research experience in the economic
geology.

2. Current Fossil Fuel Resources Situation

A preliminary look at the international energy situation would seen to indicate stability.
With regard to fossil fuels, the level of demand in developed countries has remained constant.
However, in the Asian region, which is a center of growth, energy demand is rapidly rising.
On the supply side, China, one of the two largest oil exporting countries in Asia, became a net
oil importing country in 1993. Meanwhile, Russia is facing a continuous decrease in crude
oil production due to the depletion of its older oil fields and delays in developing of new oil
fields. As a result, the whole world is increasing its level of reliance on the Middle East.

Considering the coming global population increases in the twenty-first century and
vigorous growth in the demand for energy, especially in Asia, the assurance of new energy

16-
resources remains an extremely urgent topic for the human race. However, there is still a
tendency to rely on fossil fuels such as oil, coal and natural gas for the major share of our
energy needs.

Let's look at the ratio of proven fossil fuel reserves to annual production. In terms of
years, oil is predicted to last another 46 years, natural gas 65 years and coal 230 years (World
Energy Council 1995 and others). All three are limited resources. Importantly, outside the
Middle East, there are only a few countries in the world whose ratio of proven oil reserves to
annual production exceeds 20 years. It is anticipated that oil in North America and Europe
will be exhausted in the not so distant future.

It is certainly possible that discoveries of new oil fields and natural gas fields will increase
proven reserves of oil and natural gas, and that development of new mining techniques will
extend the R/P ratio of oil fields in operation. However, considering that in recent years no
new large-scale oil fields have been discovered and the growth of proven reserves has reached
its uppermost limit, in addition to the fact that the world’s most productive fields originated
from easy-to-develop reserves, it is merely an optimistic view that good oil fields will be
newly discovered and developed from now on. Nevertheless, at present 70 percent of energy
demanded is consumed by developed countries. If developing countries reach the same
level of energy consumption, oil and natural gas will likely be exhausted sooner than
anticipated.

3. Global Environment Problems

There are many divergent global environment issues to consider, including global
warming, acid rain, destruction of the ozone layer, the shrinking tropical rain forests, the
borderless movement of noxious waste materials and ocean contamination, among others.
Among these, we have recognized that global warming and acid rain are caused by the
combustion of fossil fuel.

Human production of C02 is due in large part to the combustion of fossil fuel. The order
of discharge volumes per fuel unit, from large to small, is coal, oil, and then natural gas.
The combustion of one ton of fossil fuel discharges approximate 3/4 of a ton of C02. It is
said that a one million kilowatt level thermal power generation plant, operating for one year,
discharges six million tons of C02 if the fuel is coal, five million tons if the fuel is oil, and
three million tons if the fuel is natural gas. The total C02 discharge in the entire world in
1992, if calculated in terms of carbon, was 6 billion tons. It is forecast that the figure will
reach 6.9 billion tons in the year 2000 and 8 billion tons in the year 2010.

-17-
 The Ministry of International Trade and Industry is examining "Policies and Methods to
Address Changes in Climate". The Ministry is also investigating means to accomplish the
following: (1) promotion of energy conservation and the development and introduction of
new energy sources to fortify short and medium term approaches; (2) presentation of
development, diffusion, and transfer of technology scenarios (e.g. New Earth 21) to promote
long-term technology development, diffusion and transfer, and the development of innovative
technologies such as CO2 fixation technology; (3) promotion of joint implementation
activities with developing countries and expansion of ODA activities in the fields of
environment and energy, to increase the involvement of developing countries.

4. Necessity of Sustainable Energy Resource Development

In our present industrial society, until the time comes when new technologies like nuclear
fusion become a reality, we have no real alternative but to continue with the following four
approaches.

(1) Continued reliance on fossil fuels such as oil, gas and coal, among others.
(2) Use of atomic energy.
(3) Energy conservation through efficient energy use.
(4) Development of new energy sources.

Since there is a limit on the R/P ratio of fossil fuel resources, if we continue to consume
energy in the same manner as at present, we will be less able to pass on energy resources
(with the exception of some forms) to the next generation. The use of oil shale and oil sand
may become necessary, since their reserves parallel those for oil. Both are not used presently
for economic and technical reasons. Moreover, the development of new resources such as
the vast stores of deep sea gas hydrates will also likely be required.

Meanwhile, the use of renewable natural energy remains indispensable. Although the
relative concentrations of natural energy on the earth’s surface such as solar and wind energy,
are not high, the quantities are enormous. However, in order to utilize those large quantities
of energy, economically viable energy technology need to be developed. The vast amount of
geothermal energy from the heat inside the earth is therefore a precious energy resource for
Japan, which has numerous volcanoes but relies on imports for most of the country's energy
supply.

For the benefit of future generations, the continuous development of available energy
resources is one of the great duties of our generation. From an environmental standpoint, it
is important to establish natural energy application technology. Technology development to

-18-
overcome problems such as high costs related to mass production is also vital.

5. Geothermal Energy

(1) Significance of Geothermal Energy Development

The geothermal energy exploited at present is only a minute portion of the earth's
potential. The useable geothermal energy in Japan alone is estimated at 100 million
kilowatts. Given that the emission of CO2 from the consumption of geothermal energy is
one twentieth of the CO2 emitted from the combustion of fossil fuel, the substitution of
geothermal energy for fossil fuel would conceivably contribute to the reduction of C02 levels.
From this point of view as well, there is ample reason to support the active development of
geothermal energy.

Situated along a sinking belt of the Pacific Ocean Plate and the Philippine Sea Plate, Japan
is in an area which has the most active volcanic zone on the earth. In other words, Japan is
in the optimum region for geothermal development. The development of domestic
geothermal energy resources will not only help ease the demand for energy inside Japan, it
will also serve to ease the energy demand in Asia. Furthermore, it is thought that Japan has
an obligation to make international contributions to developing countries which suffer from
energy resource shortages, particularly nations located in the volcanic zone of Africa, Latin
America and Southeast Asia, through the transfer of applicable geothermal energy technology
developed through joint research and cooperation.

(2) Geothermal Energy Resources from a Standpoint of Economic Geology

Economic geology is the study of the origins of and the development of exploration
methods for metals, non-metals, and fossil fuel resources located in the earth's crust.
Economic geology has a long academic history.

Although geothermal energy is one of the resources inside the earth's crust mentioned
above, its use for power generation in the world has a history of only one hundred years.
The use of geothermal energy as a practical energy resource in Japan has a relatively brief
history, starting with the operation of the Matsukawa Power Generation Plant in 1966. With
the recent diminishing of geothermal energy reservoirs in shallow areas of the earth's crust,
there is a trend forward trying to exploit geothermal power generation resources that are
located deeper in the earth. Although NEDO and a number of power generation plants are
recording progress in their research on deep resources through deep resource surveys, the
basic data on the properties of deep-seated geothermal energy and the conditions of

-19-
underground chasms is not necessarily adequate.

Heretofore, since the discipline of economic geology and geothermy appear at first to be
separate entities, joint research efforts have not been carried out for the most part. However,
since it is thought that hydrothermal metallic ore deposits are in fact deep layer hydrothermal
fossils, i.e. traces remaining from hydrothermal activities that have given rise to, ore minerals,
research and knowledge from the field of economic geology are becoming indispensable for
geothermal development.

Although geothermal systems and hydrothermal deposits share the same origins,
hydrothermal solution itself is in liquid form like oil. The early stages of geothermal
development in Japan came from two different routes: metallic resource development and
petroleum resource development. There were also distinct differences between the two in
terms of exploration and extraction methods. For example, in terms of excavation
technology, petroleum companies used large-bore excavators from the outset to excavate in
one stretch, then conducted thorough investigations of the subterrain through well logging.
In contrast to this investigation method, mineral resource companies conducted investigations
by extracting and analyzing the core with small-bored excavators which are more common to
mineral exploitation. More recently, these two types of techniques continue to be combined
and made more systematic as geothermal exploration technology develops.

(3) Geothermal Energy Issues

Geothermal energy is extremely concentrated, compared to other types of natural energy,

but it shares the same problem of high power generation costs. One of the reasons for the
high overall cost of power generation is that geothermal energy is an underground resource
and as such involves considerable risks for surveys and development. The urgent need exists
to establish effective probe and exploration technology, especially technology to probe
geothermal reservoirs formed from fissures. At the same time, geothermal energy extraction
cost reductions can be realized based on advances in mining technology.

Another issue is that nearly fifty percent of potential geothermal energy development sites
lie in natural parks, and approximately eighty percent are located around hot spring areas.
These circumstances render prompt development impossible; the lead time is fifteen to
twenty years from the beginning of investigations to the actual operation of a power
generation plant. This is a significant factor in increasing geothermal power generation costs.

The Japanese are one of the several peoples in the world who are particularly fond of hot
springs. The Japanese consider hot springs essential for maintaining good health.

-20-
Geothermal energy development in Japan must rely on mutual prosperity and harmonious co­
existence with hot springs. There is also the added challenging issue of adjusting the
balance between development and preserving natural parks in a country with limited territory.

6. Advancements in Earth Science Derived from Geothermal Development

Geothermal technology development has been conducted in line with national policy up to
now the present. Recently, particular emphasis is being placed on survey and probing
technology, maintenance and management technology for geothermal reservoirs, surveys of
geothermal resources as deep as four thousand meters underground, technology for extracting
deep underground geothermal resources, Hot Dry Rock power generation technology, and
binary cycle power generation technology, among others. Geothermal surveys and related
R&D have contributed significantly to the earth sciences in the following ways.

(1) New details have been provided on the underground structure of volcanic regions,
including three-dimensional data. Geothermal surveys and investigations have resulted in
remarkable progress, clarifying the actual conditions of volcanoes in ways which volcanic
research alone was unable to achieve in the past.

(2) Geothermal-related R&D has had a great influence on advancements in economic

geology. Geothermal areas serve as a living laboratory of ore deposit. In particular, due to
the similarity of deposit being examined by both mineralogists and geothermal energy
specialists, progress has been made to determine the origins of hydrothermal type gold
deposits. This has also had an impact on gold deposit probe and extraction methods, with
recent gold deposit surveys in Japan being conducted based in part on the results of
geothermal development surveys. Previous dreams of future discoveries of large-scale gold
deposits in geothermal areas such as Hishikari Kinzan in Kagoshima Prefecture are closer to
reality.

(3) Probing technologies used for geothermal reservoirs formed from fissures are also
effective for the investigation of complicated faults. The technology that has been
developed in this field can be applied to the active fault investigations that are required for
long-range earthquake predictions.

(4) Underground hydrography and water permeability detection technologies, as well as

technology to detect minute cracks, are only some of the accumulated geothermal reservoir
survey technologies and hot dry rock electric power generation technology that offer potential
as practical future radioactive waste technologies for disposal in the earth's stratum.

-21-
 (5) Japan was the first nation in the world to prove technology capable of excavating
below the earth's surface at temperatures exceeding 500°C. In the deep-seated geothermal
resource survey conducted at Kakkonda in Iwate Prefecture, a world record high excavation
temperature of 500°C was recorded in the Quaternary granitic rocks at a depth of 3,730
meters. Technology to excavate at this high temperature stratum was realized for the first
time through geothermal technology development and has since drawn great attention from
those earth scientists who conduct research on the inside of the earth. The technologies
cultivated in this field can also contribute to super-deep scientific land excavations which
exceed depths of ten thousand meters, scientific excavation of magma deposits from active
volcanoes, and excavation of deep sea bottom ridges which are eruption points of ocean
plates.

- 22 -
 GEOTHERMAL DEVELOPMENT IN THE U.S.A. AND FUTURE DIRECTIONS

Phillip Michael Wright

Energy & Geoscience Institute

University of Utah
Salt Lake City, UT 84108

ABSTRACT

The geothermal industry presently has an operating generation capacity of about 2,300 MWe,
and generates about 17,000 billion KWH per year in the U.S. Although the domestic market is stag­
nant due to restructuring of the electricity industry and to the very low competing price of natural gas,
the industry is doing well by developing geothermal fields and power plants in the Philippines and
Indonesia. The industry strongly supports the DOE R&D program to develop new and improved tech­
nology and help lower the costs of geothermal power generation.

INTRODUCTION

The U.S. geothermal industry is composed of more than 50 companies headquartered in vari­
ous states. The largest U.S. developers of geothermal fields are Caithness Corporation, CalEnergy
Company, Inc., Calpine Corporation, Constellation Energy, Inc., ESI Energy, Inc., Ormat International,
Inc., Oxbow Power Services, Inc., and Geothermal Division, Unocal Corp. U.S. utilities using geot­
hermal power include Hawaiian Electric Company, Northern California Power Agency, PacifICorp,
Pacific Gas & Electric Co., Sierra Pacific Power Co., Southern California Edison, and Utah Municipal
Power Agency. Direct employment in geothermal energy is estimated to be about 14,000 jobs, and
using a multiplier of 2.5, the indirect effect is a minimum of 35,000 additional jobs (Meidav and Pigott,
1994) . This industry maintains about 2,300 megawatts of operating generation capacity to produce
about 17 billion kilowatt-hours/year, in four states — California, Hawaii, Nevada, and Utah (DOE/EIA,
1995) . States having excellent potential for near-term development of geothermal power include
Alaska, Arizona, Idaho, Oregon, New Mexico, and Washington, all in the western U.S. Geothermal
plants and reservoirs in the U.S. and throughout the world continue to function as planned, proving the
reliability of geothermal power.

All U.S. geothermal power plants operate at very high capacity factors, some at 100% or high­
er. All plants also operate at very high availability factors. According to the DOE/EIA (1993), the aver­
age capacity factor for U.S. geothermal power plants in 1990 was 69%, composed of an average of 59%
for utilities and 83% for non-utility generators (NUGs). By contrast, the average capacity factor for fos­
sil was 45%, for nuclear was 66%, for hydropower was 41%, for biomass was 59%, for wind was 16%,
and for solar was 28%. Because of its high capacity factor, 1 MWe of installed geothermal generating
capacity can satisfy the domestic needs of 1,300 people in the U.S., more than for essentially any other
generating source. By contrast, 1 MWe of installed wind generating capacity will only furnish the
domestic needs for about 300 people.

Contrary to popular belief, geothermal power generation is indeed dispatchable over suitable
time frames. PG&E currently dispatches generation at The Geysers field at certain times. Other fields
could be dispatched if the need arose.

— 23 —
GEOTHERMAL PRODUCTION AND FURTHER POTENTIAL IN Tl4E U.S.

Electrical Power Generation

Current geothermal electrical power production in the U.S. is about 2,300 MWe, generating
about 17 billion kwh/y. Total geothermal use in the U.S. is equivalent to burning about 60 million bar­
rels of oil annually. Sales of geothermally generated electricity in the United States amount to about $1
billion per year. In recent years, production from The Geysers field has declined from its peak in 1987
of about 2,000 MWe to a present value of about 1,300 MWe. This topic is discussed further below. At
other fields, production has been maintained or has grown over the past several years. Geothermal
energy furnishes about 6% of California’s electricity, about 8% of northern Nevada’s electricity, about
2% of Utah’s electricity, and 25-50% of the electricity on the Big Island of Hawaii. Royalties and fees
are paid by the geothermal industry to the Federal Government for production from Federal lands,
amounting to $27 to 30 million annually.

Geothermal energy is the second largest grid-connected renewable electricity source in the
United States, after hydropower. This plentiful energy source generates 200 times more electricity than
solar energy and 5 times more than wind energy (DOE/EIA, 1995). The power produced from geot­
hermal energy in the United States displaces the emissions of 22 million tons of carbon dioxide, 200,000
tons of sulfur dioxide, 80,000 tons of nitrogen oxides, and 110,000 tons of particulate emissions (whose
adverse health effects are becoming more widely known) per year compared with the production of the
same amount of electricity from an average U.S. coal-fired plant (GEA, 1995; DOE/EIA, 1996;
Goddard et al., 1989; Goddard and Goddard, 1990). By contrast, utilities in 11 contiguous Western
states that contain geothermal resources emitted 501 thousand tons of sulfur dioxide, 839 thousand tons
of nitrogen oxides and 327 million tons of carbon dioxide in 1991 from burning of fossil fuels.

There are no recent, comprehensive and well documented assessments of the hydrothermal
resource base in the United States. Brook et al. (1979) gave the estimate of 95,000 -150,000 MWe for
30 years from known and undiscovered hydrothermal systems, but most people now believe this num­
ber is too high. Wright (1991) gave a rough estimate of 4,800 MWe of electrical power available for
development, beyond current development, over the next 10 to 20 years from known hydrothermal sys­
tems in the contiguous 48 states. Hawaii could add 100 - 200 MWe and Alaska could add 50 -100 MWe
to the total in this time frame. Most of the large disparity between Brook’s numbers and Wright’s num­
bers originates from the widely held belief, based on sound geologic reasoning, that there are many hid­
den, undiscovered hydrothermal resources. New and significantly improved technology will be need­
ed for discovery of these hidden hydrothermal systems. The amount of exploration work being con­
ducted for discovery of new hydrothermal systems in the U.S. is small or none at the present time,
owing to the low competing cost of power generation from natural gas. However, some exploration
work is being conducted in known resource areas with the objective of being prepared for expansion
when electricity demand increases.

Direct-Heat Uses

Direct uses of geothermal energy in the U.S. total about 14,000 TJ/y, and comprise such instal­
lations as district heating systems, geothermal heat pumps, agricultural drying, greenhouses, fish farm­
ing, and bathing spas (Lienau et al., 1995a). However, although the usable resource base of low- and
moderate-temperature geothermal occurrences is very large, development of direct-heat uses is pro­
ceeding slowly. There is essentially no direct-heat geothermal industry or infrastructure in the same
sense that there is an electrical-power generation industry. Each direct-heat system is a separate design,
and few consultants or contractors are trained and experienced in the direct use of geothermal resources.
With low costs for natural gas, this situation may not change soon.

In terms of future potential in the United States, we note that the most recent compilation of
low- and moderate-temperature geothermal resources in ten western states contains information on
8,977 thermal wells and springs that are in the temperature range of 20 oC to 150 oC (Lienau et al.,
1995b, Lienau and Ross, 1996). Data and maps are available for Arizona, California, Colorado, Idaho,
Montana, Nevada, New Mexico, Oregon, Utah, and Washington. Resources with temperatures greater

-24-
than 50 oC and located within 8 km of a population center were identified for 271 collocated cities, and
50 sites were judged high in priority for near term comprehensive resource studies and development.
Older data are available for the rest of the United States in Reed (1983). Like the nation’s high-tem­
perature geothermal resources, the resources suitable for direct-heat application are wholly underdevel­
oped compared with their potential.

STATUS OF THE GEYSERS GEOTHERMAL AREA

Power generation at The Geysers field, which began in 1960, has been in decline in recent
years. Accelerated steam pressure decline coincided with the rapid development of new power pro­
duction in the mid 1980s (Barker et al., 1991). Between 1972 and 1981, new power development aver­
aged 67 MWe/y. From 1982 to 1989, the average rate of development was 150 MWe/y. Beginning in
1985, a roughly 30%/y decline in pressure was noticed, whereas the previous decline rate had been
about 6%/y. The cause of this rapid decline is that water is being mined from the reservoir at a signif­
icantly faster rate than recharge can replenish it. Approximately 75% of the condensate from the tur­
bines is used in the cooling towers, leaving only 25% for injection. To this injected condensate is added
some surface water captured in dams, but the total injectate still is far less than the water removed
through production wells.

Injection experiments have been performed with mixed results in several parts of The Geysers
field. In some cases, injection has either not increased available steam or has produced highly corro­
sive steam containing hydrochloric acid. A recent experiment was undertaken in the southeast portion
of the field by Unocal, Calpine, Northern California Power Agency, Pacific Gas & Electric, and the U.
S. Department of Energy (Voge et al., 1994) to test the effects in injection there. Injection into one well
at rates of 400 to 800 gpm (25 to 50 1/s) resulted in increased steam production in some nearby areas.
Within several days of the 6 January 1994 start of injection, enhanced steam production totaling 45
thousand pounds per hour (kph) (5.7 kg/s) was seen from the five producing wells on the injection well
pad. The experiment, which ultimately lasted about 18 months, has indicated that injection of more
water into the reservoir will help arrest the pressure decline, and enable the reservoir to produce power
for many decades more (Enedy et al., 1991; Voge et al., 1994). However, it is recognized that injection
will have to be done with care to avoid adverse effects on nearby production wells (Pruess and Enedy,
1993).

That a very significant thermal resource still exists in The Geysers field is beyond question. If
the field is assumed to encompass a block of rock 100 km2 in extent and 3 km thick (very conservative
estimates), the heat content above 15o C is roughly 1.7 X 1020 J, or 170 Quads (Q), equivalent to burn­
ing 28 billion barrels of oil or 6.2 billion short tons of coal. For comparison, the total energy con­
sumption in the United States for all uses is about 85 Q/y. It can be shown that only a few percent of
the thermal energy in the system has been produced at the surface since electricity generation began in
1960.

Construction of a 29-mile, 20-inch waste-sewage pipeline was started in October, 1995, run­
ning from the Lake County Sanitation District to the southeast part of The Geysers field (Dellinger,
1996). Completion is scheduled in August, 1997. This pipeline will carry 7.8 million gallons per day
of water, which will be a mixture of waste water from the sewage treatment plant and water taken from
Clear Lake. Reservoir engineers anticipate that the project will increase generation at The Geysers field
by about 70 megawatts or more. With the success anticipated on this project, the City of Santa Rosa,
which lies west of the field, is planning to undertake a project to determine the feasibility of building a
pipeline from their waste-water treatment plants to the central part of the geothermal field. Even more
waste water will be available from this source for injection in the geothermal field.

CHANGES IN THE U.S. ELECTRICITY INDUSTRY

Significant changes are underway in the electric utility industry as a result of the Energy Policy
Act of 1992, with efforts on both the Federal and state levels to restructure this industry. Utilities and
their customers are becoming ever more strongly motivated solely by short-term economics. In addi­
tion, natural gas prices have been very low in recent years, with the result that the vast majority of new

-25-
power-plant installation is gas-fired combustion turbines. Tradition, regulation, and subsidies have
favored the use of fossil fuels for electric power generation in the U S. for decades. Because geother­
mal energy is not yet at the point of being able to compete in such a biased situation, its many advan­
tages are at risk of being lost. The State of California is among the leaders in utility-industry deregula­
tion and restructuring, and it_s public utility commission is actively working with all concerned sectors
to devise a new industry structure in that state.

Deregulation will include the breakup of the vertically integrated utilities that now constitute
monopolies controlled primarily by state regulation. Generation, transmission, and distribution func­
tions will be separated in an effort to increase competition in each area and lower electricity prices to
consumers without disrupting the excellent electrical-energy services Americans enjoy. As a result,
many utilities will opt to sell their generating capacity to become transmission companies (transcos) or
distribution companies (distcos). Generation companies (gencos) will comprise companies spun off
from utilities, large independent power producers (IPPs) such as Enron, and the myriad of small IPP’s
currently operating under the Public Utilities Regulatory Policy Act of 1978 (PURPA), which created a
market for renewable energy options such as geothermal energy. Gencos may possibly sell their power
into a pool, from which distcos would make purchases on a long-term or a spot-market basis (or, more
likely, a mixture of both), and the transcos would wheel the power to the distcos at an agreed transmis­
sion rate.

In order to preserve the benefits of clean, renewable energy supplies already in place, as well
as to create a nourishing environment for further development, both federal and state law-makers are
considering several options. For example, one option would be to require a specified amount of the
overall electricity fuel mix to be renewable energy, such as geothermal energy — the so-called “renew­
able-energy portfolio standard (RPS).” The requirement could be applied at either the distco or the
power pool level. With an increasing RPS percentage, such an option would increase the amount of
renewable electricity in the supply as time passes, ensuring a growth environment for geothermal ener­
gy. Another option, perhaps in addition to the RPS, would be to allow and encourage distcos to market
a certain amount of their power as “green power”, derived from clean sources, and charge their cus­
tomers a marginally higher price for such power. More than half of Americans say they would buy
green power, if it was offered to them at as much as one cent per kilowatt-hour above market prices.
Such issues are being discussed in Congress and state legislatures as this volume goes to press, and we
can anticipate that several years will be required before all aspects of deregulation and restructuring of
the electricity industry will be ironed out.

All of this adds up to a very troubled, stagnant domestic geothermal market. The U S. geot­
hermal industry has had to curtail activities within U.S. borders and focus its efforts offshore to survive.
While foreign development results in expanded export of U.S. goods and services, opportunity to devel­
op domestic geothermal resources is being lost along with its contribution to fuel diversity, energy secu­
rity, and environmental preservation. It is evident that we must lower the costs of geothermal power
production to be able to compete in the domestic market. The conclusion is that better, more cost-effec­
tive technology must be developed.

GEOTHERMAL R&D IN THE U.S.

Highly successful programs have been and are now being carried out by DOE's Geothermal
Division, working with the industry. The current geothermal R&D budget is about $30 million, and has
remained stable even though budgets for other energy technologies have been cut significantly over the
past four years. The primary reasons the geothermal budget has not been reduced are (1) the lobbying
program in the Congress undertaken by the industry in support of the need for geothermal R&D, (2) the
increasing recognition in Washington, DC of the benefits and enormous potential for further develop­
ment of geothermal energy, especially for electrical power generation, and (3) the success of the R&D
program in past years.

- 26 -
Technology Needs and R&d Priorities

The growth of geothermal energy development is not yet limited by resource availability.
Rather, it is limited by inadequate technology. Only the very highest-grade geothermal resources can
be economically used today. Development of the vast majority of geothermal resources is not possible
because, at most resource sites, our power-generation costs are higher than those for competing fossil
fuels, especially natural gas. Geothermal costs today range from 4 to 7 cents per kilowatt-hour for new
power development at high-grade geothermal resource sites, whereas new generation capacity from nat­
ural gas, where it is readily available, produces power at 2.5 to 5 cents per kilowatt-hour. (Operation
and maintenance costs at geothermal power plants whose capitalization has been paid may be as low as
0.9 cents per kilowatt hour). Power-generation costs at the much more plentiful lower-grade geother­
mal resource sites are absolutely unable to compete with natural-gas generation costs in the United
States. A core R&D program aimed at improving existing technology and developing new, advanced
technology is critical to enable to geothermal industry to compete in the domestic and global energy
marketplaces.

During the past two years, the Geothermal Energy Association has conducted a series of work­
shops to discuss our needs for new technology and to recommend to the DOE cost-shared R&D pro­
grams based on our highest-priority needs (Wright, 1994,1996b). Our workshops have resulted in the
recommendation to DOE to concentrate in three program areas — drilling, exploration and reservoir
technology, and energy conversion.

Drilling. Because of the high temperatures and corrosive nature of geothermal fluids, geothermal
drilling is much more difficult and expensive than conventional oil and gas drilling. Drilling costs
account for one-third to one-half of the total costs for a geothermal project. Improvement in existing
drilling techniques and development of new, advanced drilling techniques would significantly lower
the cost of electricity generated from geothermal resources.

Exploration and Reservoir Technology. The major problem in exploration is how to remotely detect
producing zones deep in the subsurface so that drill holes can be sited and steered to intersect these
producing zones. Present exploration techniques are not specific enough, and lead us to drill too
many dry wells, driving up development costs. Further, inadequate knowledge of the physical and
chemical properties of the subsurface makes it impossible for us to mine the heat in the most efficient
way and ensure the sustainability of geothermal reservoirs.

Energy Conversion. The efficiency in conversion of geothermal steam into electricity in the power
plant directly affects the cost of power generation. During the past decade, the efficiency of dry- and
flash-steam geothermal power plants was improved by 25%. We believe that geothermal power-plant
efficiency can be improved at least 25% more over the next decade with a modest investment in
R&D.

GEOTHERMAL ENERGY IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES

Although the market for new geothermal power development in the United States is currently
depressed, robust demand in several developing countries is driving aggressive markets for new elec­
trical power using a variety of fuels, including geothermal energy. Among developing countries having
notable geothermal resources suitable for use in electrical power generation are the Philippines,
Indonesia, and China in Asia; Mexico in North America; Guatemala, Honduras, Costa Rica, Nicaragua,
and El Salvador in Central America; Peru, Chile, Argentina, and Bolivia in South America; and Turkey
in the Mediterranean. Many other countries also have geothermal resources capable of electrical power
generation, but the potential for their development appears to be somewhat lower at the present time
compared with those countries named above.

The most rapid development of geothermal energy for electrical power production is current­
ly taking place in the Philippines and in Indonesia. There, projects under construction or planned by
U.S. companies will bring about 3,000 megawatts of new power on line by the year 2000. Power
demand is very high in both countries, and power plants fired by fossil fuels are also being built.

-27-
 In developing countries, electrical power generation, distribution, and sales have been and still
mostly are enterprises undertaken by the state, although this is changing. There is a wide variety of
choices to be made and models a country might follow in revamping its legal and business structure to
encourage private investment in its electrical power sector (Knapp, 1996; Wright, 1996a). The basic
requirement is that a country’s laws and regulations must be clear, comprehensive, consistent, and con­
stant, enabling an investor to determine and allocate all project risks. Only then can the quality of a
business investment be judged against others available to the same investor.

CONCLUSIONS

I conclude from all of the above considerations that the U S. geothermal industry is healthy
despite the stagnation of the U S. market for new geothermal power. Robust demand for geothermal
power in Asia and elsewhere is helping to support the industry. In the long term, geothermal energy
remains a very viable option to furnish clean, reliable power worldwide

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I gratefully acknowledge the financial support of the U.S. Department of Energy, under con­
tract No. DE-AC07-95ID13274, for this study.

DISCLAIMER

This report was prepared as an account of work sponsored by an agency of the United States
Government. Neither the United States Government nor any agency thereof, nor any of their employ­
ees, makes any warranty, express or implied, or assumes any legal liability or responsibility for the accu­
racy, completeness, or usefulness of any information, apparatus, product, or process disclosed, or rep­
resents that its use would not infringe on privately owned rights. Reference herein to any specific com­
mercial product, process, or service by trade name, trademark, manufacturer, or otherwise, does not nec­
essarily constitute or imply its endorsement, recommendation, or favoring by the United States
Government or any agency thereof. The views and opinions of authors expressed herein do not neces­
sarily state or reflect those of the United States Government or any agency thereof.

REFERENCES

Barker, B. J., Gulati, M. A., Bryan, M. A., and Riedel, K. L., 1992, Geysers reservoir performance:
in Monograph on The Geysers Geothermal Field, Claudia Stone, ed., Geothermal Resources
Council Special Monograph 17,167-177.

Brook, C. A., Mariner, R. H., Mabey, D. R., Swanson, J. R., Guffanti, Marianne, and Muffler, L. P. J.,
1979, Hydrothermal convection systems with reservoir temperatures >= 90 oC: in
Assessment of Geothermal Resources of the United States — 1978, L. J. P. Muffler, ed., U.S.
Geological Survey Circular 790,163 p.

Dellinger, Mark, 1996, Turning community wastes into sustainable geothermal energy — the S. E.
Geysers effluent pipeline project: Transactions, Geothermal Resources Council, 20, 205-208.

DOE/EIA, 1993, Renewable resources in the U.S. electricity supply: Energy Information
Administration Report, DOE/EIA-0561, 67 p.

DOE/EIA, 1995, Renewable Energy Annual — 1995, U.S. Department of Energy, Energy Information
Administration, DOE/EIA-0603(95), 158 p.

— 28 —
DOE/EIA, 1996, Emissions in Greenhouse Gases in the United States — 1995, U S. Department of
Energy, Energy Information Administration, DOE/EIA-0573(95), 140 p.

Enedy, S. L., Enedy, K. L., and Maney, John, 1991, Reservoir response to injection in the Southeast
Geysers: in Monograph on The Geysers Geothermal Field, Geothermal Resources Council
Special Report No. 17,1991, 211-219.

GEA, 1995, Geothermal Energy — Clean, Sustainable Energy for the Benefit of Mankind and the
Environment, brochure produced by the Geothermal Energy Association, 6 p.

Goddard, W. B., Goddard, C. B., and McClain, D. W., 1989, Future air quality maintenance and
improvements through the expanded use of geothermal energy: Transactions, Geothermal
Resources Council, 13, 27-32.

Goddard, W. B. And Goddard, C. B., 1990, Energy fuel sources and their contribution to recent
global air pollution trends, Transactions, Geothermal Resources Council, 14, 643-649.

Knapp, G. M., 1996, Business and financial issues for international power projects: Transactions,
Geothermal Resources Council, 20, 529-550.

Lienau, P. J., Lund, J. W., and Culver, G. G., 1995a, Geothermal direct use in the United States
update — 1990 -1994: Proceedings, World Geothermal Congress, 1995, Florence, Italy, 1,
363-369.

Lienau, P. J., Ross, H. P., and Wright, P. M., 1995b, Low-temperature resource assessment:
Geothermal Resources Council Transactions, 19, 63-68.

Lienau, P. J. and Ross, Howard, 1996, Low-temperature resource assessment program, Final report:
Geo-Heat Center, Oregon Institute of Technology, 35 p. with additional tables and appen­
dices.

Meidav, Tsvi, and Pigott, Jack, 1994, The impact of geothermal energy development on employment:
Transactions, Geothermal Resources Council, 18, 55-60.

Pruess, Karsten, and Enedy, Steve, 1993, Numerical modeling of injection experiments at The
Geysers: Proceedings, Eighteenth Workshop on Geothermal Reservoir Engineering, Stanford
University, Stanford, CA, 26-28 January, 1996, 63-67.

Reed, M. J., editor, 1983, Assessment of Low-Temperature Geothermal Resources of the United
States - 1982: U. S. Geological Survey Circular 892, 73 p.

Voge, Edward, Koenig, Brian, Smith, Bill J. S., Enedy, Steve, Beall, J. J., Adams, M. C., and Haizlip,
Jill, 1994, Initial findings of The Geysers Unit 18 cooperative injection project: Transactions,
Geothermal Resources Council, 18, 353-357.

- 29 -
Wright, P. M., 1991, Exploration potential for new hydrothermal resources for electrical power gener­
ation in the 48 contiguous states: Geothermal Resources Council Transactions, 15,217-228.

Wright, P. M., 1994, A study of the geothermal industry’s R&D priorities: Transactions, Geothermal
Resources Council, 18, 139-148.

Wright, P. M., 1996a, Overview of business considerations for geothermal projects in developing
countries: Transactions, Geothermal Resources Council, 20, 551-553.

Wright, P. M., 1996b, Geothermal Energy R&D — Investment in America’s Future: Statement of the
Geothermal Energy Association, Presented before the Subcommittee on Energy and Water
Development, Committee on Appropriations, U.S. House of Representatives, 29 February,
1996, 5 p.

30-
 PERSPECTIVES OF GEOTHERMAL DEVELOPMENT IN ITALY
AND THE CHALLENGE OF ENVIRONMENTAL CONSERVATION

Aldo BALDACCI and Fabio SABATELLI

ENEL - PGE/USP, Via Andrea Pisano 120,1-56122 Pisa (ITALY)

ABSTRACT

The status of geothermal development for power generation in Italy as of the end of 1996 is
presented. Future development is dependent upon the acceptance of local residents; environmental
conservation and socio-economic aspects have thus become fundamental issues in ENEL activities.
The results of an environmental assessment study carried out in the Mt. Amiata area, where
several plants are in operation and others are planned, are outlined. Pollutant concentrations are
well within the limits set by current legislation; however, H2S and mercury abatement is planned to
avoid the odor nuisance of H2S and possible adverse effects from mercury buildup in the long term.
The scheme for combined hydrogen sulfide and mercury abatement, developed for the
particular characteristics of Italian geothermal fluids, is described. The proposed technology is
going to be demonstrated on a pilot scale and then on a 20 MW power plant.

INTRODUCTION

The potential of geothermal development in Italy is generally considered large in terms of

low-temperature resources (<130°C) and moderate in terms of resources suitable for electricity
generation. ENEL’s efforts have been mainly directed towards the research and the subsequent
utilization of the latter type of resources, but in the last few years increasing attention has been
dedicated to direct uses of geothermal heat and to industrial use of by-products associated with
geothermal fluids.
As far as electricity generation is concerned, slow but steady development is under way,
together with renewal of older power plants built immediately after WW II and in the 1950s. As of
31st December 1996, the installed capacity was 742.2 MW, around 150 MW of which is made up
by old plants kept as a reserve; the gross generation in 1996 calendar year was 3,762 GWh. These
figures can be compared with the situation at the end of 1994, presented at the WGC held in
Florence (Allegrini et al, 1995): 625.7 MW and 3,417 GWh, respectively.
Detailed data on capacity and electricity generation of each unit are shown in Table 1.
With respect to the previous situation, one unit was dismantled (Bagnore 1, rated 3.5 MW) and four
new units came on line (Farinello, 60 MW, and the three 20 MW units of Piancastagnaio 5, Nuova
Sasso and Le Prata). Farinello power plant completed the renewal of the central part of the
Larderello field, where three 60 MW units are now installed (with Larderello 3 as a reserve), while
Nuova Sasso and Le Prata replaced Sasso Pisano and a unit in Serrazzano power plant,
respectively.
Direct uses of geothermal heat have been increasing at a slower rate, mainly due to the
competition of low-cost fossil fuels and to the lack of financial support for geothermal direct uses
aimed at balancing the so-called “externalities” (or social costs) associated with the use of fossil
fuels but not included in their market price. However, new district heating systems went into
operation in some villages in the Larderello area (Montecerboli, Serrazzano and Sasso Pisano) and
others are planned at Mt. Amiata. In addition, a couple of industrial plants utilizing geothermal heat
are under construction in the Travale-Radicondoli area.
— 31 —
 Table 1 Utilization of geothermal energy for electricity generation as of December 1996

Unit Rating

Geothermal Power Plant Unit Year Status Type of Operating Under Annual
Field Commis­ Unit or Constr. or Energy
sioned Reserve Planned Prod.
(1996)

MWe MWe GWh/yr

Larderello Larderello 3 1
1965 R DS-C 24 -
2
1950 R DS-C 24 13.7
3 1964 R DS-C 26 -
4 1965 R DS-C 24 5.9
Farinello 1
1995 0
DS-C 60 354.8
Castelnuovo V.C. 1
1946 0
DS-C 11
10.5
2
1948 R DS-C 11
-
Gabbro 1
1969 0
DS-C 15 120.7
Valle Secolo 1
1991 0
DS-C 60 470.9
2
1992 O DS-C 60 482.7
Radicondoli Pianacce 1
1987 0
DS-C 20
127.3
Rancia 1
1986 0
DS-C 20
114.4
Rancia 2 1
1988 0
DS-C 20
132.5
Radicondoli 1
1979 0
DS-C 15 105.6
2
1979 O DS-C 15 94.4
Lago Lago 1
1960 O DS-C 6.5 33.2
2
1960 R DS-C 12.5 -
3 1964 0
DS-C 14.5 32.5
Comia 1
1987 0
DS-C 20
115.7
Comia 2 1
1994 0
DS-C 20
109.2
San Martino 2
1985 0
DS-C 20
119.1
3 1988 0
DS-C 20
131.4
Molinetto 2 1
1982 O DS-C 8
62.4
0
La Leccia 1
1983 DS-C 8
65.2
Lagoni Rossi 3 1
1981 O DS-C 8
54.0
Monterotondo 1
1958 0
DS-C 12.5 104.2
Sasso Pisano 1
1958 R DS-C 12.5 14.5
2
1958 R DS-C 3.2 -
Nuova Sasso 1
1996 O DS-C 20
92.2
Serrazzano 1
1957 R DS-C 12.5 85.5
2
1957 O DS-C 12.5 85.3
5 1975 O DS-C 15 91.1
Le Prata 1
1996 0
DS-C 20
38.1
Monteverdi 2 1
uc DS-C 20

Monteverdi 1 1
P DS-C 20

Carboli 1 1
p DS-C 20

Carboli 2 1
p DS-C 20

Selva 1 1
p DS-C 20
 1
Geothermal Power Plant Unit Year Status Type of
Unit Rating

Operating Under Annual

|
Field Commis­ Unit or Constr. or Energy
sioned reserve Planned Prod.
(1996)

MWe MWe GWh/yr

Mt Amiata Bagnore 2 1
1962 O DS-D 3.5 -
Bagnore 3 1
UC DS*-C 20

Piancastagnaio 2 1
1969 o DS*-D 8
34.8
Bellavista 1
1987 0
DS*-C 20
67.1
Piancastagnaio 3 1
1990 0
DS*-C 20
149.9
Piancastagnaio 4 1
1991 0
DS*-C 20
121.5
Piancastagnaio 5 1
1996 0
DS*-C 20 121.8

Piancastagnaio 6 1
p DS*-C 20

Piancastagnaio 7 1
p DS*-C 20

Piancastagnaio 8
1
p DS*-C 20

Latera Latera 1
UC 2F 20

2
UC 2F 20

3 UC B 2.5
4 UC B 2.5
Marta 1
UC B 2.5

TOTAL 53<"> 742.2 207.5 3762.4

STATUS: 0=Operational TYPE OF UNIT: DS= Dry steam

R= Reserve capacity DS*= Entrained water separated at
UC= Under construction wellhead
P= Planned C= Condensing
(*) 30 O + 9 R; 7 UC + 7 P D= Discharging-to-atmosphere
2F= Double flash
B= Binary

Increased use of the noncondensable gas associated to the geothermal fluid for C02
recovery is foreseen (one plant is already in operation in the Torre Alfina field, with a capacity of
over 30,000 metric tons/year), together with the exploitation of Cesano hypersaline brine for the
extraction of potassium salts.
An updated map of the geothermal localities of Italy, including a summary of the present status of
the various types of utilization, is shown in Figure 1.

GEOTHERMAL DEVELOPMENT

Some of the areas where geothermal development is under way are located at the borders
of the traditionally exploited fields of Larderello and Travale-Radicondoli, thus constituting an
extension of them. This is the case for the areas of Monteverdi, Selva and Carboli, where power
plants are under construction or planned (see Table 1) and for the southernmost area of
Radicondoli, where an additional plant (Radicondoli 3) should be built in the future. However, it is
felt that further expansions of these areas are unlikely.

- 33-
 UTILIZATION OPERATIVE IN PROGRESS PLANNED

* * ☆
ELECTRICITY Lorderello
GENERATION Castelnuovo V.C.

Radlcondofl
Mt. Amiata

INDUSTRY ■ E D
C CHEMICALS Lorderello (C) Carboll (D) Cesano (C)
D DRYING Rodigo (D) Radleondoll (D)
Alfino (C)

o o
Abano Terms Groseeio
Acqul Terms Piancastagnaio
SPACE­ Bagno Romagna Pisa (CNR)
HEATING Castelnuovo V.C.
Lorderello
S.Donato M.se
Montergrotto T.
Battaglia Terms

Vicenza
Monterotondo M.
Sasso Pisano
Montecerboll
Serrazzano
Lustlgnono

▲ As A
GREENHOUSE Lorderello (2) Latera
HEATING Amiata Alfino
Castelnuovo V.C.
Galzignano
Pantanl
Rodigo
Canlno

FI5H-
REARNING Rodigo
Castelnuovo V.C.

Aeolian
Islands

1) Piancastagnaio, Bognore, 5.Flora, Abbadia S.S.

2) Lorderello and surroundings (Bulera, Logo, Monterotondo, v

Sasso Pisano, Monfecerboll, Serrazzano, Lustlgnono, Carboll).

3) Abano Terme-Monteortone, Montegrotto Terms,

Battaglia Terms, Galzignano.

Fig. 1 Geothermal areas in Italy

Thus, the geothermal areas of Mt. Amiata and surroundings are of foremost importance for
future geothermal development in Italy: apart from the plants yet to be built in the Piancastagnaio
field (see Table 1), an extension of this deep reservoir has been ascertained at Abbadia San
Salvatore (north of Piancastagnaio), and promising prospects exist for further development in the
nearby areas.

-34
 It should be noted that these areas of expansion for geothermal power generation do not
feature any kind of geothermal “tradition” like the long history of geothermal resources utilization
at Larderello. As a result, geothermal development is often seen by most residents as a negative
event, with potential risks of environmental damage and even harmful effects on health. The threat
posed by geothermal operations to the environment as perceived by local inhabitants is reinforced
by the fact that the above areas are rich in natural beauty and almost unspoiled by any kind of
industrial development.
In the present situation, characterized by increasing environmental concern, it is clear that
geothermal development can no longer be carried out without the acceptance of most residents.
Thus, in order to make geothermal development acceptable, ENEL has to face the difficult task of
operating in the framework of tight environmental conservation.
The two main aspects of this challenge are related to landscape protection, involving steam
pipelines and power plants, and to the reduction of pollutant emissions. The latter are dealt with in
detail in the next part of this paper.

GEOTHERMAL POWER PLANT EMISSIONS AND EFFECTS ON THE ENVIRONMENT

Italian geothermal fields are characterized by an unusually high noncondensable gas

(NCG) content, typically ranging from 4 to 10% by weight in the produced steam. Lower figures
are seldom found (around 1% by weight for San Martino power plant), while even higher values
can be present (some deep wells in the Piancastagnaio field, the shallow reservoir of Piancastagnaio
and the separated steam from the Latera water-dominated field).
Most of the NCG is carbon dioxide (generally over 95% by weight); however, hydrogen
sulfide is typically around 1%. Boron (in the form of boric acid) and trace elements are also present
in the steam. Elemental mercury is mainly associated with the NCG, with values of up to several
mg/Nm3 in the Amiata area, where mercury ore (cinnabar) was mined until the early 1960s. Of
lesser concern are the arsenic and antimony contents.
With the exception of Piancastagnaio 2 and Bagnore 2, featuring discharging-to-
atmosphere turbines (Figure 2), all geothermal power plants are of the direct steam condensing
type, equipped with direct-contact condensers (Figure 3). NCGs are extracted from the condenser
by means of a centrifugal compressor (with intermediate gas cooling, again of the direct-contact
type) and emitted to the atmosphere above the induced draft cooling tower in order to achieve
better dispersion of the plume. The standard size of the new power plants is 20 MW (except at
Larderello, where three 60 MW units were installed), requiring a supply of 110 t/h of fluid
(Allegrini etal, 1985).
Any entrained water associated with the steam (separated at wellhead) and the excess
condensate from the cooling towers are both reinjected in the geothermal reservoir in order to
prevent pollution of surface waters.
The main environmental (and health) concern associated with the operation of geothermal
power plants arises from their airborne emissions: primarily from compressor NCG discharge
(hydrogen sulfide, mercury and trace elements) and secondarily from water stripping and
entrainment (drift) in the cooling towers (hydrogen sulfide, although to a lesser extent than in
compressor exhaust, boric acid and trace elements).
An extensive study was commissioned by ENEL to ascertain the effects on the
environment of the airborne emissions of Piancastagnaio geothermal power plants, thought to be
the most representative ones, due to the high NCG content of the steam. An area of around 60 km2
was involved, where the power plants Bellavista and Piancastagnaio 2, 3 and 4, with the associated
production and reinjection wells, were in operation in the southern part, whereas in the northern
part exploration activities only had been carried out.

-35-
 Steam.

To reinjection
Turbine Atmospheric
discharge

Generator

Heat
Water
exchanger

Direct contact condenser

atmospheric pressure Piezometric
tank

Heat

Greenhouse heating
exchanger

Fig. 2 Simplified scheme of Piancastagnaio 2 plant (discharging-to-atmosphere turbine with heat

recovery).

CENTRIFUGAL
COMPRESSOR

To reinjection

COOLING WATER
CONDENSER

Fig. 3 Simplified scheme of a condensing unit.

-36-
 Field surveys lasted more than one year and concerned the following topics:
• Air quality, with measurement of the pollutant concentrations (H2S and Hg) in the ambient air,
wet and dry precipitations and lichens, used both as bioindicators (determination of the index of
air purity, IAP) and as bioaccumulators.
• Soil contamination, with chemical analyses of geothermal pollutants (Hg, As, Sb and H3B03).
• Water quality, with analyses of water and sediments in watercourses.
• Characterization of vegetation, in order to check for any possible damage or adverse effect from
geothermal activities.
• Contamination of vegetables and grasses (fodder plants), with chemical analyses of geothermal
pollutants.
• Measurement of mercury emissions from old mining sites (where spoil banks of roasted cinnabar
still exist).
• Measurement of the pollutants released to the atmosphere from geothermal power plants (H2S,
Hg, As, Sb and H3B03).
Particular care was used in relation to this last point. In order to check data reliability and
accuracy, a mass balance of the different chemical species was performed on each power plant,
determining all input and output mass flow rates. Plant emissions are reported in Table 2, while
Table 3 shows, as an example, the mass balance for Bellavista plant.

Table 2 Power plant emissions in Piancastagnaio area

POWER PLANT
PCM
UNITS PC/3 PCM BELLAVISTA Reduced flow Max. flow rate
rate w/o direct with direct use
use

LOAD MW. 9.8 17.1 16.2 2.5 6.8

HYDROGEN
SULFIDE kg/h 106.8 144.8 185.3 95.2 135.8

MERCURY g/h 65.1 35.1 36.1 53.9 123.8

ARSENIC g/h 5.5 6.5 2.3 <1.5 N.M.

ANTIMONY g/h <0.7 <0.9 <0.6 <0.8 N.M.

BORIC ACID kg/h 1.47 0.88

0.60 2.02 0.21

N.M.= Not measured

The main results can be summarized as follows:

• Almost all the H2S entering the power plants is discharged to the atmosphere, as the reinjected
fraction is less than 5%.
• The main H2S emission source (65-70% of the total) is the NCG compressor exhaust, with the
remaining part stripped out from the cooling tower.
• Mercury is mainly emitted together with the NCG, with small amounts (1.4-2.2 g/h) released by
the cooling towers.
• Arsenic emissions are quite small; drift measurements seem to indicate that most of them
(around 90%) are due to volatile compounds.
• Antimony emissions are even lower than arsenic, with concentrations near at or below the
detection limit in most streams.
• Boric acid emissions, in the range 0.6-1.5 kg/h, are mainly due to the cooling tower drift.
-37-
 Table 3 Mass balance at Bellavista power plant (Load: 16.2 MWe)

INLET OUTLET
OUTLET
GASEOUS STREAMS LIQUID STREAMS TOTAL
/INLET
Steam NCG Turbine Cooling Turbine Reinjected
Units turbine exhaust drainage tower drainage condensate %
inlet separator separator

Total flow rate t/h 123.8 12.6

0.23 0.05 31.1

Steam t/h 112.9

NCG t/h 10.9

h2s kg/h 200.0

127.3 0.03 57.9 0.0005 3.98 189.2 94.6

Hg g/h 33.7 34.7 0.011

1.31 0.0003 1.18 37.2 110.3

As g/h 16.39 1.37 0.014 0.81 0.58 17.03 19.81 120.9

Sb g/h 3.58 <0.21 0.004 <0.33 0.002

2.24 <2.79 77.8

H3BO3 kg/h 87.50 0.12

0.024 0.31 0.61 74.9 75.99 86.8

The knowledge of the emission sources and of the meteorological and climatological
features of the area (local weather data were recorded for many years by a dedicated ENEL station)
allowed to model the ground level concentrations of the major pollutants, which were compared
with the measured data.
The main conclusions of the study are undoubtedly positive: the overall environmental
situation is good notwithstanding the tailings left by past mining activity and the emissions of
geothermal power plants. All pollutants are present, at worst, in concentrations within the limits set
by current laws and standards.
However, it was confirmed that, under certain meteorological conditions, hydrogen sulfide
concentrations may reach values well above the odor threshold in the villages of the area,
constituting a nuisance for the resident population and tourist resorts. Moreover, it was felt that
mercury emissions, even if negligible as far as health effects are concerned, might represent an
environmental threat in the long term. Of course, both effects could be worsened by the installation
of new power plants in the area.

HYDROGEN SULFIDE AND MERCURY ABATEMENT

According to the results of the environmental study outlined above, it was concluded that
geothermal development might be made sustainable and acceptable by the local residents only
adopting a new approach, where environmental conservation and socio-economic aspects represent
fundamental issues.
ENEL is looking at ULEV (Ultra-Low Emission and Visibility) plants. Cornerstones of
this advanced concept are the mitigation of the visual impact of geothermal installations (well pads,
pipelines and power stations), the abatement of pollutant emission and the use of low-exergy steam
or waste heat for industrial activities and district heating.
— 38 —
 The reduction of cooling water drift, an easier task, may be achieved by a state-of-the-art
design for new plants and retrofitting the existing towers with an ad hoc improvement of drift
eliminators, which is already being done.
Owing to the characteristics of Italian geothermal fluids, H2S abatement technologies used
elsewhere (particularly in California) are not readily applicable without modifications and/or may
result in unacceptable operating costs. As an example, the use of surface condensers to achieve high
H2S partitioning to the gas phase would involve a significant penalty both in terms of investment
costs and performance, due to the high NCG content of the steam. In addition, NCG direct
combustion (required by the burner-scrubber process, suitable for plants equipped with direct-
contact condensers) is prevented by the very low heat of combustion of the NCG.
Mercury abatement, on the other hand, is not yet a standard practice in the geothermal
industry, being applied only to prevent sulfur contamination produced by downstream H2S
abatement at The Geysers (Grande, 1995), where the mercury content of the steam is considerably
lower than at Piancastagnaio.
It was thus decided to make a survey of the commercially available abatement processes,
in order to evaluate the possibility of applying them in ENEL’s power plants (both new and
existing) as well as their economic impact on the generation cost.
After an initial screening, the following hydrogen sulfide abatement processes were
evaluated:
• Thermal conversion to sulfur dioxide (possibly followed by S02 abatement).
• Catalytic conversion to sulfur dioxide (possibly followed by S02 abatement).
• Selective catalytic oxidation to elemental sulfur (Superclaus and Sulfreen® processes).
• Liquid phase redox oxidation to elemental sulfur (LO-CATII® and Stretford processes).
• Burner-scrubber or low-solids (RT-2) process.
Liquid phase oxidation to sulfates with less-than-stoichiometric amounts of reactant
(BIOX process) was also investigated, but discarded following unsatisfactory laboratory test results
(Nardini et al., 1995), confirmed by a subsequent field test performed at Molinetto (8 MW) power
plant (ENEL, 1996).
The possibility of achieving high H2S partitioning to the gas phase by cooling water pH
modification in power plants equipped with direct-contact condensers was investigated both with
laboratory and field tests, the latter also carried out at Molinetto, where sulfuric acid was added
(Nardini et al, 1996; Baldacci etal, 1996).
As far as mercury abatement is concerned, the following processes were evaluated, both as
stand-alone and in combination with the H2S abatement processes listed above:
• Condensation and separation by gas cooling and refrigeration.
• Absorption on sulfur impregnated activated carbon.
• Absorption on sulfur impregnated zeolites (Medisorbon process).
The choice of the best solution for H2S abatement is also dependent on the S02 emission
allowed. As the situation is subject to possible future restrictions, the selected technology should
provide the possibility of meeting more stringent emission standards without incurring in
unsustainable costs.
The scheme of the proposed abatement plant, as shown in Figure 4, provides for the
following steps:
• Cooling of the compressor NCG discharge in a closed-loop direct-contact cooler (condensate
from the moisture content of the NCG is discharged as blowdown), where the recirculating
liquid is cooled by water from the cooling towers in a heat exchanger (direct surface cooling of
the NCG is prevented by the fact that it contains a small amount of sulfur vapor produced by
H2S oxidation in the compressor).
• Mercury absorption with sulfur impregnated activated carbon.
• Regenerative heating of the NCG entering the catalytic reactor using the outlet gas.
-39-
• Catalytic conversion of hydrogen sulfide to sulfur dioxide (in the 200-400°C range).
• Gas quenching and sulfur dioxide absorption in a side stream of water from the cooling towers.
Dissolved S02 drives the pH of the cooling water to acidic values, so that a high partitioning of
H2S to the gas phase can be achieved. In order to prevent extremely low pH values, the excess
S02 bypasses the absorption stage.

MERCURY AMD HYDROGEN SULFIDE ABATEMENT PLANT

CATAL1TIC
OXIDATION
REACTOR

MERCURY REMOVAL

(Sulfur impregnated
activated carbon) SO*
QUENCHER.
SCRUBBER

START-UP
ELECTRIC
HEATER

START-UP LINE

GEOTHERMAL POWER PLANT

TURBINE
WELLS COMPRESSOR
GENERATOR

CONDENSER
AAAAAA
COOLING
TOWER

TO REINJECTION

7ig. 4 Simplified flow scheme of Hg and H2S abatement plant

Mercury abatement should be well over 90%, while H2S residual emission (from stripping
in the cooling towers) should be less than 10%. Around 50% of the S02 produced should be
absorbed in the circulating water and eventually reinjected, thanks to the ammonia content of the
steam (Dorrity, 1995), while the remaining part is released to the atmosphere.
However, the process can be easily implemented at a later stage with the addition of
ammonia (or caustic), in order to abate 99%+ of S02 emissions. If required, residual H2S could be
abated, too, by adding iron chelates to the cooling water. These are both well-known technologies
used in the RT-2 process (Bedell et al1986; Dorrity, 1995).
Pilot-scale field tests of various oxidation catalysts will be carried out this year, with the
aim of evaluating their optimum operating conditions and checking any poisonous effects of the
trace elements present in the NCG on the catalysts. In addition, pilot testing of the activated carbon
for mercury abatement is planned, in order to assess the absorption capacity and to check any
possible side reaction, in particular H2S oxidation to sulfur.

40
 A full-scale abatement plant for a 20 MW power plant will then be designed, built and
operated in order to gain some experience in the process before starting with the construction of
additional plants.

CONCLUSIONS

Until recently, geothermal development has been pushed by technical and economic
considerations only, with an increasingly prevailing weight of the latter in more recent years,
following the ongoing privatization of ENEL.
Environmental conservation and socio-economic aspects have become qualifying issues of
present and future activities, however, as no further development can be carried out without the
acceptance of the local residents.
Thorough environmental studies have been conducted to assess the impact of existing or
planned geothermal activities. When necessary, as in the Mt. Amiata area, the extent of these
studies goes well beyond the requirements set by the current regulations.
Continuous monitoring of air quality has been completed or is under way in all geothermal
fields under exploitation. Abatement of the main pollutants, particularly H2S, in order to eliminate
odor nuisance, and mercury, is close to the demonstration stage and will be subsequently applied to
new power plants. The retrofit of a certain number of existing power plants is foreseen as well.
Moreover, new plants and related pipelines will feature a reduced visual impact.
ENEL is confident that these measures will make possible the future development of all
the resources available, within the constraints of the economic viability of geothermal power
generation.

REFERENCES

Allegrini, G., Giordano, G., Moscatelli, G, Palama, A, Pollastri, G.G. and Tosi, G.P. (1985). New
Trends in Designing and Constructing Geothermal Power Plants in Italy, Proceedings of
the 1985 International Symposium on Geothermal Energy, Inti. Volume, pp. 279-288.
Allegrini, G., Cappetti, G. and Sabatelli, F. (1995). Geothermal Development in Italy: Country
Update Report, Proceedings of the World Geothermal Congress 1995, pp. 201-208.
Baldacci, A, Culivicchi, G., Lenzi, A. and Sabatelli, F. (1996). Increased H2S Partitioning by Acid
Addition in a Power Plant Equipped With a Direct-Contact Condenser, Geothermal
Resources Council Trans. 20, pp. 3-10.
Bedell, S.A., Kirby, L.H. and Buenger, C.F. (1986). Chelation Chemistry for Geothermal H2S
Abatement, Geothermal Resources Council Trcms. 10, pp. 365-368.
Dorrity, C M. (1995). Utilizing the Ammonia in Geothermal Steam for H2S Abatement,
Geothermal Resources Council Trans. 19, pp. 439-443.
ENEL (1996). Results of TCCA Tests at Molinetto Power Plant, Internal Report.
Grande, M G. (1995). The Economic and Environmentally Sound Handling of Geothermal Sulfur
Byproducts: A Case History, Geothermal Resources Council Trans. 19, pp. 445-450.
Nardini, G, Paglianti, A. and Petarca, L. (1995). An Analysis on the BIOX Process to Hydrogen
Sulfide Abatement, Geothermal Resources Council Trans. 19, pp. 457-461.
Nardini, G, Paglianti, A, Petarca, L. and Baldacci, A. (1996). A New Method to Solve the
Problem of Hydrogen Sulfide Emission in Geothermal Power Plants, Geothermal
Resources Council Trans. 20, pp. 29-35.

— 41 —
 GOVERNMENT REGULATIONS ON GEOTHERMAL DEVELOPMENT AND
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION IN INDONESIA

ROES ARYAWIJAYA
Sub Directorate of Geothermal Exploration and Production,
Directorate General of Oil and Gas, Ministry of Mines and Energy.
Jl. Abdul Muis No.6, Jakarta 10160, Indonesia

ABSTRACT

Since the world energy crisis in 1973, the Government of Indonesia is still trying to decrease
dependency of oil for domestic energy use. In line with this effort, program activity to
explore and to exploit new and renewable energy resources were increased as an alternative
energy. To achieve the goal and to manage of this program, the government of Indonesia in
1978, formulated National Energy Policy which consist of three main principle guide-lines,
such as intensification, conservation and diversification energy', and established a National
Energy Coordinator Body (BAKOREN) which consist of several ministers who have work
related to energy. This National Energy Policy stated that utilization of geothermal energy is
one of alternative energy that has a priority to be developed. According to regulate of
geothermal development, several laws and regulations were issued by the Government of
Indonesia since 1981. The earliest geothermal power generating projects in Indonesia were
built at Kamojang Geothermal Fields, West Java in 1983. Now, 309,5 Mwe of power plant
capacity has been installed. Currently 21 (twenty one) of the geothermal contracts have been
signed. In order to accelerate of geothermal resource development to generate of electric
power, some deregulation has been issued, such as PERTAMINA is the state owned oil and
natural gas enterprise may sell electricity and tax reduction. In the future, the Government of
the Republic of Indonesia is committed to utilize of geothermal energy for electric power by
the end of the Sixth Years National Development Plan (in the year of 1999) will be achieved
of approximately 1,000 Mwe and at the end of the Second Long-Term Development Plan (in
the year of 2019) will be utilized of around 4,000 Mwe.

I. INTRODUCTION

After the world energy crisis in 1973, energy demand steadily grows in line with the growth of
development and population. The supply of energy for domestic energy need is generally still
dominated by oil and gas. The imbalance between energy supply and demand of energy still
occurs, while commercial sources of energy were still utilized not for productive uses. To deal
with these problems since 1978, the Government of Indonesia implements the National Energy
Policy through three policy elements: intensification, conservation and diversification. The
intensification policy is aimed at expanding resources which economically can be utilized. The
conservation policy is objected guaranteeing the preservation of energy resources by using it
more efficiently and wisely for balancing both development and preservation of environment.
The diversification policy is carried out for the purpose of reducing oil share in domestic
consumption and replacing it with new, renewable and other less tradable indigenous energy
resources. To reduce the dependence on oil in this energy mix, a National Energy Policy was
formulated, with the objectives: to assure a gradual shift from a mono energy to a poly energy
economy, to assure the availability of energy for domestic market at reasonable price, to
ensure a continuous and positive contribution to the balance of payment and public revenues,
to improve national resilience and national endurance, and to protect environment. It is
important to note here that in instituting our National Development Program minimizing
impact on the environment are equally concerned. At the same time, to improve the living
standards of the people of Indonesia through economic progress and rural electrification have
been working with responsible of environment protecting. At the same year, the Government
of Indonesia established the National Energy Coordinator Body (BAKOREN) which consist
of members from several ministers who have regulated work to the energy. The function of
this Body is to manage and governing supply and demand of energy.

As mandated by Guide Lines of State Policy 1993 (GBHN), economic development of natural
resources will mean that the present and future use of these resources will be the main concern
of its activities. The renewable natural resources should be managed in such a way so as to
maintain its everlasting benefit, therefore its ability to renew should always be sustained, while
the non-renewable sources should be utilized economically and preserved as long as possible.
Accordingly, development in the energy sub-sector in PJP-II will be directed to achieve self-
reliance and to secure the realization of economic development. The greater part of the energy
sources which the Second Long-Term Development Plan (PJP-II) will rely on consist of non­
renewable energy sources such as oil, natural gas, coal, peat and other renewable energy
sources such as hydro, geothermal, wind biomes and solar.

Indonesia’s regional tectonics is one of the greatest volcanic regions in the world which
assures excellent geothermal prospects and thought to have one of the world’s largest
geothermal energy potential with estimates approximately of 19,600 MW. These geothermal
resources could be obtained from 217 identified prospects which are spread widely throughout
the Indonesian archipelago. Indonesia’s geothermal energy power generation commenced in
the Kamojang Field near Bandung in 1983. Now, the geothermal power plant installed
capacity of 309.5 Mwe was constructed which made Indonesia is the world’s sixth largest
producer/user of geothermal energy. During the Sixth Five Year Development Plan, Indonesia
plans to increase their installed capacity to 1025 megawatt of geothermal energy capacity. By
the year 2019, Indonesia expects to have 4000 megawatts of geothermal energy capacity on­
line which may make Indonesia the world’s largest geothermal energy producer.

n. LAW AND REGULATIONS ON GOVERNING GEOTHERMAL AND POWER

DEVELOPMENT AND ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION

The government plays a key role in the development of Indonesia’s geothermal resource,
especially through PERTAMINA (Oil and Gas State Enterprise) and PT. PEN (Persero)
(Electricity State Enterprise), Development of energy sub sector as part of the National
development is directed towards the realization of the national development objectives in its
totality as stated in the Preamble of the 1945 Constitution (UUD 1945) to establish a just and
prosperous society and will be implemented to support other sectors and to meet energy needs
in the future by developing and managing energy sources and its utilization.

Laws and regulations on Geothermal Development;

In order to develop of geothermal resources in Indonesia, government has issued several

regulations, as follows, although reforming and refining of some of those regulations are still
required:

-43-
1. Law No. 44/1960
This law is the basic law covering mining rights, it stipulates that oil and natural gas
undertakings shall only be carried out by state and execution of same shall only be carried
out by state enterprise. This is to ensure that development of every resources, in this case
oil and gas is carried out to full benefit of Indonesia as stipulated in article 33 of the
Constitution year of 1945.

2. Law No. 8/1971

This law regarding establishment of state oil and natural gas mining enterprise under name
of “Perusahaan Pertambangan Minyak dan Gas Bumi Negara (PERTAMINA)" as the
single state owned enterprise for oil and natural gas. The objective of the enterprise is to
develop and carry out oil and natural gas undertakings for the benefit of Indonesia.

3. Presidential Decree No. 22/1981

The decree governing exploration and exploitation of geothermal resources for giving a
priority to power development within the framework of saving on the internal use of oil
and gas. The decree also recognized that PERTAMINA had the necessary expertise for
geothermal development and, therefore, granted PERTAMINA the sole rights for
geothermal exploration and exploitation within boundaries defined by the Minister of
Mines and Energy. This law required PERTAMINA to sell geothermal steam for energy,
and allowed the State Electricity Corporation of Indonesia (PEN) or the National Electric
Power Limited Inc. (PT. PLN (Persero)) since June, 1994 to construct power plants.

4. Presidential Decree No. 23 of year 1981

The decree required PERTAMINA and its contractors to pay as taxes 46% of its net
operating income originating from exploration and exploitation activities of geothermal
energy projects (in addition, the contractor must pay a corporation tax of 40% on taxable
profits and a tax on interest, dividend and royalty of 10% of taxable profit after deduction
of the corporation tax).

5. Regulation of the Minister of Mines and Energy No. 10/P/My Pertamben/1981

The regulation concerning guidelines on the terms of the joint operational contract.

6. Presidential Decree No. 45 of year 1991

The new presidential decree improved and simplified geothermal undertakings and
introduced a total project pass through system by PERTAMINA PERTAMINA and its
contractors are now allowed not only to undertake exploration and exploitation activities
but also to construct power plant and sell electricity to PLN and to other consumer. This
decree outlines two alternative paths for geothermal energy development in Indonesia.
First, PERTAMINA or its contractors develop and operate the steamfield, selling the
steam to PLN or other parties for electricity generation. The second alternative allows
PERTAMINA or its contractors to develop and operate the steam field and generate
electricity, which is then sold to either PLN or other consumers. The Indonesian
Government also permits other agencies and private developers to undertake geothermal
development on a small scale basis with total project system without a partnership with
PERTAMINA. On this matter, supervising and monitoring will directly come from the
Directorate General of Oil and Gas and the Directorate General of Electricity and Energy
Development.

-44-
7. Presidential Decree No. 49 of year 1991
The decree reduced taxes imposed on producing geothermal energy, which stipulates that
the Government will collect a 34% of its net operating income originating from geothermal
energy projects. Amounts for deadrent, regional development tax, Land and Building tax
shall be paid by the Government. This move has encouraged geothermal development.

8. Minister of Finance Decree No. 766/KMK,04/1992

This regulation interprets President Decree No.49/1991 and further clarifies it. It sets out
the procedure for the calculation, payment and reporting of levies due to the government
from the exploitation of geothermal resources for the production of energy/electricity.

Laws and Regulations governing environmental protection;

It is widely accepted that global environmental problems are direct consequences of the
growing demand of energy, especially fossil-fuels, namely oil, coal and natural gas. Since
Indonesia will have to maintain its economic growth to enable it to alleviate the poverty level,
its energy consumption is expected to continue grow at the rate 8.6% annually. This sharp rise
of energy consumption and population implies immense problems for the future that is
particularly due to growing environmental impact largely caused by the production and
combustion of fossil fuel. Due to the environmental impact, the utilization of fuels have to be
stricter. It may cause the encouraging of utilization of renewable energy resources which has a
lower impact to the environment. Environmental standards are used extensively in Indonesia as
a basis for establishing environmental controls on development projects. These standards
cover aspects such as water quality, air quality and noise emissions. Geothermal developers
need to be aware that these environmental standards operate at two level, National
Environmental Standards set by the central government which apply to the whole of
Indonesia, and Regional Environmental Standards which only apply to the particular region
the project is located in. Some of the environmental standards employed in Indonesia are
strict, while others such as the noise standards are currently quite loosely defined.

Today laws and regulations governing environmental protection, are as follows:

1. Law No.4/1982 on the Basic Guidelines for Environmental Management.
2. Law No.5/1990 on the Conservation of Natural Resources and it’s Ecosystem.
3. Government Regulations No.2/1985 on Forest Protection.
4. Government Regulations No.20/1990 on Water Pollution Control.
5. Government Regulation No. 15/1993 on Environmental Impact Assessment (AMDAL).
6. President Decree No.64/1986 on Noise Intensity Control.
3. Minister of State for the Environment Decree No. Kep-14/MENLH/1994 on general
guidelines for the preparation of Environmental Impact Analysis (ANDAL)
4. Minister of State for the Environment Decree No. Kep-39/MENLH/8/1996 according
type of efforts which should be furnished by AMDAL

The implementation of the above laws and regulations should be conducted by geothermal
developers, are as follows:
1. Exploration phase:
a. Environmental Baseline Study covering a wide range of physical, chemical,
biological, environmental and sosio-economic parameters.

— 45 —
 b. Environmental Management Effort (UKL) and Environmental Monitoring Effort
(UPL).
2. Exploitation phase:
Environmental Impact Assessment (AMDAL) compressing Environmental Impact
Analysis (ANDAL), Environmental Management Plan (RKL), and Environmental
Monitoring Plan (RPL) for the main geothermal station and steamfield
development.

Law and Regulations governing the Private Power Participation;

The laws and regulations governing private power participation are already in place, as
follows, although reforming and refining of some of those regulations are still required:
1. Law No. 15/1985 on Electric Power.
2. Government Regulation No. 10/1989 on the Supply and Use of Electric Power.
3. Government Regulation No.20/1994 on Share Ownership in Foreign Investment
Companies.
4. Presidential Decree No.37/1992 on Private Sector Enterprise for Electric Power
Supply.
5. Minister of Mines and Energy Regulation No.02.P/03/M.PE/1993 vide
No. 04 P/03/M. PE/1995 on Guidelines for Implementing Private Sector and
Cooperative to Supply Electric Power for Public Use.
6. Minister of Finance Decision N.128/KMK.00/1993.

There could be a number of forms of private sector participation as business partner in power
supply allowable under the above existing laws and regulations:
1. Own and operate base load power generation with or without transmission and
distribution facilities, serving bulk electric power to PT.PLN (Persero)/or Private
Utility.
2. Own and operate generation, transmission and distribution facilities serving electric
power to consumers, operation within a specific geographical area.
3. Operate industrial and commercial cogeneration technology, producing energy for
owned use and available excess power my be to PT. PEN (Persero) or others.
4. Small private power plants supplying electricity to PT. PEN (Persero) under published
tariff and standard contract schemes.
5. Serving transmission and distribution facilities to PT. PEN (Persero), Private Utility or
others.
6. Joint venture with PT. PEN (Persero).

m GOVERNMENT INSTITUTION;

In order to assist and supervise the implementation of geothermal development in Indonesia,

there are three institutions who have authorization for any matters with connection to
geothermal development, such as:

a. Directorate General of Geological and Mineral Resources (through Directorate of

Vulcanology) who has a dealing with reconnaissance survey.

-46
 b. Directorate General of Oil and Gas (through PERTAMINA) who has an exploration
and exploitation authority,

c. Directorate General of Electricity and Energy Development (through PT. PEN

(Persero)) who has authority for supply-demand of electricity

The above of those institutions have to coordinate to achieve a national target for geothermal
development which should be utilized as electricity approximately of 1,000 Mwe at the end of
fiscal year of 1998/99 and raise to around 4,000 Mwe at the end of fiscal year of 2018/19.

IV. CONTRACTS OF GEOTHERMAL PROJECT

As a legal framework in geothermal development contract consists of 2 (two) kind of

contracts which is called the Joint Operation Contract or the Steam Sales Contract and the
Energy Sales Contract. The Joint Operation Contract (JOC) is a legal agreement between the
contractors and PERTAMINA, representing the government. PERTAMINA is responsible for
the management of the operation and the contractor is responsible for the production of
geothermal energy from contract area, the conversion of energy to electricity and the delivery
of geothermal energy or electricity. The Energy Sales Contract (ESC) is an integral part of the
JOC. An ESC is an agreement among PERTAMINA as seller, the contractors as deliverer and
PEN as purchaser of geothermal energy. Under this agreement, the production period for
delivery of geothermal energy from each unit is 30 years commencing from the date of
commercial generation for each unit.

At present, there are 21 (twenty one) of geothermal contracts have been signed which could
be drawn in 3 (three) generation that:

a. First Generation of geothermal contracts (1982 - 1993), six contracts were signed.
One of Joint Operation Contracts between PERTAMINA and Unocal Geothermal
Indonesia Ltd and one of Energy Sales Contract among PEN, PERTAMINA and
Unocal Geothermal Indonesia Ltd were signed in March, 1984 for Gunung Salak
contract area and One of JOC between PERTAMINA and Amoseas Indonesia Inc
and one of ESC among PEN, PERTAMINA and Amoseas Indonesia Inc were signed
in May, 1984 for Darajat contract area, both of these contract areas is in West Java.
One of JOC between PERTAMINA and Unocal Geothermal Indonesia Ltd and one
of ESC among PEN, PERTAMINA and Unocal Geothermal Indonesia Ltd for
Sarulla contract area in North Sumatera were signed in February, 1993.

b. Second Generation of geothermal contracts, ten contracts were signed for five
contract areas on December 4th, 1994, as follows:

- Gunung Salak contract area, one of the JOC between PERTAMINA and Unocal
Geothermal Indonesia Ltd and one of the ESC among PEN, PERTAMINA and
Unocal Geothermal Indonesia Ltd were signed as restated and amanded of
previous JOC and ESC which were signed in 1984, for six units of a total power
capacity of 330 Mwe and to be operated in commercial by 1999. The levelized of
electricity price is US cent 7.281 per kwh in 1997.

47
 Wayang Windu contract area, one of the JOC between PERTAMINA and
Mandala Perkasa and one of the ESC among PEN* PERTAMINA and Mandala
Perkasa were signed for four units of a total power capacity of 220 Mwe with 55
Mwe to be completed by 1999. Mandala Perkasa is a joint venture between the
national company Figears and Asia Power Ltd as contractor. Total investment
could be as much as US$ 520 million. The levelized of electricity price is US cent
7.240 per kwh in 1998.

- Patuha contract area, one of the JOC between PERTAMINA and Patuha Power
Ltd and one of the ESC among PLN, PERTAMINA and Patuha Power Ltd were
signed for four units of a total power capacity of 220 Mwe with 55 Mwe to be
completed by 1999. Patuha Power Ltd is a joint venture between the national
company PT. Esarindo Supra Abadi and California Energy Ltd as contractor.
Total investment could be as much as US$ 650 million. The levelized of
electricity price is US cent 7.252 per kwh in 1998.

- Karaha contract area, one of the JOC between PERTAMINA and Karaha Bodas
Company and one of the ESC among PLN, PERTAMINA and Karaha Bodas
Company were signed for four units of a total power capacity of 220 Mwe with
55 Mwe to be completed by 1999. Karaha Bodas Company is a joint venture
between the national company PT. Sumarah Daya Sakti and Caithness Resources
Inc as contractor. The levelized of electricity price is US cent 7.251 per kwh in
1998.

- Dieng contract area, one of the JOC between PERTAMINA and Himpuma
California Energy Ltd and one of the ESC among PLN, PERTAMINA and
Himpuma California Energy Ltd were signed for four units of a total power
capacity of 220 Mwe with 95 Mwe to be completed by 1999. Himpuma
California Energy Ltd is a joint venture between the national company PT.
Himpuma and California Energy Ltd as contractor. The levelized of electricity
price is US cent 7.50 per kwh in 1998.

c. Third Generation of geothermal contracts, ten contracts were signed for five contract
areas on November 17th, 1995 and January 7th, 1996, as follows:

- Kamojang extension contract area, one of the SSC between PERTAMINA and
PT. Latoka Trimas Bina Energi and one of the ESC among PLN, PERTAMINA
and PT. Latoka Trimas Bina Energi were signed for two units of a total power
capacity of 60 Mwe to be completed by 1999. The electricity fiat price is US cent
6.95 per kwh.

Cibuni contract area as a first of small scale geothermal development, one of the
ESC among PLN, PERTAMINA and PT. Yala Geothermal Indonesia were
signed for four units of a total power capacity of 40 Mwe with 10 Mwe to be
completed by 1997. The electricity flat price is US cent 6,97 per kwh.

- Bedugul contract area, one of the JOC between PERTAMINA and Bali Energy
Ltd and one of the ESC among PLN, PERTAMINA and Bali Energy Ltd were
signed for two units of a total power capacity of 110 Mwe to be completed by

-48-
 1999. Bali Energy Ltd is a joint venture between the national company PT.
Pandanwangi Sekartaji and California Energy Ltd as contractor. The electricity
flat price is US cent 7.15 per kwh.

- Sibayak contract area, one of the SSC between PERTAMINA and PT.
Dizamatra Powerindo and one of the ESC among PEN, PERTAMINA and PT.
Dizamatra Powerindo were signed for two units of a total power capacity of 40
Mwe to be completed by 1999. The electricity flat price is US cent 7.0 per kwh.

- Darajat contract area, one of the JOC between PERTAMINA and Amoseas
Indonesia Inc. and one of the ESC among PEN, PERTAMINA and Amoseas
Indonesia Inc. were signed as restated and amended of previous JOC and ESC
which were signed in 1984, for four units of a total power capacity of 275 Mwe,
with 55 Mwe to be operated in commercial by 1999. The electricity flat price is
US cent 6.95 per kwh.

At present, 32 (thirty two) of private companies is trying to get the Ministry Permit of
geothermal resource development for electric power. These private companies interested to
the 25 (twenty five) of geothermal prospects that consist of 10 prospects in Sumatera Island,
14 prospects in Java Island, and 1 prospect in Sulawesi Island.

VL CONCLUSION

To achieve the goal of geothermal development for electric power utilization at the end of the
second 25 years of national development plan, the Government of Indonesia is always
concerning of the following matters:

a. The Government of Indonesia commits to accelerate the geothermal energy

development for electricity generation to accomplish the target. The target of
geothermal for power utilization is approximately 1.000 Mwe at the end of 1998/99
and around 4.000 Mwe at the of 2019/20.

b. The Government of Indonesia always try to make the geothermal energy becomes
more attractive and competitive to other energy sources by deregulating laws and
regulations.

-49-
 STRATEGY FOR GEOTHERMAL ENERGY DEVELOPMENT
IN INDONESIA FACING THE YEAR 2020

Vincent T. RADJA

Indonesia State Electricity (PT. PLN Persero)

ABSTRACT

To meet the rapidly increasing demand of electricity and in line with the National Energy Policy:
Intensification, diversification, conservation, indexation, leads to accelerate the development of geothermal
energy resources in Indonesia. To accelerate the development of geothermal energy, Government of
Indonesia invites private companies participation through BOT or BOO concepts, up to now 11 JOG and ESC
have been signed totally morethan 1000 Mwe. Since geothermal private development is new animals to
Indonesia, a lot of constrains facing during the implementation. Discussion be made on experienced dealing
with private involvement as Independent Power Producers (IPP) on geotehrmal business in Indonesia past,
present and future concern.

The paper dealing with the resources potential, technology adopted, as well as legal and
environmental issues, private involvement and future programme facing the second long year development
scheme.

INTRODUCTION

Indonesia archipelago composing of morethan 13.700 islands that extend morethan 3000 miles along
the equator. The total area is 735,000 square miles. Some of 6,000 of the islands are inhabited. The
Indonesian Republic’s 1945 Constitution and the National Philosophy “Pancasila” guide all the policies of the
present government and the organs of the state.

Based on current investigation the geothermal potential of Indonesia around 19.658 Mwe. There is
309,75 MW of geothermal power plant currently operating in Indonesia some 1.5 % of total installed
capacity. Under present Decree No. 37/1992 private generation, transmission and distribution is allowable
and investment in geothermal sector is permitted under both, foreign and domestic capital investment law.
It’s projected that feeing fee year 2000 and 2020 fee geothermal electricity production will reach 1000 MW
and 5000 MW.

The paper dealing wife government policy for geothermal development present situation private
partisipation and future programme facing fee second long term development scheme and rural electricity
generation utilizing geothermal resources.

50 —
 GOVERNMENT POLICY

To Accelerate geothermal development in Indonesia Government Issued Geothermal Development Incentives

1, To accelerate and intensity exploration and development

2. To set priorities for utttiting geothermal energy resources to meet the domestic requirements thereby
conserving oil for export as follows :

First : the nonexportable energy resources geothermal and hydropower

Second : the less exportable and less valuable energy resource : Coal
Third : the resource with lesser flexibility for export natural gas
Finaly : Oil
Thereafter we hope further to diversify our energy supply by utilizing other sources such as peat,
wind, solar, biomass, biogas.

3, To Conserve energy and ensure its more efficient use. Being an oil producing and exporting country,
we may well suffer a sort of inborn sin of tending to be wasteful of energy.

4. Indexation of energy use, meaning the application of the best and most efficient from of energy for
each particular requirement.

GEOTHERMAL SITUATION IN INDONESIA

Electricity shortages are already being experienced in Indonesia. The electricity shortages are
focusing the government's attention on an energy self-sufficiency . A prime component of this policy is
diversification of the energy base for the generation of electricity.

One important electrical energy resource that is significantly underdeveloped in Indonesia is

geothermal energy. To day I’ll discuss bow development of Indonesia's geothermal resources can contribute
to Indonesia efforts towards energy self-sufficiency.

Talking about geothermal energy development in Indonesia one has to understand the geographical
complexity an archipelagic country such as Indonesia, with consists of approximately 17,500 islands spread
out over a distance of about 33,000 mile along the equator. Some 3,000 island inhabited by about 176
million people, but the population is unevenly distributed, with approximately 60 % crowding the island of
Java.

Indonesia has the largest reserves of geothermal energy in the world, equivalent to minimum of
20.000 MW. This resource has been relatively little exploited. However (his is changing rapidly. As recently,
as last year Indonesia developed only 310 MW of power from geothermal resources, and put Indonesia in
fifth place.

-51
 The 1994/99 five year plan foresees Indonesia producing 1000 MW of electricity from geothermal
sources by 2000, second only to USA. By 2020, total capacity is projected to be 5000 MW, morethan any
other country in the world. There are many reasons for Indonesia to develop geothermal energy. First,
geothermal energy is proven, viable technology for electrical generation. Second, the development of
geothermal energy provides greater flexibility for the Government to preserve or enhance it's foreign
exchange earning.

Third, geothermal energy is cost competitive with other sources of electrical energy. Fourth, die
private sector is willing to assume the risk of geothermal exploration and development for a reasonable rate
of return on tine invesment-Fifth, geothermal energy is a valuable purely domestic recycle natural resources
and environmentally attractive power source. The government policy in developing geothermal energy is in
the context of the energy policy, which has the following objectives : to assure the availability of energy for
export, to reduce the dependence on oil, to assure a gradual shift from an oil based energy to multi energy
economy, to protect the environment, and to improve national resilience and national endurance.

Facing die challenges ahead in the year 1995 through 2005, Indonesia has an opportunity to achieve
these objectives through utilization of a variety of energy sources. One of the most attractive and available
of these resources is geothermal energy. A recent survey of the geothermal in Indonesia has identified 217
prospects throughout the country with the total potential of exceeding 20,000 MW. To put this potential in
perspective, at die end of 1993/94 die State Electricity Company (PLN) installed capacity was 12.500 MW
and captive generation capacity installed by private business nearly 7500 MW. Thus, full development of
Indonesia's geothermal potential could provide a large proportion of Indonesia's electric energy needs for
decades to come. Even with these advantages geothermal development in Indonesia has been slow. Less
than 1 % of the country's geothermal potential has been developed. For geothermal energy to play
significant role in Indonesia's future energy growth, geothermal development must be accelerated.

Even more advantageous to Indonesia is the location of the geothermal prospects. Approximately
half of the geothermal energy could be easily fed into die electrical grid to supply Java’s rapid Industrial
growth. Another 30 % of Indonesia1 s geothermal potential is located on Sumatera, the site of Indonesia's
next major economic expansion. The Sumatera potential could also be utilized to supply the growing Java
demand by means of a submarine cable connecting the two islands like Java-Ball and Java-Madura.

Currently there are 310 MW of geothermal power plant capcity installed in Indonesia This is less
than 1 % of it's potential but in terms of electricity generation, provides 4 % of the primary energy
consumed. Further development is underway. At Gunung Salak in West Java, geothermal steam will supply
an addition of 220 MW power plant. This development will be followed by a 110 MW plant at Darajat in
West Java, 95 MW at Dieng, in Central Java, 20 MW at Lahendong, in North Sulawesi and 22 MW in
Sibayak North Sumatera. Several additional areas are under development such as: Patuha, Wayang Windu,
Karaha in West Java, Candi Kuning in Bali, Uiubelu, Lumutbalai, Such Seldncau in Lampung and Gedong
Hululais in Bengkulu.

- 52 -
 To accelerate the development of geothermal energy, Indonesia invites private companies as
contractors to cooperate with PERTAMINA in exploration and production ventures. Taking into account
the lack of capital and technology, which is not fully available in Indonesia, the Government is also
considering several incentives to enhance geothermal development.

An important question that must be addressed is whether it is more economical for government or
private industry to develop geothermal resources. The Government seemingly has a big advantage in that
it can obtain funds through aid grants and soft loans with low interest rates. The availability of low cost
financing obscures the concept of risk. If the Government secures financing for a project, the Government
money must be used to pay back the loan, putting an added burden on the population. Private industry,
however, is willing to assume these risks for a reasonable rate of return. Such willingness provides the
government with the opportunity to divert funds to low risk projects. Another advantage is that private
industry has an incentive to develop the project quickly in order to generate a return on the invesment. This
incentive to quickly bring projects on line is a major consideration given the soaring demand for electricity
in Indonesia today.

This necessity to accelerate power projects is promting the Government to change the role that
private industry can play in geothermal development. In contracts written prior to 1990, private industry was
solely a steam supplier to PLN. Private companies drilled wells and built the surface production facilities.
PLN built the power plant and distributed the electricity. Private industry's earnings were based upon PLN's
electrical generation. To increase electrical energy capacity as quickly as possible, die Government
recognized that additional outside investment had to be attracted. Consequently, the government elected to
alter it's geothermal energy regulations so that private industry can undertake the total project Built Operate
and Transfer (BOT) or Built Operate and Owned (BOO), including construction of the power plant and
generation of the electricity without al-tering the prospective responsibilities of the two stated owned
companies. An adjustment in relation to regulatory aspects are completed and approved by the
implementation of President Degress No 45/91 and 49/91.

A moderately ambitious schedule of geothermal development could provide an installed capacity of

1000 MW at the end of Repelita VI and of 5000 MW at the end of PJF EE or 10 % of it's potential, by the
year 2020. This scenario based on 2450 MW could be developed in Sumatera, 2340 MW in Jawa-Bali and
210 MW in Eastern part of Indonesia (Sulaweri-Molucas, Nusatenggara). If this program could be
implemented, it may save more than 70 million barrels of oil equivalent annually. On Java, prospects now
in the development state or under exploration could be producing more than 900 Mw before the end of this
decade. In North Sumatra, development of just four prospects could yield an installed capacity of 1000 MW
by the year 2003 (Sibayak & Sinabung, Sarutia, Sorik Merapt and Sibual-buali fields.

Amore ambitious schedule could add as much as an additional 1000 MW from potential resources
in southern part of Sumatra Ulubelu, Rajabasa, Lurautbalai, Suoh Sekincau and from prospects in West Java
(Tampomas, Banten) Central Java, (Telomoyo, Wilis) and East Java (Ijen, Arjuna, Anjasmoro, Argopuro)
to die Indonesian grid by the year 2003.

-53-
 These schedules are obviously dependent upon rig availability, exploration and prospect development
success, transmission access, and funding. Nevertheless, this development program is attainable. While this
schedule is ambitious, 3300 MW represents less than 25 % of Indonesia's geothermal potential, leaving a
lot of room for the expansion of the geothermal industry.

OPPORTUNITY FOR PRIVATE SECTOR PARTICIPATION IN GEOTHERMAL DEVELOPMENT

IN ELECTRICITY DEVELOPMENT

PRIVATE POWER BUSINESS

The development of electric power sector is of capital intensive nature, high technology and
requiring long term period for construction and operation. The source of capital investment which for the
time being is provided from State Annual Budget (APBN), PLN Budget (APLN) and offshore borrowings
in terms of soft loan, export credit etc., is considered insufficient thereby it is necessary to look for support
from private investment sources.

Private participation in the power sector has been made public by Government trough Act No. 15
Year 1985 concerning Electrification. By virtue of said Act that Cooperatives as well as Private Corporation
may be given Electrification Operating Permit for own use or public utility as well.

Furthermore, the Issuance of Presidential Decree No. 37 Year 1992 has extended a more and clear
offer for the participation of private investor to run business in the electric power sector :

in the PLN's services area where PLN is not yet able to provide electric power, the private
corporation may be given permit to generate electric power to be sold to PLN who will there after
deliver to the customer.

in the PLN’s services area, the private corporation may be given permit to generate electric power
for own user or to sell directly to its customer as follow:

a. to obtain permit for direct sale to customers in its industrials area.

b. direct sale to other private corporation using PLN's.

The operation of private electric power generating can be catagorized as "Solicited Project"
(increment of generation unit based on the Electrification Development Plant) and "Unsolicited Project"
being outside the Electrification Development Plan. Based on current electrification development plants is
offered to private investor.

As supplemental to existing regulations, the Ministry of Mines & Energy has issued Ministerial
Decree No. 02.P/03/M.PE/1993 dated 23rd February 1993 concerning The Operation of Electric Power
Provision by Private Corporation and Cooperative for Public Utility.

-54
 Indonesian foreign joint ventures signed contracts between PERTAMINA and PLN since late
December 1994 to explorer and develop geohtermal fields and power plant in Patuha, Karaha, Wayang
Windu, Salakin West Java and Dieng Central Java to establish power plants with a total capacity of nearly
1000 MWs. Fiften under Built, Operate, Transfer (BOT) and Built, Operate, Own (BOO) scheme,

PRIVATE SECTOR PARTICIPATION IN GEOTHERMAL DEVELOPMENT

Hereafter, major electric power development projects, including those of geothermal, have been
planned, implemented, and operated almost by PLN, This situation is now changing. While the integrated
national electricity supply plan is still in the hands of the government, private investors are now welcomed
to undertake utility-size power projects. As you probably know , article 7 of Law Number 15 of 1985 on
Electric Energy sets forth the Government's policy on private sector participation in the provision of
electricity in Indonesia. The Law substantiates die structure of the power industry by legally enabling private
entiles and cooperatives to produce electricity for public uses or to be sold to PLN.

During the first phase of the "privatization" programme, the private sector is given opportunity to
develop and implement 2,980 MW of generating capacity plants in total which are scheduled for completion
during the time frame of 1994-1998 under the Build-Own-Operate scheme. This includes 353 MW
geothermal plants which will be built in five locations in Java. Five Indonesian American joint ventures
signed contracts between PERTAMINA and PLN in late December 1994 to explorer and develop geohtermal
fields and power plant in Patuha, Karaha, Wayang Windu, Salak in West Java and Dieng Central Java to
establish power plants with a total capacity of nearly 1000 MWs.

The developer bear exploration risk and recover operating costs after commercial
production/operation begins. The developer provide the financial and technical capability to conduct
geothermal operations.

The development of geothermal energy to Indonesia is not as smooth as what all of us have expected.
One of the main reasons is the pricing scheme; geothermal steam is still considered to be expensive by the
potential steam user, and that it is not competitive with the closest alternative, i.e base-load coal-fired energy.

However, the government is services in the development of geothermal energy this is reflected by
the desire of (he Government to create a positive economic climate for geothermal development in Indonesia.
One of the government's effort to deal with this issue is by conducting a pricing study for geothermal steam
under a grant from the Asian Development Bank, which has been completed in 1992 and another grant issued
in the first quarter of 1995.

— 55 —
RURAL ELECTRIFICATION GEOTHERMAL UTILIZING GEOTHERMAL ENERGY

The development of mini geothermal project was initiated in 1981 when Vulcanological Survey
Indonesia (VSI) and PLN under bilateral cooperation with Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA)
implemented a geoscientific survey and exploratory drilling at Kerinci, West Sumatera. The second
exploratory drilling in which was part of feasibility study 1989, gives a steam production 375 kW of
generating electricity and a production steam for proven potential for 5 MW, so far implementation for this
project are being planned.

Since 1989 PLN, under bilateral technical cooperation with the Government of New Zealand was
promoting Ulumbu Mini Geothermal Project in Flores. Drilling, works have been completed in 1994 and
1995 under PLN's budget, Jan 1996 confirmation on funding for the construction of 3 MW will confirmed
by World Bank . Up to 10 MW under consideration with the Australian assistance for further development.

Under the RE II, 1995 PLN has received Loan from the World Bank for production drilling for mini
geothermal (10 MW) at Tulehu, Ambon and at Sembalun, (10 MW) Lombok.

By the fiscal year of 1994/95 survey has been made for geoscientific study of 3 (three) locations of
mini geothermal development in Eastern part of Indonesia funded by IBRD through Rural Environmental
Development (RED) Project 1994 this is Jailolo (Mollucas), Bora (Central Sulawesi) Alor (Timor, NTT) and
3 locations by New Zealand government (Hu'u Sumbawa, Sukoria Flores and Saparua, Moluccas).

Most of tiie rural electrification in Indonesia is generated by diesel plant, tapping from the grid, mini
hydro, hybrid and mini geothermal among other resources geothermal is more prospective for the rural
electrification.

FUTURE DEVELOPMENT

There will be a lot of geothermal plant construction in the near future specially for rural
electrification program, as the electrified villages up to 1994 is 30,394 villages, while the total villages in
Indonesia is 61,975 villages. As the diversification policy is concerned there will a National effort to
substitute oil dependency by using geothermal energy

FUTURE DEVELOPMENT SCENARIO

It is considered that Sumatera, Sulawesi and Jawa-Bali are more favourable for big scale geothermal
power generation than for small scale which seems to be suitable in the more remote islands of East Indonesia.

Imformation shows development scenario up to year 2020. The generation target in this 5 year period
is 380 MW giving a cumulative production of 690 MW.

-56-
 The incremental development target in the next 10 years is possible by maximizing the use of
developed field potentials. This involves 220 MW in Salak, 275 MW in Darajat, 45 MW in Dieng, 160 MW
in Sarulla, 60 MW in Lahendong and Tompaso and 60 MW in Kamojang giving a total capacity of570 MW
and cumulative production of about 1560 MW.

By assuming that most of the fields will be operated by private sector under total project JOC’s with
PERTAMINA, it is expected that up the year of2020, Sumatera will have a geothermal plant of about 1,000
MW capacity, Jawa-Bali has 1,300 MW and Sulawesi is about 200 MW giving a total of2,500 MW installed
capacity. The smaller scale (3-10 MW) developments are not included in this figure. This is estimated about
74 MW, mostly in East Indonesia.

CONCLUSION

With regard to the government's giving the private sector the opportunity to participate in the
electricity Development Services was taken after the enactment of Act No. 15 of 1985 and President Degree
No. 37 of 1992.
Among the rural electrification resources, geothermal is more prospective for the future.

This geothermal privatization, which has been carried out in the electricity sector in Indonesia is,
in fact more advanced than what has occured in Philippines, as we know that Philippines is the first leading
geothermal countries in Asia with the installed capacities of more than 1000 MW today.

The participation of the private sector that we are Currently implementing is intended to obtain
sources of funds, technology and human resources trully capable of making geothermal electricity take off.
In order to do this, Indonesia obviously require the participation of the private sector.

Private consortiums which also include the domestic and foreign private sector in the field of
geothermal electricity development is a break through which has never occured in Indonesia before. The
closed target which could be achieved by the government was to ensure that the geothermal electricity
contribution to the electricity sector will reach 1000 MW by the year 2000.

The pattern of development of private geothermal project is Total Project (Steam field and Power
Plant) through BOT (Built, Operate and Transfer) for 30 years period. To day 12 geothermal project
contracts has been signed by PLN and the private sector .

Strategy to cope with the requirement be based on the understanding that geothermal energy is To
day energy resources.

-57-
NEDO International Geothermal Symposium, Sendai, 1997 Plenary Session

PRESENT AND FUTURE GEOTHERMAL DEVELOPMENT IN THE PHILIPPINES

Nazario C. Vasquez and Samson P. Javellana

PNOC Energy Development Corporation (PNOC-EDC), Ft Bonifacio, Makati City, Philippines

ABSTRACT

The geologic setting, pre-development history, and institutional and milestone events are presented leading to
the countrywide current installed geothermal power capacity of 1445 MWe. Factors such as production
capacities of developed fields, technological advancements, and the prevailing commercial climate are
addressed in assessing the potential of future development and generation expansion programs.

INTRODUCTION

The Philippines currently has 1445 MWe of installed geothermal power capacity, and within the year, this
will increase to a total of 1900 MWe as we commission additional plants which are now in the late stages of
construction. These developments will bring to a close a series of major efforts which commenced in 1993
and have resulted in the installation of 1000 MWe of geothermal power in 5 years. It is thus timely to
consider opportunities for future geothermal development in the Philippines, and the commercial climate that
now prevails.

GEOLOGICAL SETTING AND GEOGRAPHIC LOCATION OF GEOTHERMAL RESOURCES

The Philippines is endowed with a considerable number of high quality geothermal resources. These are all
island arc volcanic systems as typically found through the western pacific rim, and show close similarities
with geothermal systems in Indonesia and Japan. All the fields drilled to date have been found to be liquid
dominated in the natural state, with or without two phase conditions in the central parts. Maximum
temperatures in these systems tend to be high, in the range of 300 to 340C. Fracture permeability is invariably
dominant over primary permeability. The most exploitable of these systems are found in mature volcanic
complexes which over geologic time have reacted out acidic volcanic gases injected early in their genesis,
from degassing magmatic intrusives. A number of younger volcanic systems are still influenced by acid
gases and are considered to be non-exploitable within the limits of today’s technologies.

These fields are all associated with volcanism developed above trench and subduction zone systems formed at
crustal plate boundaries. The trench systems define volcanic belts in which all of the geothermal potential of
the Philippines is contained. From north to south these include the following:

1. The Manila trench lying to the west of Luzon has an associated on-shore volcanic belt ranging from the
Cordilleras in northern Luzon, to Mt. Mariveles west of Manila. At the southern end of this belt is located the
highly productive Makiling-Banahaw geothermal field. Elsewhere to the north there are a number of hot
geothermal prospects in this belt, however, none has yet been developed due to poor permeability, and in
some cases, e g. Mt. Pinatubo, the presence of pervasive acidic and magmatic fluids.

2. The Philippine Trench running parallel to the eastern coasts of Luzon, Samar and Leyte defines several
major onshore volcanic belts which host the biggest geothermal developments in the Philippines - the Tiwi
and BacMan fields in southern Luzon and a number of fields in Leyte, of which the most significant are
located in the Tongonan area.

3. The Negros trench to the west of Negros island defines a volcanic belt which ranges from the mature and
dissected volcanic complex of Cuemos de Negros in Southern Negros, where we have developed the
Palinpinon geothermal field, to Mt. Canlaon in Northern Negros where we are now undertaking development
activities.4

4. In Mindanao, there are several trench and subduction zone systems. The most significant of these is an
extension of the Sangihe volcanic arc from Indonesia northwards into central Mindanao. Volcanic activity on

-58-
this arc has given rise to the Mt. Apo volcanic complex, where we are in the late stages of developing a 52
MWe power facility, and at other younger prospects to the north.

The widely distributed nature of the geothermal resources in the Philippines has long been an impediment to
geothermal power development because, with the exception of Makban, the most productive fields are all
located at considerable distance from the major load centres of Manila and Cebu, and are frequently isolated
from these markets by sea passages. An integrated series of inter-island submarine EHV transmission projects
are now approaching completion which will link the Visayan islands to Luzon via a hub in Leyte. This will
have a great benefit in allowing for a much increased market for geothermal power in the Philippines.

HISTORY

With over 20 years experience in geothermal development and generation the geothermal industry in the
Philippines is now in a mature state. We currently have 1445 MWe of geothermal power capacity installed
and over the next 12 months this will increase to a total of 1900 MWe as we commission an additional 455
MWe of plant which is now in the early to late stages of construction. With this level of capacity we are now
running just behind the US in terms of geothermal generation, and in terms of wet steam field capacity, we
lead the world.

Clearly this amount of development has taken a lot of effort and involves a lot of history. There are a number
of milestones in this worth pointing out:-

1. Pre-Geothermal Development (prior to 1977)

The foundation for the commercial utilisation of geothermal energy was laid by the Philippine Commission on
Volcanology between 1952 and the late nineteen sixties. This group studied and inventoried geothermal
activity at a number of localities, particularly at the Makban, Tiwi, Tongonan and Southern Negros areas. In
the latter part of this period ComVol’s work aroused interest in both in the US and New Zealand. This led in
1971 to Union Oil of California entering into a geothermal service contract with the Philippine National
Power Corporation (NPC) to explore and develop geothermal resources at Tiwi and Makban, for and on
behalf of NPC. Unocal formed a local subsidiary, Philippine Geothermal Inc., PGI, to undertake this work. In
1972 the New Zealand Government entered into a bilateral energy co-operation program with the Philippine
Government and this led to the commencement of exploratory geothermal drilling at Tongonan and Southern
Negros in 1973 in conjunction with NPC.

2. First commercial power generation in the Philippines in 1977.

In 1976, the PNOC-Energy Development Corporation was created, as a subsidiary of the Philippine National
Oil Company. This group was mandated by Government to undertake accelerated development of indigenous
energy sources to reduce the countries dependence on imported fossil fuels, which had risen dramatically in
cost during the energy crisis of the early seventies. PNOC-EDC assumed NPC’s interests at Tongonan and
Southern Negros and commenced deep exploration drilling at Tongonan in late December of 1976. This was
successful and quickly led to PNOC-EDC supplying steam to a NPC owned 3 MWe power plant at Tongonan
in July of 1977 - the first commercial geothermal power generation in the Philippines.

3. First Major Phase of Geothermal Development - 1978 tol983

A very rapid build up in geothermal generating capacity occurred between 1978 and 1983 as NPC and PGI
sequentially commissioned 6 x 55 MWe units and associated steam field facilities at each of the Tiwi and
Makban projects. PNOC-EDC and NPC followed in 1983 with the coommissioning of 3 x 37.5 MWe units at
Tongonan and 3 x 37.5 plus 3 x 1.5 MWe at the Palinpinon field in Southern Negros.

By the end of 1983 there was then 896 MWe of geothermal capacity in the Philippines of which:
NPC owned 100% of the generating capacity
NPC and PGI owned and operated, respectively, 74% of the total steam field capacity
and PNOC-EDC owned and operated the 26% balance of steam field capacity.4

4. Hiatus -1983 to 1991

There was a decade long hiatus in geothermal development from 1983 to 1993 due to a combination of
political, funding and institutional problems. In spite of this a major exploration drilling program was pursued

-59-
by PNOC-EDC at Luzon and elsewhere. These programs confirmed the development potential of the
BacMan project in Luzon, and at prospects in Leyte and Mt. Apo.

J. Revived Institutional Interest in Geothermal Development 1991-1993

In the early nineties there was a strong revival in interest in geothermal development as a result of a number
of events:
an energy crisis on Luzon which led to severe electricity shortages and rationing in the capital city of
Manila. This eventually led to the state owned National Power Corporation (NPC) relinquishing sole
control on power generation;
introduction in 1990 of Build-Operate-Transfer legislation (Republic Act 6957) allowing for private
sector development of geothermal and other types of power plant and infrastructure facilities;
the resurrection in late 1992 of a Government Energy Department which had been disbanded six
years previous. This allowed for the Government to develop strong initiatives in the energy sector
and implement a country wide Master Energy Plan (Department of Energy, 1993);

6. Second Major Phase ofGeothermal Development - 1993 to 1997

As a result of the changed institutional and commercial climate there has been a very rapid upswing in
geothermal power development in recent years which has led us to add 1000 MWe of geothermal capacity
from 1993 to the end of 1997. 90% of this has come from developments undertaken by PNOC at Bacman,
Mt. Apo and particularly at Leyte. NPC and PGI have provided the balance by completing in 1994 and 1995
an infield expansion at Makban of 80 MWe and a 16 MWe binary unit using heat from waste brine.

BOX POWER PLANT CONTRACTS

Build-Operate-Transfer (BOT) legislation in the Philippines has been a crucial component in realising the
recent geothermal development expansion program, as it has allowed for the entry of international power
utilities to fund, construct and operate geothermal power plants. The Philippines has thus been able to rapidly
increase much needed electrical generation without increasing national debt

The commercial strategy adopted for the Leyte and Mt. Apo projects has been for PNOC-EDC, as a state
owned company, to move from its traditional role as steam field developer and operator, to instead sell
wholesale electricity to NPC. Conversion of steam to electricity has been subcontracted by PNOC-EDC to
third parties through BOT contracts. This approach results in the Philippine Government (through PNOC)
assuming control of resource development and exploitation and (through NPC) guaranteeing the purchase of
power, thus relieving the BOT power plant partner of any significant resource and/or market risk.

Since mid-1993, PNOC-EDC has entered 5 BOT contracts for the construction and operation of 10 individual
power plants with an aggregate total of 640 MWe. A sixth BOT contract is in the process of being awarded.
Two of these BOT power plants have recently achieved commercial operation, within 35 months of the BOT
partners signing Energy Conversion Agreements with PNOC-EDC, and within 43 months from the time bids
for the BOT projects were first advertised.

PRESENT GEOTHERMAL PLANT CAPACITY

The 1900 MWe of countrywide geothermal capacity that will be in place by end of 1997 is located at 6 fields
(Table 1). Broken down in terms of field capacity, these include:- Makban with 426 MWe (which represents
23% of the total country geothermal plant capacity), Tiwi with 330 MWe (17%), Bacman with 150 MWe
(9%), Leyte with 691 MWe (37%), Palinpinon with 193 MWe (10%) and Mt Apo with 92 MWe (5%.)

Of this total capacity 1223 MWe (64%) is owned and operated by NPC. The balance of 677 MWe (or 36%)
is owned and operated by private sector companies holding BOT contracts with PNOC-EDC. The ownership
of these capacities relative to the total country capacity is CalEnergy holding 536 MWe or 28%, Ormat with
49 MWe or 3% and Oxbow currently with 52 MWe or 3%. Ownership of these plants will revert to PNOC-
EDC at the conclusion of the 10 year BOT co-operation periods.

An analysis of geothermal plant in the Philippines in terms of turbine manufacturer shows the three leading
Japanese manufacturers have obtained the major share of the Philippines market, supplying 82% of the total

-60
Table 1
Presently Installed and Committed Future Geothermal Generation Capacity in the Philippines (to 1998)
Field Location/ Unit Unit Installed Totals Com- Power Steam
Sector # Capacity Manu Capacity Installn mission Plant Field
(MWe) -facture (MWe) (MWe) (MWe) Date::::::::: Operator Operator
Mak-Ban Bulalo 1 to 6 55 Mitsubishi 330 1979-1984 NPC PGI
Bulalo 7 to 9 5.2 Ormat 15.7 1994 NPC PGI
Bulalo 10 to 13 20 Mitsubishi 80 1996 NPC PGI

426
Tiwi Tiwi 1 to 6 55 Toshiba 330 1979-1982 NPC PGI
330
Bacon Manito Palayan 1 82 55 Ansaldo 110 1993/94 NPC PNOC-EDC
Cawayan 3 20 Fuji/Toshiba 20 1994 NPC PNOC-EDC
Botong 4 20 Fuji/Toshiba 20 1998 NPC PNOC-EDC
Binary 5 12 Ormat 12 1998 NPC PNOC-EDC
162
Leyte Tongonan1 1 to 3 37.5 Mitsubishi 112.5 1983 NPC PNOC-EDC
Upper Mahiao 4 to 7 118 Ormat 125 1996 Cal Engy/BOT PNOC-EDC
Malitbog 8 77 Fuji 77 1996 Cal Engy/BOT PNOC-EDC
S. 9,10 77 Fuji 154 1997 Cal Engy/BOT PNOC-EDC
Sambaloran
Mahanagdong 13-15 60 Toshiba 180 1997 Cal Engy/ BOT PNOC-EDC
Tongonan 1 16T 17 GE 17 1998 Ormat/ BOT PNOC-EDC
Malitbog 17B 14 GE 14 1998 Ormat/ BOT PNOC-EDC
Mahanagdong 18-20T 6 GE 18 1998 Ormat/ BOT PNOC-EDC
698
Sthn. Negros Palinpinon I 1 to 3 37.5 Fuji 112.5 1983 NPC PNOC-EDC
Palinpinon II 485 20 Fuji 40 1994 NPC PNOC-EDC
Palinpinon II 687 20 Fuji 40 1995 NPC PNOC-EDC
193
Mindanao Matingao 1 52 Mitsubishi 52 1997 Oxbow/BOT PNOC-EDC
Sandawa 2 40 ? 40 1998 Under Award PNOC-EDC

92
T = topping cycle plant 1393 507 1900
B = bottomimg cycle plant
Notes on Operators:
NPC National Power Corporation Cal Engy California Energy
PGI Philippine Geothermal Inc. Magma Magma Power Company
PNOC-EDC PNOC - Energy Development Corporation Oxbow Oxbow Geotheremai Corporation

installed capacity. Individually, each of these three companies have achieved veiy similar levels of sales with
Mitsubishi supplying 30%, Toshiba 27% and Fuji 25% of total capacity.

There are three other turbine suppliers represented in the Philippines

Ansaldo GIE with 2x 55 MWe condensing steam turbines at the Bacman field
Ormat has supplied a number of turbines manufactured by both themselves and GE with an
aggregate total of 2.5% and 7%, respectively, of the total country capacity

In terms of steam field production capacity in the Philippines, PNOC-EDC will by the end of 1997 owns and
operates 60% of the total country capacity with the balance of 40% owned by NPC and operated by PGI.

LEYTE GEOTHERMAL POWER PROJECT

The Leyte geothermal power project is the largest geothermal development undertaken in the Philippines. It
involves the commissioning of 600MWe of power plant in the Mahiao, Malitbog and Mahanagdong sectors at
Tongonan, split over three staged phases of development:

1. 200 MWe of electricity for commissioning in mid 1996, for export to Cebu via an EHV AC submarine
cable from Leyte. This generation is being obtained from two power plants:-

— 61 —
Upper Mahiao 125 MWe Plant
A BOT contract was awarded to Ormat in August of 1993 to construct and operate a 125MWe power plant for
10 years. Ormat subsequently contracted the operation of this plant to CalEnergy. The plant is comprised of 4
Ormat GCCU turbines of 29.9 MWe capacity each, and one brine OEC binary unit with a capacity of 5.5
MWe. Each GCCU consists of one GE non condensing steam turbine which exhausts to three OEC binary
cycle turbines. Construction commenced in August of 1994 and the plant, the largest that Ormat has yet built,
was commissioned in July of 1996.

Malitbog Power Plant -1x77 MWe unit in a staged development

A 10 year BOT contract was awarded in September of 1993 to Visayas Geothermal Power Corporation, a
Philippine subsidiary of Magma Power, to construct and operate the first unit in a 3x77 MWe power plant
located in the Malitbog sector. CalEnergy subsequently bought out Magma Power and thus acquired VGPC.
The Malitbog turbines are conventional single pressure Fuji units with direct contact condensers Plant
construction commenced in September 1994 and commercial operation of this unit was attained in July 1996

2. 400 MWe of electricity for export in late 1997 via a DC EHV cable from Leyte to Luzon. This
generation is being obtained from 6 power plants:-

Malitbog Power Plant -2x77 MWe, in one station

This block of power is from Fuji units # 2 and 3 in the Malitbog power plant. Good progress is being made
with construction and installation of these plants and it is expected that VGPC will readily meet their mid
1997 deadline for commercial operation

Mahanagdong A and B Power Plants - 3 x 60MWe, at two stations

A 10 year BOT contract was awarded in July of 1994 to CalEnergy to construct and operate a 3 x 60 MWe
generation facility split over two sites. The plant consists of Toshiba turbines with surface condensers.
Construction progress is well advanced and it is also expected that CalEnergy will have little difficulty in
meeting their deadline for commercial operation by mid July 1997.

Optimisation Plants -51 MWe, at 3 stations

A further 51 MWe of geothermal power is being obtained from topping and bottoming plants resulting from
field optimisation studies. These consist of:
a single 17.3 MWe non condensing HP turbine upstream of the existing Tongonan 1 power plant.
3 x 6.4 MWe non condensing steam turbines upstream of each of the Mahanagdong A and B power
plants.
a 14.6 MWe low pressure condensing steam turbine downstream of the Malitbog power plant.

All of these optimisation plants were bid out as a single BOT package which was awarded to Ormat offering
GE turbines. Early construction work has now begun and these plants will be progressively commissioned
between September 1997 and January 1998.

FUTURE GEOTHERMAL DEVELOPMENT PROSPECTS

Future geothermal development in the Philippines will ultimately be constrained by the availability of
geothermal resources with sufficient quality and quantity of extractable fluids to allow for economic
development. Such fluids can be obtained from a variety of sources, including: -
new fields yet to be developed
expansion of generation at developed fields with in-fill and step out production wells
increased generation through improved plant efficiencies and technology advances
lower grade resources (<230C) which have not yet attracted serious attention in the Philippines due to
the abundance of high grade resources

When looking at the potential for future geothermal developments it is evident from the geothermal map of
the Philippines (Figure 1) that there are a large number of geothermal areas, distributed widely throughout
the country. Over the past 20 years, more than 40 of these prospects have been explored, 19 drilled and 7
have been developed. From these exploration and other data on regional heat flow we assess the country has a
overall exploitable reserve of at least 3000 MWe and possibly up to 4000 MWe. It is thus significant that
only some 50 to 60% of this reserve has yet been developed.

62 -
Based on geological and geochemical data and \ LEGEND;
measured data from exploration wells where BA3ANES GROUP i 0' Power -<£«pwi2>$ propsu*

available, we rank future geothermal development A, ^ I i.J tkiftsrt: e=q|5ia?alfflr

MT, BAUA I A Veeesnfcoflmre
opportunities as follows: - fcff CAGUA

BATQRG-BUHAV N
1. The most prospective geothermal areas yet to
be developed appear to be at Mt. Labo and
Northern Negros. PNOC is currently drilling
MAIN -
sugu

OAKl'S
4*UPA“.
<.
A
kilometers

delineation wells at these two sites and we MT. HAm 8

MT. LAS® iOlfraniMte Ntm]
anticipate future developments of up to 100 MWe tuag;i .....
...... MT. tSAROG
at each.
MT. EWttHMW -
-TlWttArfe*#
MASiNl
*3*
2. A number of prospects have been drilled and ITT MALM DIG

found to be hot (> 260 C), and with neutral MONTELAGO •

chloride fluids, but with poor permeability

a; to ftA"
characteristics. These include Daklan, Natib, - Udei/MAHASNAO-
30 i.FVTSf
Mahagnao, and Amacan. All of these prospects MTMANBALA&AN.. ■ MAIN ft
require further drilling to confirm their potential. NO. NEGROS
V BALATUKAN
We expect these will yield developments of 20 PAUNMNON [Wagne Of :
ffse.SjtiGii „
MWe or better at each site. MT, KALATUNGAN

MAUND#
3. Geothermal areas which have yet to be drilled LAKEWOOD • ■

include prospects at Cabalian and Lobi in Leyte, MT RAG AN. ,

and in the northern cordillera of Luzon where MT MAHAToRsV'

Philippine Geothermal Inc. (PGI) currently has a MINDANAO Wo C* ■

fWCX--£OC i Sif
»\ KCMI MANAT

Z. MT. FAH*« i
non-exclusive exploration permit and is
undertaking field studies. PNOC-EDC is to Figure 1 Philippine Geothermal Areas.
commence exploration drilling at Cabalian in
early 1997 and is bidding out a joint venture interest in this project. The successful development of Cabalian
would provide considerable impetus to electrically interconnecting the islands of Leyte and Mindanao. This
would provide the final link in a country wide EHV grid, which has been developed only because of the
quality and widespread occurrence of geothermal resources in the Philippines.

4. We exclude a number of young volcanic systems from the national reserve estimate. Some of these such
as Mt. Pinatubo and Mt. Cagua are clearly unsuitable for geothermal development as adjudged from the
results of well drilling which demonstrate the pervasive influence of condensed magmatic volatiles in the
hyrothermal fluids at depth. At other younger volcanic systems, there remains a firm basis to undertake
exploratory drilling to determine actual subsurface conditions. Prospects in this category include Mt.’s
Bulusan, Balatukan, Parker, and Mandalagan.

5. There are several lower grade prospects (150 to 230C) which may be suited to binary cycle power
generation in the range of 10 to 20 MWe. These include the Mabini, Manito Lowlands, Montelago, and
Maiinit (Surigao) prospects.

Overall, we estimate that the forward potential for geothermal power at as yet undeveloped fields from a firm
minimum of 500 MWe to an upper possible range of 1500 MWe.

EXPANSION OF GENERATION AT EXISTING FIELDS

Initial power developments at new fields tend to be conservatively sized because of uncertainties
surrounding future reservoir performance. There is then frequently the opportunity to further expand power
generation, after the initial response of a reservoir to production has been assessed, both by in-fill drilling
within existing production fields, and by moving production drilling further outwards from the initially
defined production boundaries. A good example of this is the recent commissioning by NPC and PGI of 80
MWe of additional in-field plant at the Makban field as a result of very good reservoir performance over 15
years at a withdrawal rate of 330 MWe. Similarly PNOC-EDC is examining the potential to further expand
generation at developed fields by a further 40 MWe at BacMan, a further 60 MWe at Mahanagdong and a
further 40 MWe at the Southern Negros geothermal field.

-63-
INCREASED EFFICIENCIES AT EXISTING FIELDS

At the Leyte Geothermal Power Project we have closely optimised turbine inlet conditions to the
thermodynamic characteristics of the reservoir and to predicted changes in reservoir performance with
exploitation time. This has resulted in our installing a combination of topping and bottoming plant upstream
and down stream of medium pressure turbines, allowing us to increase power generation by some 10%,
without increasing mass extraction and thus rundown rate in the reservoir.

Additionally by awarding power plants to private sector EOT companies on the basis of competitive bids for
converting steam to electricity at least cost, we have obtained turbo generators with steam consumption’s in
the vicinity of 1.75 kg/sec / MWe. Turbine technology is continuing to advance rapidly and machines are
now coming into the market with 30 inch back row turbine blades which yield specific steam consumption’s
approaching 1.5 kg/sec / MWe. In contrast, geothermal power plants installed in the late seventies and early
eighties typically have steam consumption’s of 2.2 to 2.5 k/sec/MWe.

The other key area where we are keen to increase utilisation efficiencies of geothermal fluid is in greater
recovery of the heat in waste brine. Conventionally geothermal developments necessarily reject up to 45%
of the total heat in produced geofluids because of silica saturation constraints which dictate the reject
temperature to be frequently as high as 180 to 190C.. Over the past several years we have maintained a
collaborative research association with a major water treatment company and we have now trialled a number
of chemical inhibitors for delaying or preventing silica scaling from hot, saturated brine solutions. Results
from this work have been very encouraging and we believe we are now in a position to utilise waste heat in
brine down to close to 100C. This will have a significant and beneficial impact on the efficiency and thus the
economics of geothermal power generation.

We thus see considerable potential for increasing geothermal power generation in the Philippines from not just
new field developments but also from infield development at existing production fields, the retrofitting of
more efficient plant and from utilising progressively more of the total heat available in geofluids with
chemical controls on silica scaling.

COMMERCIAL CLIMATE

The large scale of the geothermal developments achieved over the past 3 years has been driven by recent
changes in the commercial climate in the Philippines. These include deregulation of power generation from
government to the private sector and the passing of a EOT law which has allowed for a high level of
participation by private energy companies in power generation in the Philippines. The commercial climate
is continuing to change, with rapidly increasing emphasis on private sector involvement. Currently, there are
major thrusts in this direction which will affect future geothermal development in the Philippines.

The first ofthese is the privatisation of the PNOC Energy Development Corporation
We are now in the advanced stages of planning for the privatisation of PNOC-EDC which is a state owned
group of energy companies with well developed interests in oil and gas, coal and geothermal energy. The
geothermal assets of this group include production steam fields totalling 1140 MWe capacity, subcontracted
EOT power plants with an aggregate capacity of 670 MWe which will revert to ownership by PNOC-EDC in
10 years, and a large, highly trained technical workforce.

The two main options we have under consideration for the privatisation are the public listing of shares and
direct sale to strategic private investors, and/or various combinations thereof. Government has mandated that
60% of the shares of PNOC-EDC will be sold and under Philippine law ownership by foreign entities will be
limited to 40% of the total shares of the company. We have appointed a financial consultant in late- 1996 to
assist us with the development of a privatisation strategy and master plan and we are programming to have
privatisation completed within the next 6 months, i.e. by mid 1997.

The second major commercial thrust that will affect future geothermal developments is privatisation of the
National Power Corporation:-
The National Power Corporation has commenced planning for the sale of part of Government’s interests in
power generation and transmission throughout the Philippines. Policy covering this is enunciated in the

— 64 —
Omnibus Electric Power Industry Act of 1996 which is currently awaiting approval by the House of
Congress. The draft Act proposes that the following benefits will be realised from the privatisation of NPC:-
will ensure the reliability, security and affordability of future power supply
will promote competition and accountability amongst industry participants
will enhance the inflow of private capital to broaden the ownership base in the power generation,
transmission and distribution subsectors

NPC is a large corporation, with assets of some USD25 billion in hydro and thermal power plants, and nearly
nation-wide transmission facilities. It seems likely that all NPC owned geothermal power plants and
production steam fields will be privatised and this will clearly be of considerable interest to major power
companies and geothermal developers. The assets of NPC include 1223 MWe of geothermal generating
capacity at the Tiwi, Makban, Bacman, Tongonan, and Paiinpinon geothermal fields, and 756 MWe of the
steam field production facilities fields at Tiwi and Makban. These latter two fields have been developed and
managed by Philippine Geothermal Inc., a subsidiary of Union Oil of California, for and on behalf of NPC.
The twenty five year contract between NPC and PGI expired at the end of September 1996 and has been
extended for another 6 months.

The third major commercial thrust which we believe will have a significant impact on juture geothermal
development in the Philippines is revised legislation embodied in the Geothermal Resources Act of 1994
Geothermal development in the Philippines has been undertaken since 1978 under a regulatory framework
formulated in Presidential Decree 1442. This provided for the first time incentives for private sector
investment in geothermal projects. In practice, however, the incentives have proven to be unattractive to the
private sector and PNOC-EDC as the state owned geothermal service contractor has been the only group,
other than NPC, to be active in the Philippine geothermal development sector.

The Geothermal Resource Act of 1994 amends PD 1442 and provides for increased fiscal incentives to further
encourage private sector participation. These incentives will significantly improve cash flow and return on
investment for a geothermal service contractor. The main features of the Act for a geothermal services
contractor include
- an 8 year holiday on production royalties
- tax incentives under the Omnibus Investment Code of the Philippines
Filipino Participation Incentive Allowance (FPIA) equivalent to 5% of gross revenues
- development uplift allowance equivalent to 60% of development costs
- cross recovery allowance (CRA)

The FPIA and CRA will effectively accelerate cost recovery, at the same time reduce the income tax base and
royalty base. The CRA will also allow for the recovery of exploration costs in unsuccessful areas, thus
significantly reducing exploration risk on the contractor.
The six year income tax holiday has the effect of front loading the cash inflows to the service contractor and
thus reducing the project payback period. The 8 year royalty holiday starting in the seventh year of steam
production significantly improves the geothermal service contractors cash flow during the period when the
royalty base abruptly increases. Overall this package of fiscal incentives proposed in the Act improves the
IRR to the geothermal service contractor by about an additional 4.5%.

The Act is currently before the House of Congress awaiting approval. It is of great importance that it is
approved and passed into law in order to stimulate direct investment by the private sector in the exploration
and development of new geothermal steam fields.

CONCLUSIONS

The geothermal industry in the Philippines has proven to be very exciting over the past 5 years and it now has
a strong international character as a result of the private sector groups now involved. The beneficial effects of
private sector participation have been profound.

There will be an increasingly greater involvement by the private sector in the future because of firm plans by
Government to disinvest 60% of its ownership in the two major government geothermal groups in the
Philippines, NPC and PNOC. In retrospect, what appears to lie in the future for Philippine geothermal
development are summed up in the following themes -

- 65 -
Firstly, there is still a substantial geothermal resource base available for development in the Philippines.
Although the Philippines has developed over the past 20 years some 2000 MWe of geothermal power, which
represents the largest installed wet steam field capacity in the world, we have reached only some 50-60% of
our ultimate potential. We expect additional geothermal generation in the future to come from a mix of new
field developments, expansion of existing production steam fields, increased utilisation efficiencies and
application of technology advances.

Secondly, in spite of having a 20 year old geothermal; industry there as yet has been no private sector
development of any geothermal field in the Philippines. We therefore see it is vital that Government pass
into law Geothermal Resource Act of 1994.

Thirdly, the introduction in 1993 of EOT legalisation has had an enormous impact on the Philippine
Geothermal Industiy through allowing the private sector to participate in power plant ownership and
operation. This has directly triggered the commercialisation of about 586 MWe in Leyte and the 92 MW Mt.
Apo geothermal power projects.

Fourthly, the Philippines geothermal industry is rapidly moving toward domination by the private sector with
both PNOC-EDC and NPC privatising, and with a number of large foreign energy companies now well
established in the local market place and keen to obtain further participation in the industry.

Finally, we see the future is bright for geothermal energy in the Philippines due to the commercial and
institutional environment now promoting the concepts of reliable and affordable power supply through open
competition, accountability, and operational and economic efficiencies. Over the past few years we in
Philippine Government have become increasingly exposed to the international, privately owned energy
groups. We are now looking forward with much interest to further developing both geothermal resources and
our relationships with these groups, both inside and outside the Philippines.

66
 MEXICAN GEOTHERMAL DEVELOPMENT
AND THE FUTURE DIRECTION

By Jaime Mario E. Vaca Serrano

Comision Federal de Electricidad, Mexico

ABSTRACT

Geothennics in Mexico started in 1954, by drilling the first geothermal well in Path6, State of Hidalgo,
which reached 237 meters depth. In 1959 began electrical generation from geothermal origin, with an
installed capacity of 3.5 MW.

From 1959 to 1994 Mexico increased its installed capacity to 753 MW, by developing of three geothermal
fields: Cerro Prieto in the State of Baja California, Los Azuffes in the State of MichoacSn, and Los
Humeros in the State of Puebla. Currently, 177 wells produce steam at a rate of 36 tons per hour (t/h)
each. Comision Federal de Electricidad (CFE, Federal Commission for Electricity) has planned to
increase the geothermal-electric installed capacity through construction and installation of the following
projects: Marftaro, 2 units of 20 MW each; Cerro Prieto 100, 4 units of 25 MW each; and Los Humeros,
2 units of 25 MW each. Repowering of operating units and development of new geothermal zones, like
La Primavera and Las Tres Vlrgenes, will allow also the Mexican geothermal growth, at short and middle
term.

INTRODUCTION

Geothermal electric installed capacity in Mexico practically has not changed in the last years. Currently
it is 743 MW, with 26 power units distributed in the fields of Cerro Prieto, Los Azuffes and Los
Humeros. In April 1996 two back pressure units of 5 MW each were moved to the Miravalles geothermal
field, in Costa Rica, to accomplish a services contract signed between CFE and the Institute Costarricense
de Electricidad (ICE).

The aim of this paper is to present information about the current situation of production of the fields
under exploitation and to describe, in general terms, the program of the main future projects.

GEOTHERMICS IN MEXICO

Contemporary history of geothennics in Mexico began 42 years ago. In 1954 the first geothermal well
was drilled at Path6 El Grande, in the area of Tzipath6, State of Hidalgo. The Geothermal Energy
Comission was created in 2 May 1955. In 14 January 1956 for the first time in Mexico a steam column
flew from the well Path6 1. In 20 November 1959 in that same field, the first commercial plant in Latin
America was operated with a power of 3.5 MW, but due to insufficient steam extraction, the plant never
operated at its full capacity during 14 useful years. From that year on, geothermal development in Mexico
has increased considerably.

Presently, there are three geothermal fields in operation: Cerro Prieto in the State of Baja California with
23 years of continuous commercial exploitation, and an installed capacity of 620 MW; Los Azuffes, in
the State of Michoac&n, with 14 years of generation, and an installed capacity of 88 MW; Los Humeros,
in the State of Puebla, with five years of commercial generation and an installed capacity of 35 MW.
Figure 1 shows the geothermal fields in operation and the geothermal areas under exploration.

— 67 —
 CERRO PRIETO, B.C.

TRES VIRGENE3,

LOS HUMEROS. PUE.

LA PRIMAVERA, JAL.

LOS AZUFRES. MICH. "

Fig. 1 Location of the geothermal fields in operation

and geothermal areas under study

The geothermal installed capacity in Mexico of 743 MW, compared to 33,000 MW of the total electric
capacity in the country, represents 2.3%. Geothermics produces 5,700 GWh annually, thus contributing
with almost 3.5% of the total electric generation. This is the result of the plant factor of geothermal-
electric plants that reached 86%, which is superior to other kind of plants. Table 1 shows the main data
of geothermal production in Mexico during 1995, which rank the country in the third world place.

TABLE 1. MAIN DATA OF GEOTHERMAL PRODUCTION IN MEXICO IN 1996

CONCEPT CERRO PRIETO LOS AZUFRES LOS HUMEROS TOTAL

Installed Capacity (MW) 620 88 35 743

Steam Production (million 42.4 8.2 4.5 55
tons)

Steam Production Rate 4842 933 509 6284

(tons/hour)

Wells in production 132 24 21 177

(average)

Well production average 36.7 38.9 29.9 105.5

(tons/h)

Electricity generation 4738 658 286 5682

(GWh)

Plant factor (%) 88.6 76.7 93.2 86.1

Steam specific consumption 8.6 10 12.5 9.7

Generation Cost 0.038 0.030 0.050 0.042

(pesos/KW/h)

68
- -
CERRO PRIETO GEOTHERMAL FIELD

The Cerro Prieto geothermal potential was evident in 1852, year in which an earthquake took place in
Yuma and the Mexicali Valley. Exploration surveys started in 1958 in a zone full of intense thermal
activity, near the Cerro Prieto Volcano. Simultaneously, geological, geophysical and geochemical studies
resulted in the construction of three shallow wells (750 m) one of which resulted to be producer of water
and steam of low enthalpy. In 1964 four-exploratory deep wells were successfully drilled resulting in high
temperatures, around 300°C, measured in good steam production strata. This gave place to the drilling
of 14 more wells in 1967 for the first power unit, named Cerro Prieto I, which started its commercial
operation in 1973 with a power of 75 MW.

A PESCADEAO
CMMIEM MSCUALITOS PESCADEIOI

EJtDO NUEVO

LAGUNA DE EVAPORAOON

Fig. 2 Location of units for the Cerro Prieto 100 MWproject

Exploration continued in the southern zone, and well M-51 was drilled with good results, thus leading
to a capacity increase to 150 MW in 1979, and to 180 MW in 1981. After that, well M-53 was located
eastemly of the exploitation zone of Cerro Prieto I, and drilled to 2,000 m depth, resulting in a
production of 100 tons/hour of steam and a bottom temperature of 340°C. So, Cerro Prieto II and Cerro
Prieto III zones were discovered, triggering the present development of the Cerro Prieto geothermal field.
In 1981 started the construction of two additional units of 110 MW each in Cerro Prieto II, and later
another two in Cerro Prieto III, to reach in 1987 a total installed capacity in the three zones (Cerro Prieto
I, II and III) of 620 MW, with an average of 132 wells producing approximately 40 tons/hour of steam
(Table 2).

69-
 TABLE 2. PRODUCTIVE CHARACTERISTICS OF THE CERRO PRIETO
WELLS IN 1995 (ANNUAL AVERAGE) 1

DATA CPI CPU CP III TOTAL

Wells in operation 46 38 45 129

Average depth (m) 1731 2582 2337 2193

Primary steam production (t/h) 1411 1571 1623 4605

Secondary steam production (t/h) 211 197 119 527

Total production of steam (t/h) 1623 1768 1741 5132

Average steam well production (t/h) 35 46 39 40

Total production of water (t/h) 2422 2656 1831 6909

Average water well production (t/h) 52.8 69.9 40.8 53.7

Total fluid production (t/h) 4044 4424 3573 12041

Average fluid well production (t/h) 88 116 79 93

Average well enthalpy (kJ/kg) 1480 1517 1757 1576

Average reservoir temperature (°C) 304 324 334 320

Average wellhead pressure (bara) 25.2 33.3 29.1 28.9

LOS AZUFRES GEOTHERMAL FIELD

This is the second geothermal field in importance in Mexico. First studies were made in the fifties, by
analysing the then existing fumaroles. These studies were interrupted, and resumed in 1972. In 1977 the
first producing wells were drilled, which confirmed a geothermal potential considerably high and
commercially attractive.

On August, 1982, the first five back pressure units, of 5 MW each, were installed. These units were
distributed among the wells with a double purpose: to generate energy and to study the geothermal
reseorvoir under continuous exploitation basis. Since 1986 and up to 1993, the installed capacity was
increased to 98 MW, due to the setting of a 50 MW condensing unit, four 5 MW back pressure units
each, and two 1.5 MW each binary cycle units.

During 1993 generation of electricity was 645 GWh, with an annual average plant factor of 77 %. The
daily average was 1,811,000 kWh which covered the demand of Morelia City and a part of the Bajio’s
region. In 1996 two back pressure units of 5 MW each were dismantled and sent to the Miravalles
geothermal field in Costa Rica, to accomplish a services contract signed between CFE and the Institute
Costarricense de Electricidad (ICE). So, total installed capacity nowadays is of 88 MW.

70-
 Generation of electricity during 1995 was 658 GWh, the monthly average was almost 55 GWh, with a
maximum of 71.7 GWh in December and a minimum of 29.4 GWh in April. The annual average plant
factor was 76.7%, with a minimum of 69.9% in February and a maximum of 99% in November. This
was the highest monthly plant factor in the Los Azuffes whole records. During this same year, the wells
produced 8.2 million steam tons, the annual average rate was 933 t/h, which represented 15% of the total
geothermal steam produced in Mexico. Twenty-four wells were in operation that year, thus giving a steam
production average of 50.7 t/h per well (Table 3).

TABLE 3. 1996 PRODUCTION CHARACTERISTICS LOS AZUFRES WELLS

(ANNUAL AVERAGE)

UNIT NUMBER
DATA
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 TOTAL

Wells in operation 2 2 4 2 10 2 1 1 1 * 3* 24

Wells depth average (m) 2093 1389 1877.5 1300.5 1233.9 1815 1799 1241 1593.6

Steam production 105 98 123 130 593 70 49 69 130* 149* 1233

(t/h)

Steam production average 52.5 49 30.7 65 59.3 35 49 65 50.7

per well (t/h)

Water production (t/h) 53 19 59 20 508 124 36 139 958

Water average production 26.5 9.5 14.7 10 50.8 62 36 139 43.6

per well (t/h)

Fluid production (t/h) 158 117 182 150 1101 194 85 204 2191

Fluid average production per 79 58.5 45.5 75 110.1 97 85 204 94.3

well (t/h)

•Water production (t/h).

LOS HUMEROS GEOTHERMAL FIELD

First exploratory activities on the field started in 1968. In 1981 the first well was drilled, and in May
1990, commercial exploitation started with the construction of seven 5 MW each back pressure power
units, the last unit started operating in June 1994.

During 1995 the wells produced 4.5 million tons of steam, representing around 8% of the geothermal
steam produced in Mexico. The annual average production rate was 509 t/h. There was an annual average
of 21 production wells, with an average production rate of 32.1 t/h of steam per well (Table 4).

The electricity generated in 1995 was of 286 GWh. The monthly average was almost 24 GWh. There was
a maximum of 25.3 GWh in July, and a minimum of 22 GWh in April. Annual plant factor was excellent
(93.2%), with a minimum of 85.5% in March, and a maximum of 97.4% in July.

-71-
 TABLE 4. 1996 LOS HUMEROS WELLS PRODUCTIVE CHARACTERISTICS
(ANNUAL AVERAGE) '

NUMBER UNIT
DATA
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 TOTAL

Wells in operation 2 3 2 4 2 5 3 21

Wells depth average (m) 2095 2193 2822 1839 1714 1863 2101 2090

Steam production (t/h) 106 80 80.8 77.4 67 95 98.5 604.7

Steam average per well 53 26.66 40.4 19.35 33.5 19 32.8 32.10
(t/h)

Water production (t/h) 5.5 63.5 10 6.5 6 5 4.5 101

Water average per well 2.75 21.2 5 1.6 3 1 1.5 5.15

(t/h)

Fluid production (t/h) 111.5 143.5 90.8 83.9 73 100 103 705.7

Fluid average per well 55.75 47.83 45.4 32.93 36.5 20 34.33 38.96
(t/h)

FUTURE PROJECTS

The main and immediate projects are Cerro Prieto 100 MW and Maritaro (40 MW).

Cerro Prieto 100 MW

The Cerro Prieto 100 MW project includes the construction and installation of four condensing single
flash units, of 25 MW each. Two of them will be located in the sector known as Cerro Prieto II, located
near the well E-56, and two in Cerro Prieto III, near the well M-192 (Fig. 2). These areas were selected
to take advantage of the present surface installations and the steam gathering systems, reducing
environmental impact and thus improving the existing steam supply.

Maritaro (40 MW)

The Maritaro project includes the construction and installation of two condensing single flash units, of
20 MW each. One of them will be installed in the Southern area, near existing unit 7 (of 50 MW), and
the other in the Northern area, near AZ-5 well (Fig. 3). Its site was determined according to the
availability of wells and the actual steam system. Drilling of new wells is not required, only Maritaro unit
2 requires repairing of just one existing well.

-72-
 TV

ZONA NORTE

ZONA SUE

• PKODSCTOt

V nriBoro*

Fig. 3. Location of wells and units in Los Azufres.

Cerro Prieto geothermal field additional projects

CP I (25 MW)

This project includes the repowering units 1, 2, 3 and 4 of Cerro Prieto I, which are the oldest in this
field. These units have a specific consumption of 11 tons/MWh. After the repowering is completed, the
expected specific consumption will be 9 tons/MWh. The exceeding steam will be enough for the 25 MW
condensing unit.

CP IV (2 x 25 MW)

This project includes the construction and installation of two 25 MW each condensing units, in the Cerro
Prieto zone known as CP-IV, located east of Cerro Prieto II and Cerro Prieto III. Exploratory deep wells
have been drilled, obtaining average steam production of 40 t/h.

-73-
Biphase pilot plant

After an agreement signed between CFE and private companies Biphase Energy Co. and Biphase de
Mexico, a small biphase turbine will be installed on a Cerro Prieto well. If the plant properly operates,
similar turbines could be installed in other wells.

Other projects at the Los Azufres, geothermal field

El Chino (2 x 25 MW)

This project is composed by two 25 MW each units, located in the Northern zone, to take advantage of
the field potential. The existing wells in the zone will be used to provide the required steam, some of the
wells need to be repaired.

Nopalitos (2 x 25 MW)

This project is similar to El Chino. Both 25 MW units will be in the Northern zone. Some of the wells
will be used to feed these units, after their repairing.

Project Los Humeros 2 x 25 MW

This project includes the construction and installation of two 25 MW each units. These units will be
similar to the ones to be installed at Cerro Prieto. Feasibility and location studies are presently being
done.

Projects to be developed in other geothermal fields

Las Tres Virgenes

Recent preliminary studies on this field, located in the State of Baja California Sur (to see Fig. 1), show
a geothermal potential of 25 MW. CFE is planning to develop this potential in two stages: one of 10 MW
and other of 15 MW. For this purpose CFE has drilled some wells, and others are in a drilling program.
More exploratory studies will be made in order to evaluate the possibility of installing additional 50 MW.

La Primavera

CFE has drilled 13 wells in this field (Fig. 1). Its geothermal potential has been determined to be 75
MW. Development plans have been detained since 1989 due to ecological problems, but which are going
to be satisfactorily solved. Two projects have been considered: La Primavera I (2 x 5 MW) and La
Primavera II (3 x 20 MW).

CONCLUSIONS

The last geothermal-electric units in M6xico were installed in 1992. Eventhough during the four past
years construction of new plants has been stopped, there are plans for new projects.

74-
It is expected that construction of Project Maritaro be started in 1997, and that bidding for Project Cerro
Prieto 100 MW will conclude this year. Besides, future projects for Cerro Prieto, Los Azufres, Los
Humeros, Las Tres Vlrgenes and La Primavera, are almost ready for bidding. In every case, these
projects are technically and economically feasible.

CFE is not in the possibility of financing the investments for all the projects. Therefore, the financing
scheme for those projects should be BLT (build, lease and transfer) and IPP (independent power
producer), or some kind of joint ventures between CFE and private investors.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Maya GonzAlez Raul and Alc&ntar Arevalo Roberto, CFE.

REFERENCES

HiriartLe Bert, G., and Luis C.A. Gutidrrez Negrin, 1996. Geothermal-electric development program
in Mexico. Getothermal Resources Council Transactions, Vol. 20.Los Humeros dos unidades
de 25 MW.

-75-
 RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN tHE
NEW ZEALAND
GEOTHERMAL INDUSTRY

T M Hunt

Wairakei Research Centre

Institute of Geological & Nuclear Sciences

ABSTRACT

Geothermal energy is used mainly for generation of electricity in New Zealand, and provides
about 6% of that generated. Major changes have occurred within the geothermal sector as
a result of deregulation of the electricity generation and supply industry. A new power
station, Poihipi (55 MW installed capacity) on the Wairakei field has been built and the plant
tested. This station will be operated on a load following basis. Construction of another new
station, at Rotokawa field, is due to start in 1997. Many small scale (<100 MW)
developments involving private companies and local suppliers are now applying for
environmental permits. It is predicted that geothermal energy will, in future, provide an
increasing proportion of the electricity generation, rising to about 11% by the year 2020.

RECENT INDUSTRY CHANGES

Major changes have occurred within the geothermal sector over the last few years, as a result
of deregulation of the electrical generation and supply industry which is the main user of
geothermal resources in New Zealand. The government no longer maintains a monopoly on
the generation and transmission of electricity. This freeing from state control was given to
the domestic and small commercial (<0.5 MW) sector on 1 April 1993, and extended to the
remainder on 1 April 1994. The deregulation has followed a similar path to that taken by
the United Kingdom in 1990. Before this deregulation the generation of electricity was
mainly (95%) provided by Electricity Corporation of New Zealand (ECNZ), a State-Owned
Enterprise (SOE). Generation is now open to any company which has the necessary
Resource Consents, access to the land, and finance. Transmission on the National Grid is
the responsibility of Transpower, also a SOE, which was separated from ECNZ on 1 July
1995. Supply to consumers (both industrial and private) is currently in the hands of 36
supply companies, many formed from previous state- or local-body owned organisations.
At present many of these supply companies are merging or being taken over through share
purchases, both on and off the New Zealand Stock Market. The electricity supply industry
is now market driven and there is wide diversification of the supply side.

-76-
Important market factors at present are:

• a future short-fall in supply due to increased demand - between now and 2005 it is
estimated demand will rise by about 700-800 GWh per year (assuming no efficiency
gains);

• a risk of partial supply failure - this is a result of government removing the

responsibility for complete supply by ECNZ;

• transmission costs - there has been a move towards embedded generation to avoid
transmission (wheeling) charges made by Transpower (still a monopoly);

• strong competition from the natural gas industry - aggressive marketing by several
suppliers and cheap price (Sll/GJ for residential, c.f. about $25/GJ for electricity);

• strong environmental laws - the Resource Management Act requires minimum

environmental impact and consultation with Maori;

• increasing use of long-term direct generator-consumer contracts;

• low price of electricity - currently (1995) the average price is 5.8 c/kWh for
industrial consumers and 10.2 c/kWh for domestic consumers; this is the 4th lowest
in IEA member countries: only Mexico (4.0/6.3), Norway (5.4/11.7) and Canada
(5.7/8.9) have lower prices (MOC, 1995). Such low prices, and consequent low
profit margins, do not encourage small developments (Thain and Freeston, 1995).

PERMITTING

All new geothermal developers, and existing developers at regular intervals, need to obtain
Resource Consents (permits) under environmental regulations contained in the Resource
Management Act 1991. Important requirements are that the proposed development must have
low environmental impact and be sustainable. Resource Consents, for taking and discharging
fluids, are granted (or denied) by Regional Authorities (regional government) after public
submissions (in particular from Maori people) and public meeting. Development of a field
generally involves obtaining about 15 such consents.

All high-temperature fields in New Zealand, except one (Ngawha), lie in the Taupo Volcanic
Zone (Fig. 1) and thus within the jurisdiction of two authorities: Environment Waikato
(formerly Waikato Regional Council), and Environment Bay of Plenty (formerly Bay of
Plenty Regional Council). Appeals against decisions of these authorities are heard by the
Environment Court (formerly the Planning Tribunal), a judicial body.

Environment Waikato, whose responsibilities cover most of the high-temperature fields, has
adopted the policy of managing the geothermal resources in its region as a total resource
rather than managing individual systems. Certain geothermal systems containing unique
features are protected, such as Waiotapu and Orakei Korako, which are designated as
reserves and managed by the Department of Conservation. The remainder are open for
development. Environment Waikato favours unitization of development with a "single-
tapper", but multiple users (McLeod, 1995).

-77-
WELL OWNERSHIP

Prior to the recent changes in the electricity industry (above), all deep wells in New Zealand
were drilled and financed by government. After the recent deregulation, the government is
now wishing to sell these wells on undeveloped fields. However, there has been a period
of uncertainty about ownership of the wells which has delayed several developments. This
uncertainty now appears to have been resolved, and many of these wells form the basis of
some of the developments described below.

NEW GEOTHERMAL DEVELOPERS

Bay of Plenty Electricity, a Whakatane-based supply company, has developed a 5.5

MW binary plant on the Kawerau Field.

Carter Holt Harvey, a large forestry company, is planning to develop the Maraetai
Field.

Contact Energy. The Electricity Corporation of New Zealand (Electricorp, ECNZ) has
been divided (February 1996) into 2 competing generation companies: ECNZ and Contact
Energy, both at present remaining as state-owned companies. Contact Energy has inherited
the two geothermal generation stations at Wairakei and Ohaaki (Broadlands) fields, together
with several thermal- and hydro-stations. Contact Energy Ltd has about 30% of the
generating capacity of the former ECNZ.

Downer Energy Services. Works Geothermal Ltd, an SOE previously owned by the
New Zealand Government, was privatised and transferred to Downer Construction (NZ) Ltd
on 16 August 1996. Downer Construction is a subsidiary of Paul Y-ITC, a publicly listed
Hong Kong company. The new company is now a 100% stand alone subsidiary of Downer
Construction, known as Downer Energy Services Ltd.

Fletcher Energy (formerly part of Fletcher Challenge, a major forestry company), a large
New Zealand oil and gas development company with interests in Canada, is planning
development of the western side of the Kawerau field.

Mercury-Geotherm, a joint venture between Mercury Energy Ltd (an Auckland-based

supply company) and Geotherm Energy Ltd, is constructing a 55 MW station on the
southwestern part of the Wairakei field. Recently, Mercury-Geotherm has also applied for
a Resource Consent to develop a 110 MW station on the Tauhara Field.

Power New Zealand, another Auckland-based electricity supply company, is developing

a 24 MW station at Rotokawa, and has an interest in Taheke and Tikitere fields, and
Rotoma.

Top Energy, a Kaikohe-based electricity supply company, is planning to develop the

Ngawha field.

-78-
TrustPower, a Tauranga-based supply company, which has recently acquired two other
supply companies (Taupo Electricity and Rotorua Electricity), has shown interest in
developing several fields. It has applied for Resource Consents to test drill at Reporoa and
at Tauhara.

Tuaropaki Power Company has been formed by a land-owning, Maori Tribal Trust to
develop the Mokai field.

Bay of Plenty

Motuhora
Island
Matata *

Taheke*R0tojti Rotoma

Mokoia / Tikitere Awakeri

Island * Lake Rotokawa Kawerau
^Te Haehaenga
Rotorua
Puhipuhi
■'Take Tarawera
Horohoro * Rotomahana
Waimangu
... C\
Mangakino Atiamuri Waikite/*

Ongaroto Ngakuri j^Waiotapu

^Reporoa
Te Kopia
Orakeikorako Golden Springs
* Whangairorohea
Mokai
Ngatamariki Broadlands-Ohaaki

Wairakei
Rotokawa
Tauhara
50 km
Lake
Taupo

* Waitetoko
Motuoapa
Waihi - Tokaanu
Wairakei # Major geothermal fields
Taheke * Other significant
Tongariro thermal areas
Matata * Hot water occurrences
* Crater Lake

Figure 1: Geothermal fields in the Taupo Volcanic Zone of New Zealand (taken
from Cave et al,1993).

-79-
RECENT FIELD DEVELOPMENTS

Kawerau
The field is owned by the New Zealand Government (Energy Division, Ministry of
Commerce), and is operated by Downer Energy Services Ltd. Geothermal steam provides
about 5% of the electrical energy from an 8 MW turbo alternator, and about 30% of process
steam required by a pulp and paper mill operated by Tasman Pulp and Paper Company Ltd.
Separated water is also supplied to two Ormat binary stations (1 x 3.8 MW, 1 x 2.6 MW),
owned by Bay of Plenty Electricity Ltd. The Opal Trust, a joint venture between the Savage
Trust (a local Maori landowner) and Fletcher Energy Ltd, plans to develop a 4 MW plant
on the western side of the field, using an existing well (KA-24).

Maraetai Mangakino
-

A 600 m deep exploration hole was drilled in this small field by the government in 1985, and
encountered temperatures of up to 180°C. Since then no developments have occurred.
Recently, Carter Holt Harvey Ltd have made plans to drill another hole to use for generating
electricity to drive a pump which supplies water to the Kinleith Mill. Further progress is
waiting on finance becoming available when international pulp and paper commodity prices
improve. No Resource Consent has yet been granted.

Mokai
This large field was discovered in the late 1970s and government drilled 6 exploration holes
(600 - 2 600 m) in the early 1980s which encountered temperatures of up to 325 °C. It is
now being developed by the Tuaropaki Power Company which owns most of the land within
the field. Resource Consents have been granted for the first stage (55 MW: hybrid steam
and binary Ormat plant) of a multi-stage development. Mokai will be a base-load station.
Long-standing bore ownership issues (with government) have recently been resolved.
Equipment supply contracts are in place, and construction is scheduled to begin in 1997.

Ngatamariki
Four exploration wells (1300 - 2780 m deep) were drilled by government in 1985-86,
encountering temperatures of up to 280°C (NM-3). No developments have been proposed
recently.

Ngawha
This field, located in the northern part of New Zealand, was investigated by the government
during the late 1960s through to early 1980s. Fifteen investigation wells (600 - 2 300 m)
were drilled which encountered temperatures up to 300°C but no development was begun.
Recently, Top Energy, in conjunction with the Tai Tokerau Trust, has obtained Consents to
generate 8 MW from the field and is currently undertaking environmental baseline studies.
Development was due to begin in 1997, however, this has been delayed by claims of some
local Maori people under the Treaty of Waitangi.

-80
Ohaaki (Broadlands)
Three new wells (BR47 - 49) were drilled in 1995 to investigate the potential for deep
production from basement rocks. The wells were strongly-deviated (up to 55°) along E-W
trajectories, to target major fault zones within the basement rocks. BR47 penetrated 1691
m of basement, BR48 about 100 m (abandoned prematurely due to drilling problems), and
BR49 1630 m. However, the rocks encountered had poor permeability, even where cut by
major faults (Wood, 1996).

Reporoa
This field was explored by government in the 1970s and one exploration well (1340 m) was
drilled which encountered a maximum temperature of 240°C. In 1996, Kaimai Energy (a
wholly owned subsidiary of TrustPower) applied for Resource Consents for further
investigation drilling and testing (3 deep wells and several shallow wells). The application
was heard at a joint hearing of Environment Waikato and Rotorua District Council.
However, the Consents were denied, mainly on the basis of possible impacts on nearby hot
springs and on important thermal features in the adjacent Waiotapu Field. An appeal has
been lodged by TrustPower with the Environment Court and will be heard in early 1997.

Rotokawa
This field was explored by government in the 1970s; 5 deep wells and one shallow well were
drilled. Temperatures of up to 335°C were measured (RK4). In 1992, Resource Consents
for a power station were applied for by a consortium of Tauhara North No.2 Trust (Maori
landowners), Taupo Electricity Ltd, and Works Geothermal. Since then Taupo Electricity
and Works Geothermal have sold their interest in the consortium, and been replaced by
Power New Zealand Ltd. Take and Discharge Consents equivalent to 18 MW have been
granted. It is now planned to proceed with construction of the power station. Equipment
supply contracts are in place and construction is scheduled to begin in 1997. The 24 MW
installed capacity station will contain: 1 x 12 MW steam turbine, 2x5 MW steam binary
units, and 1x5 MW brine Ormat Energy Converter. The station will be operated on a base­
load basis.

Rotoma
Power New Zealand (formerly Waitemata Electricity Ltd) plan to establish a 50 MW power
station on this field. One exploration well (RM-1) was recently drilled by Works Geothermal
Ltd, and 2 more are to be drilled. At this stage the Resource Consent is only for
investigations, and an active programme of environmental monitoring of surface features is
underway.

Taheke
A joint venture of Bay Energy (100% subsidiary of TrustPower) and Ruahine and Kuharua
Incorporation (a Maori Trust) has obtained Resource Consents for test drilling in part of the
field. Two drill sites have been prepared, but drilling has not yet started. Power New
Zealand and TrustPower, and another Maori Trust (Taheke 8C and others) is about to apply
for an Investigation Consent to drill in another part of the field. Negotiations are underway
to merge these proposals.

-81-
Tauhara \
This field (at least the northern part) is connected to Waiirakei, as shown by a pressure
drawdown of 15 bar in response to production from Wairakei. An exploration drilling
programme was begun in 1964 in which 4 deep (1200 m) wells (1964-67) and 4 monitor
wells (1967-80) were drilled, reaching temperatures of up to 280°C. Recently, there has
been renewed interest in developing this field (Woods, 1996). Resource Consent applications
have been lodged with Environment Waikato by:

• Contact Energy, for a 50 MW steam condensing plant, and an optional 20 MW

binary cycle plant to utilise waste brine.

• Mercury-Geotherm, in association with Taupo District Council, for a 110 MW steam

condensing plant, with an option of 2 x 5 MW binary plants using waste condensate.

• TrustPower, in association with Tauhara Middle 15 Trust (local Maori landowners),

for a 20 MW binary plant.

Another developer, Tauhara Geothermal Co-op Ltd, is expected to lodge an application soon
for a 10 MW plant.

Land access, resource ownership, and environmental permitting will be the key issues
deciding which developer is allowed to proceed.

Tikitere
No developments have yet taken place on this small field. However, Power New Zealand
and TrustPower have formed joint ventures with the Maori landowners (Paehinahina Mourea)
to undertake development. No Resource Consents have yet been applied for.

Wairakei

(a) Wairakei
At present there is no reinjection of waste fluids from Wairakei Power Scheme (Contact
Energy), however, it is recognised that this is needed and a programme of investigation is
underway. Since 1984, 10 exploratory reinjection holes (WK300 series) have been drilled
(including 1 outside the field), mainly targeting permeable rhyolite bodies and pumice breccia
formations. In the last 2 years, 7 deeper and strongly-deviated wells (WK304-310) have
been drilled, and testing has commenced.

Work is in the procurement stage for construction of a binary plant to utilise waste
condensate from the Power Station. Land Use Consents have been obtained, and Resource
Consents are being processed by the regulatory authority (Environment Waikato). It is
planned to install a 13 MW (net) plant consisting of 3 x 5 MW air-cooled units; a water-
cooled option was rejected, mainly because it would have greater environmental impact. The
plant (approximately NS$30M) will use about 1100 t/hr of fluid at about 130°C, and it is
planned that it will be operating by the end of 1998.

A pilot silica extraction plant, with an input of 100 t/day of fluid, is now operating.
Recently, a pilot arsenic extraction plant has also been completed.

- 82 -
 175 -i
Total
150 -

0_ 125

Geothermal

2015 2020

Figure 2: Predicted trends in production of electricity (taken from MOC, 1994).

400 n

300-

(0 200

100 -

1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020

Year

Figure 3: Predicted increases in geothermal generation capacity (taken from MOC,

1994).

- 83-
Supply of waste fluid (about 40 MW t/yr) to the nearby Prawn Farm is continuing, and
Contact Energy are actively seeking other cascaded uses for waste fluid.

(b) Poihipi
The Poihipi Power Project lies in the southwest part of the Wairakei field, and is being
developed by Mercury-Geotherm. During 1995/96, 7 wells were drilled by Works
Geothermal (now Downer Energy Services Ltd): WK604, 605, 606, 610, 620, 650 and 680.
Construction of the power station and the pipeline network has been completed. A 55 MW,
Fuji turbine-generator set (surface condenser) has been purchased (ex Geysers Field: moth­
balled in 1986), reconditioned, installed and tested. The NZ$80M (approx. US$55M)
Project was officially opened in June 1996. Negotiations are underway to purchase steam
from nearby, unused wells owned by Contact Energy, to supplement supply. It is planned
to operate the station in a load-following mode to meet the requirements of the Take and
Discharge Consents (equivalent to 22 MW on base load), and maximise revenue.

FUTURE DIRECTIONS

Future trends predicted (MOC, 1994) for electricity generation in New Zealand include a
decrease in the share provided by hydro and gas (current known reserves will be exhausted
by 2017) and a rapid increase in the use of coal after 2000 (Fig. 2). However, demand will
continue to rise at about 700 - 800 GWh per year and that between 2000 and 2020 an
additional 2280 MW of new generation capacity will be required, a significant part of which
will be provided by geothermal energy. Geothermal capacity is predicted to raise its share
of total output from about 5 % in 2000 to 11 % by 2020, with an additional 150 MW by 2005
and a further 250 MW by 2015 (Fig. 3).
It is also predicted (MOC, 1994) that wholesale electricity prices will remain near constant
at about 4.7 c/kWh until about 2005, then increase to about 8.5 c/kWh by 2020. Retail
prices will remain at about 25 $/GJ until 2005, then rise to about 35 $/GJ by 2020.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Thanks for helping prepare this paper go to Paul Bixley (Contact Energy), Tom King
(Downer Energy), Jim McLeod (Environment Waikato), Tracy Mills (GENZL), Arnold
Watson (Geothermal Institute), and Bill Woods (Team Power).

— 84 —
REFERENCES

Cave, M.P., Lumb, J.T., Clelland, L. 1993. Geothermal resources of New Zealand.
Resource Information Report 8. Ministry of Commerce, Wellington, New Zealand.
39 p.

McLeod, J.T. 1995. Sustainable management of geothermal resources, a New Zealand

scenario. Proc. World Geothermal Congress 1995: 569-573.

Ministry of Commerce, 1994. Energy supply and demand scenarios to 2020. Energy &
Resources Division, Ministry of Commerce, Wellington, New Zealand. 109 p.

Ministry of Commerce, 1995. New Zealand Electricity Enterprise Statistics for year ended
31 March 1995. Energy & Resources Division, Ministry of Commerce, Wellington,
New Zealand. 32 p.

Thain, I.A., Freeston, D.H. 1995. 1990-1995 update report on the existing and planned
utilisation of geothermal energy for electricity generation and direct heat use in New
Zealand. Proc. World Geothermal Congress 1995: 283-288.

Wood, C.P. 1996. Basement geology and structure of TVZ geothermal fields, New
Zealand.

Woods, W. 1996. Interest in Tauhara Geothermal Field. IGA News No.26: 4-5.

- 85 -
 Present Situation and Future
of Utilizition of Geothermal Energy
in China
by Zhou Huang, Division of New Energy and Energy Sav ing Department of Energy and Communica­
tions , State Planning Commission P. R. China
Wu Fangzhi, Electric Power Research Institute, Ministry of Electric Power, P. R. China
Abstract
From 1970's, Chinese government increased investment on development of geothermal resource and
other new energy, and some experimental geothermal power stations have been built successively. In
the late 1980 s, exploration of high temperature geothermal resource was increased. Geothermal fluid
with temperature over 200"C was got in several boreholes. In ZK4002 well, Yangbajing, the tempera­
ture is even as high as 329.8X3 . Prospecting 2010, several geothermal power plants with high temper­
ature and great capacity will be built, so that great advance will be made on the development of
geothermal in China.
Keywords: geothermal, present situation, future
1. Distribution of Geothermal Resource in China
There are totally four geothermal zones in the world, among which two extend across China. Pacific
geothermal zonal structure passes Taiwan province in the west, and the east end of Mediterranean —
Himalayas geothermal zonal structure is the main part of Tibet - Yunnan geothermal gridle. According
to architectonic features, geothermals in China can be divided into three regions, east, west and north­
west. Nowadays, a total of 3000 geothermal fields have been discovered, but middle — low temperature
geothermal springs are in the majority and only less than 200 fields can be used to generate electricity.
High temperature hydrothermal systems mainly concentrate in the west with only a few in the east.
2. Development and Utilization of Geothennals
Before 1960 s, geothermal resource was still used spontaneously in bathing, medical treatment and dai­
ly life. Great achievements in direct use and geothermal power generation tests have been made since
1970's. Direct uses of geothermals have expanded to heating, greenhouse, breeding, incubating, dry­
ing, irrigating and refrigeration, etc. It is estimated that in China, quantity of directly used geothermic
heat will be equal to 13.4 million tons of standard coal per year from 2010.
The research of geothermal power generation in China has begun since the early 1970's. Some power
generation unites and power stations were established in Kwangtung, Hebei, Hunan, Jiangxi and
Liaoning , and some valuable experiences have been acquired. According to these experiences, Chinese
government mainly supported the development of Yangbajing Geothermal Field. In 1981, the first
generating set , rated at 3MW, went into operation. When the last 3MW generation set was put into
operation in 1991, the task of installing a total of 25.18MW generating sets was achieved. From then
on, about 100M KW- h of electricity which accounts for 50 % of the total quantity of electricity coming
from the Lhasa electrified wire neting was transmitted to Lhasa per year from Yangbajing power plant.
In addition, the hot drain water from the power station is utilized comprehensively for greenhouse veg­
etable planting and in swimming pools and other welfare and tour facilities. Economic and social bene­

86 -
fits have been gained. In the mean time, a 2 * 1MW and a 1MW demonstration power stations were
built in Langjiu and Naqu respectively. It is estimated that Yangbajing geothermal power plant will
generate 1000M KW-h of electricity in total up to 1997.
After installing 25. 18MW generating sets in Yangbajing, another achievement was made in deep
geothermal resource exploration invested by Chinese government cooperating with UN and Italy con­
tinuously on thenorth of Yangbajing field. Drilling task of ZK4002 well was finished at the depth of
2006m in December, 1993. The temperature of this well was measured to be 329. 8X2 in the early
1994, but it is very pity that geothermal fluid did'nt blow off any more. ZK4001 well was finished at
the depth of 1460m in October, 1996. The result got by continuous blow - off preliminarily measured
from October 30 to December 14 are as follows: temperature at well head is 195X2 ; Pressure at well
head is 1.45MPa; lip pressure measured with lip pressure method is 0.48MPa(diameter of blow-off
pipe is 157mm); potential electric power is 8 - 10MW (above datis provided by Tibet Geothermal
Team)
Yangyi geothermal field , 45Km southwest to Yangbajing, has been proven to be a large high tempera­
ture geothermal field with an area of 107Km2 by a vast scale exploration. The advantages of this field
are as follows; shallower reservoir(300 — 600m); high temperature(among the wells drilled there are
two above 200X2); high pressure; high producibility of single well; moreover, seal not occuring at
well head even after long period of blow — off. A 30MW geothermal power station is being planned.
Yunnan province is also abundant in geothermal fields, among which Rehai geothermal field in Teng-
chong County is the most valuable one. Twenty years of exploration has proven it a high tyemperature
geothermal field with broad prospects, it is only 13Km to the county town. During the exploration
well drilling in 1976, water temperature was measured to be 145X2 at the depth of 13m, temperatrer
of geothermal reservoir was measured between 200 — 238X2 by calculating with chemical temperature
scale, in some areas the temperature even reached to or above 276X2
Three drill holes will be drilled in the first half year of 1997, after finishing them, scale of the power
station to build will be determined according to the data collected from the holes.
3. Construction of Geothermal Power Station
From now on, new generating sets will mainly be installed in the north of Yangbajing , Yangyi and
Rehai Geothermal fields, it is estimated that, before 2010, geothermal installed capacity in China will
reach to 100MW — 150MW.
Comprehensive utilization of hot drain water from power stations and environmental protection are con­
sidered while constructing geothermal power plants. Now, geothermal fluid with medium enthalpy is
used in electricity generation. In gereral, 80 — 200Kg thermal water will be consumed for generating
lKW’h of electricity. The total amount of thermal water consumed is very large; moreover, the tem­
perature of drain water is quite high (80 — 85X2 ). Space heating, drying, greenhouse, breeding,
bathing and medical treatment can be disposed according to the actual situations of each area so that the
comprehensive benefits will be increased. In order to eliminate surface contamination, prevent surface
from settling and stabilize geothermal reservoirs, the drain water, utilized completely, will be reinject­
ed into reasonable formation.
4. Developing Various Types of Geothermals Enthusiastically

-87-
From 1970's to now, main type of geothermal resource developed in China is hydrothermal one, and
geopressuredreservoirs and hot dry rock haven't been developed yet. The research of geopressured
reservoirs and hot dry rock must be accelerated to rise to the challenge of energy in the 21st century.
4.1. Exploring Geopressured Reservoirs Energetically
Abundant geopressured reservoir with 73C in high pressure air strata and pressure above 78. OPa
(Zhang Qiming et. al) was found in Yingge Sea Basin southwest Hainan province, during offshore
petrolum exploration drilling operated by Petrolum Department, China. In addition, geopressured
reservoirs should be found in Zhujiang Basin and Bohai Basin. Conditions permitting, an experimental
base will be build at Yingge Sea geopressured reservoir area.
4.2. Accelerating the Research and Utilization of Hot Dry Rock
In recent years, gratifying achievements in utilizing hot dry rock energy for electricity generation have
been made in Ameroica and other developed countries, consequently, we hope to have the opportunity
for improving the research of hot dry rock cooperating with geothermal circles around the world.
5.Formulating Favorable Policies for Developing Geothermal Resource
The Artical 48 of the Electricity Law, which was taken effect in China on April 1, 1996, definitly
stipulates the encouraging and supporting policies of China government for develping geothermals and
other new energies, and the favorable policies on price of electricity and taxes. We are deeply con­
vinced that China will make considerable progress on geothermal development in the 21st century with
the government support and by hard work of colleagues around the world.
Reference:
1. Wu Fangzhi. Geothermal Power in Tibet Today and Yesterday, Proceedings of World Geothermal
Congress, 1995. P625.
2. Electricity Law of the People’s Republic of China, 1996.

- 88 -
 APPENDIX

CURRENT SITUATION OF GEOTHERMAL DEVELOPMENT AND

GEOTHERMAL TECHNOLOGY DEVELOPMENT IN JAPAN

1. Geothermal Development in Japan: Current Situation and Issues

Located on the circum-Pacific volcanic belt, Japan is blessed with abundant geothermal
resources. Trial calculations indicate that ten percent of the geothermal energy in the earth's
crust is released in the Japanese archipelago and neighboring areas. Japan has geothermal
energy power generation operations in sixteen locations, facilities with a total capacity of
approximately 530 megawatts (Table 1 & Figure 1). Japan ranks fifth in geothermal power
generation in the world; however, compared to 2,850 megawatts in the U.S. and 1,400
megawatts in the Philippines, it must be said that the capacity in Japan still remains at a
relatively low level. This is due to the following circumstances in Japan:

(1) Most areas with available geothermal energy are located in natural parks. Due to the
particular concern regarding influences on hot springs, much time is needed for the
adjustments required to locate industries, including geothermal power generation plants. (2)
Since effective survey techniques are not fully established, the development risks are large.
(3) The development lead times are long, i.e. from the start of investigations to the
construction of power generation plant(s). (4) As a result, the total power generation cost is
higher than for other resources. In addition, Japanese geothermal energy developers have
had to restrain development due to the low and stable prices of crude oil in recent years.

In the long-range energy outlook for Japan formulated in June 1994, the production targets
for geothermal energy development are 600 megawatts in total for the year 2000, and 2,800
megawatts for the year 2010. Although the objective for the year 2000 is attainable, the
objective for the year 2010 requires a further increase of 2,200 megawatts of power
generation capacity. Considering that the Matsukawa power generation plant, the first in
Japan, started operation in 1966 and that Japan has finally reached a total of 530 megawatts
after thirty years of operations, extraordinary efforts will be required to reach the objective.

2. Geothermal Technology Development

On the occasion of the outbreak of the fourth Mideast War and the subsequent oil crisis in
1973, Japan embarked on efforts to promote the exploitation of alternative energy sources to
replace oil. In 1974, the Sunshine Project Promotion Division was established at the Agency
of Industrial Science and Technology, Ministry of International Trade and Industry; and in

-89-
1980, the New Energy Development Organization(NEDO) was! established. Since this time,
Japan has endeavored to develop new energy sources.

It is important to promote technology development from an integrated standpoint,

particularly when faced with existing global environment issues, in order to carry forward a
single package of balanced measures that combine the three goals of economic growth,
assurance of stable energy supplies, and environmental conservation. Furthermore, from a
technology standpoint, it is necessary to accelerate the development of energy and
environmental technology in an efficient way. The New Sunshine Project was inaugurated,
from this point of view, with the aim of maintaining sustainable growth and solving energy
and environment issues at the same time. Japan is at the starting point of this innovative
technological development.

National research institutes are at the core of geothermal technology development in Japan,
and include , the Geological Survey Bureau, the Integrated Research Institute for Resource
and Environmental Technology, and the Tohoku Agency of Industrial Science and
Technology, among others. In order to promote geothermal energy development, the
following will be necessary: (1) increased exploring of deeper parts of the earth and areas in
close proximity to existing development regions which have less restrictions on the location
of industry; (2) reduction of development risk through development of new probing
technology; (3) reduction of excavation costs and shortening of lead times with improved
excavation techniques; and (4) more rapid development of application technologies for yet
untapped geothermal energy resources such as hot dry rock resources and medium-and high-
temperature hot water resources.

At NEDO, geothermal energy development has been promoted in line with the following
objectives: resource surveys, development of survey and excavation technologies,
development of application technology, and the diffusion and promotion of related
technologies.

RESOURCE SURVEY

With the 1973 Oil Crisis as a turning point, the Japanese government commenced a broad
range of geothermal resource surveys in an organized manner. In order to reduce
geothermal development risks, boost private firms' drive for development, and seek
improvements in economic efficiency by reducing construction periods, NEDO embarked on
a broad program of geothermal development promotion surveys in order to determine the
amount of available geothermal energy and to increase the accuracy of such surveys

— 90 —
themselves (Figure 2). The promotion surveys are conducted at three stages. "A Surveys"
(covering an area of 100 - 300 square kilometers) are "wide-range surveys" to confirm the
existence of high-temperature zones in areas with scarce data. "B Surveys" (covering an
area of 50 - 70 square kilometers) are at the "rough survey stage" to filter out, from regions
with available geothermal energy, areas of extraordinarily high temperature which are
suitable for geothermal energy power generation, and then to confirm the geothermal
reservoir(s) by mine well excavation. "C Surveys" (covering an area of 5 - 10 square
kilometers) are at the "precise survey stage", intended to provide a grasp of the amount of
geothermal resources by the implementation of mine well investigations in areas where
geothermal reservoirs have been discovered. The mine well investigations include long­
term eruption experiments.

In addition, the New Sunshine Project also includes technology development programs for
NEDO to address various problems related to geothermal energy development (Figure 3).

DEVELOPMENT OF SURVEY TECHNOLOGY

In the development stage surveys, to more accurately probe the structures and features of
fissure and fissure groups which form geothermal reservoirs, the development of the
following technologies is implemented as part of the "Method for Surveying Fissure Type
Geothermal Reservoirs Project": (1) seismic probing method; reflection methods (vertical
seismic profiling using wells and seismic wave tomography); (2) electromagnetic waves; (3)
physical survey methods with the aid of micro earthquakes.

It is gradually becoming clear that in the lower portions of existing reservoirs there are
additional reservoirs. Compared to the resources existing in the shallow portions, the deep-
seated resources are high in both temperature and pressure. If these resources can be
exploited without restrictions on the location of industry, it will be possible to increase the
power generation capacity.

However, since there are many risky factors unknown points about the scientific properties
of hot water and the structures of geothermal reservoirs, a lack of adequate survey and
application technologies and high temperatures in the deep underground, the current situation
is that geothermal developers are not able to commence exploitation promptly. Therefore,
during a survey of deep-seated geothermal resources being carried out by NEDO in the
Kakkonda area of Iwate Prefecture, a 4,000 meter deep mine well is being excavated and
geological investigations conducted. So far the investigation has confirmed a temperature of
500°C at a depth of 3,730 meters.

-91-
DEVELOPMENT OF EXCAVATION TECHNOLOGY

In collaboration with the deep-seated resources survey project referred to above, the
development of deep seated geothermal resource extraction technology is being conducted.
The development consists of two areas: deep-seated resources excavation technology and
deep-seated resources production technology. Deep-seated geothermal resource excavation
technology includes the development of heat-resistant, pressure-resistant excavators (using
bits, liquid mud, cement slurry), while deep-seated resources production technology includes
development of production management machinery (PTSD detection, sampling devices).

A detection system for information at the bottom of geothermal wells (MWD system) is
under development, aiming at improvements in excavation efficiency and accuracy by
obtaining real time information at the bottom of geothermal well during excavation.
Although an MWD system has already been used for oil excavation, the development of a
system resistant to 200°C heat and suitable for geothermal wells is still under way. The new
system is expected to increase excavation efficiency, avoid problems during excavation, and
reduce excavation time overall to reduce cost.

DEVELOPMENT OF APPLICATION TECHNOLOGY

In Japan the chief method of geothermal electric power generation is steam power
generation, utilizing self erupting steam. However, medium- and high-temperature hot
water that fails to erupt automatically due to the low temperature(s) in geothermal reservoirs
is not utilized. Binary cycle power generation technology, which draws the unused hot
water with downhole pumps (DHP) and then exchanges heat with a low boiling-point medium
to create high pressure steam to drive a turbine, is under development.

The development of the downhole pump has been completed thus far. A 10 megawatt
capacity pilot plant is under construction in the Sugawara area of Kyujucho in Oita Prefecture.
Binary plants have already been put into practical use in the U S. with 1 megawatt modular
type units serving in the mainstream; however, there are no 10 megawatt capacity units yet.
In addition, the DHP has been a line shaft type. The technology of Japan's underwater motor
type DHP is resistant to 200°C temperatures, the first of its kind in the world.

Hot dry rock, although possessing a significant amount of thermal energy, does not
produce hot water and steam. Therefore a hot dry rock power generation system is designed
so as to generate electric power by creating artificial reservoirs in hot dry rock and extracting
thermal energy through water injection and circulation. An experimental field has been
established in Hijiori, Okuramura of Yamagata Prefecture to implement related research and

-92-
development. In 1991, a ninety-day artificial reservoir circulation experiment was
conducted at a shallow portion (1,800 meter depth) and thermal energy and steam (thermal
energy of approximately 8.5 MW) were recovered successfully. In 1995, a preliminary
circulation experiment was conducted in a deep seated artificial reservoir (2,200m depth).
The current target is to implement a two-year term circulation experiment to assess the
potential of hot dry rock power generation.

Following the closing of the Fenton Hill experimental field in the U.S., hot dry rock
experiment fields in Sort in Europe and in Hijiori and Ogachi of Japan are the only remaining
ones in the world. The Hijiori experimental field is attracting attention from many
countries.

As mentioned before, in order for Japan to attain a geothermal power generation capacity
of 2,800 MW in the year 2010, the utilization of unused geothermal resources is indispensable.
It is our hope that we will put geothermal energy into practical use in the foreseeable future.

-93-
 Table 1. Geothermal Power Plants in Japan
Name of power plant Power generator Steam supplier Approved output Start of operation
capacity (kW)
Mori Hokkaido Electric Power Co.,Inc. Donan Geothermal Energy Co., Ltd. 50,000 1982/11/26
Sumikawa Tohoku Electric power Co.,Inc. Mitsubishi Materials Corp. 50,000 1995/3/2
Kakkonda No. 1 Tohoku Electric power Co. ,Inc. Japan Metals &Chemicals Co., Ltd. 50,000 1978/5/26
Kakkonda No.2 Tohoku Electric power Co.,Inc. Tohoku Geothermal Enargy Co., Ltd. 30,000 1996/3/1
For Uenotai Tohoku Electric power Co.,Inc. Akita Geothermal Enargy Co., Ltd. 27,500 1994/3/4
Onikobe Electric Power Development Co., Ltd. Electric Power Development Co., Ltd. 12,500 1975/3/19
public Yanaizu nishiyama Tohoku Electric power Co.,Inc. Okuaizu Geothermal Co., Ltd. 65,000 1995/5/25
Otake Kyushu Electric Power Co.,Inc. Kyushu Electric Power Co.,Inc. 12,500 1967/8/12
use Hatchobaru No. 1 Kyushu Electric Power Co.,Inc. Kyushu Electric Power Co.,Inc. 55,000 1977/6/24
Hatchobaru No.2 Kyushu Electric Power Co.,Inc. Kyushu Electric Power Co.,Inc. 55,000 1990/6/22
Ogiri Kyushu Electric Power Co.,Inc. Nittetsu Kagoshima Geothermal Co., Ltd. 30,000 1996/3/1
Yamagawa Kyushu Electric Power Co.,Inc. Japex Geothermal Kyushu Co., Ltd. 30,000 1995/3/1
Takigami Kyushu Electric Power Co.,Inc. Idemitu Oita Geothrmal Co., Ltd. 25,000 1996/11/1
Onuma Mitsubishi Materials Corp. Mitsubishi Materials Corp. 9,500 1974/6/17
Matsukawa Japan Metals &Chemecals Co., Ltd. Japan Metals &Chemicals Co., Ltd. 23,500 1966/10/8
For Suginoi Hotel Suginoi Hotel Co., Ltd. Suginoi Hotel Co., Ltd. 3,000 1981/3/6
Kirishima Kokusai Hotel Daiwabo Kanko Co., Ltd. Daiwabo Kanko Co., Ltd. 100 1984/2/23
private Takenoyu chinetsu Hirose Trading Co., Ltd. Hirose Trading Co., Ltd. 105 1991/10/19
Otake Binary Cycle Kyushu Electric Power Co ,Inc Kyushu Electric Power Co ,Inc 122 1995/1/211
Generating Plant
Total 528,827

Following 2 power plants are under planning.

Districts Power generater Steam supplier Planning output Start of operation
capacity (kW) plan
Hachijojima Tokyo Electric Power Co.,Inc. Tokyo Electric Power Co.,Inc. 3,000 1998
Oguni Electric Power Development Co., Ltd. Electric Power Development Co., Ltd. 20,000 2000
 Teshikaga-seibu(82)

Sami kata (S) / Shihetsudake©

<10 4

Hishikari

J
Figure 2. Location of Geothermal Surveys Carried Out by NEDO

-95-
 130" E 140' E

Geothermal Power Plants

in Operation Mori
50MW
Onuma
Geothermal Power Plants Sumikawa "9.5MW
40' N _ □ under Construction
50MW Matsukawa
23.5MW
Kakkonda No.l 50MW
No.2 30MW

Onikobe
12.5MW

Yanaizu Nishiyama
65MW
Otake
12.5MW

Takenoyu
0.1MW

Hachijojima
3MW
Oguni
20MW
Hatchobara No.l 55MW
Ogiri No.2 55MW
30MW O Kirishima Kokusai Hotel
30' N 0.1MW
' Yamagawa
30MW

0 500km
k

130* E 140" E

Figure 1. Geothermal Power Plants in Japan

 0 15 0km
L I a

Calcium carbonate scale

protective technique
CD Nigorikawa (FY1984-1985)

Confirmation study of the effective­

ness of prospecting techniques for
deep geothermal resources
© Sengan, Kurikoma (FY1980-1988) Hydrogen sulphide removing
technique
Matsukawa (FY1983-198S)
Deep reservoir hot water
Onikobe (FY1980-1981)
supply technique
Kawabe,Yuwa (FY1980-1985)
Deep-seated geothermal
resources survey
Technology for increasing Kakkonda (FY1992-)
geothermal energy recovery
Hot water reinjection
Yunomori (FY1989-)
Kamaishi (FY1990-1991)
technique
Oguni (FY1991-1992) © Nigorikawa (FY1977-1985)
Takinoue (FY1975-1984)
Lost circulation control Onikobe (FY1975-1990)

technique
Hot dry rock power
Sakata (FY1986-1990)
generation technique
Sugawara (FY1989-)
© Hijiori (FY1984-)
© Ddate (FY1989-1992)
Development of a 10MW class power plant
Yakedake (FY1978-1983)
@ Sugawara (FY1985-)

Pilot binary power plant

® Otake (FY1991-)

Low-temperature hot water

reinjection technique
0 Hatchobaru, <S Otake
(FY1979-1986)

f
D

J
Figure 3. Location of R&D Test Fields Carried Out by NEDO
TECHNICAL SESSION 1
 R&D OF DEEP GEOTHERMAL RESOURCES IN ITALY

Plinio BALDI, Armando CECCARELLI and Adolfo FIORDELISI

ENEL S.p.A. - Divisione Produzione - PGE-GEM (Pisa-Italy)

ABSTRACT

In the framework of the exploration and exploitation programme of deep geothermal

resources in Italy, since the end of the 1970s over 140 wells deeper than 2,500 m have been drilled
in different areas of central Italy (Tuscany and Latium).
This activity has made it possible so far to find significant amounts of additional geothermal
resources and to expand considerably the areas of interest. It has also allowed to increase the
knowledge of the geothermal systems, supplying useful indications for the future programmes of
deep exploration.

1. INTRODUCTION

Aside from a few sporadic previous attempts, the systematic exploration and exploitation of
deep geothermal resources in Italy began in the late 1970s (Cappetti et al., 1985; Barelli et al.,
1995/b).
Intensive exploitation of shallow geothermal reservoirs (depth 500-1000 m) in the 1950s and
’60s, increased geological and geophysical data, and progress made in drilling technology have
encouraged ENEL to implement a wide-ranging deep drilling programme. Particularly seismic
surveys revealed the existence of deep reflections, the deepest and most continuous of which is the
so called “K” horizon.
• PISA All the data collected suggested that
exploitable fractured levels could exist at depth
with fluid at temperature and pressure higher
than the ones already under exploitation.
gZTfrgSSLLO The drilling programme was mainly
MONT^ERD Y iititRAVALE-lWCCNtXXI
iSwUCWO-MpMEROrONX)
developed in Tuscany and secondarily in
VAL d COmi^y.-: :■>.
Latium, north of Rome (Fig. 1).
INDEX MAP To date, more than 140 wells have been
drilled to depths of over 2,500 m; about 100 of
them are deeper than 3000 m and 24 of these are
deeper than 4,000 m.
Most of the deep wells are directional.
This extensive deep drilling has shed
light on geological, thermal and hydrogeological
situations that are different from one zone to the
next and are often of considerable scientific and
industrial interest.
The aim of this work is to offer an
Gravimetric anomales attributable to deep light bodies. ROME
update on this activity by outlining the different
situations and their prospects for future
Fig. 1 - Zones interested by R&D ofdeep seated development.
geothermal resources in Italy.

-99-
 In Tuscany the deep geothermal resources exploitation involved the geothermal fields of
Larderello (Monteverdi, Val di Comia, Bruciano - Monterotondo, Valle Secolo zones), Travale -
Radicondoli and Mount Amiata (Bagnore and Piancastagnaio zones).
The deep wells drilled in northern Latium regard the Alfina, Latera and Cesano fields (see
Fig-1).

2. LARDERELLO GEOTHERMAL FIELD

2.1 Monteverdi
The Monteverdi zone is located on the western edge of Larderello geothermal field. The
explored area extends over about 25 km2 and lies between the H.F. contour-lines of 200 and 600
mW/m2 (Baldi et al. 1995/b); the temperatures at a depth of 3,000 m are around 350°C (Fig.2)

0 12 3

LARDERELLO

LEGEND
K horizon isobathes
in m b.s.l.
Isotherm at 3000 m
and its value in °C
Outcrops of the
permeable formations

Fig.2 - Deep drilled zones in Larderello and Travale-Radicondoli geothermalfields.

In this zone about 20 wells, mostly directional and with a maximum depth of 3,910 m, have
been drilled so far. Of these, 14 have proved to be productive and the steam will feed two 20 MWe
power plants that, under construction, will come on line by 1997.
The stratigraphic sequence, from the top down, is made up of:
- Mainly argillaceous Neogene formations (U. Mioc. - L. Plioc.); fiysch facies formations (Ligurid
Units) (L. Cret. - Eoc.); total thickness 800-1000 m.
- ‘Tectonic Wedges Complex’ (Paleoz. - Trias), made up of an irregular phyllite, quartzite and
quartzose conglomerate assemblage; the thickness is variable, averaging 200-300 m; the
carbonate-anhydritic formations, that makes up the shallow reservoirs of the Larderello field, are
absent here.
-100-
- ‘Polymetamorphic Complex’ (Paleoz.), composed of phyllites (mean thickness 500 m),
micaschists (mean thickness 600 m), and gneisses, locally crossed by granitic dykes.
In this zone the Tectonic Wedges Complex is not very permeable, and together with the
neogenic and flysch facies formations it forms the cap-rock. The potential reservoir is represented
by the Polymetamorphic Complex where the presence of fractured layers extends over a wide
interval of metamorphic rocks (depth ranging from 1,800 to 3,500 m) and seems to be independent
of lithology.
Two main fracturing mechanisms may have acted over time, the first linked to a stress field
controlled by magmatic intrusions with hydraulic fracturing phenomena, followed by a second
marked by a regional stress field of the tensional type running in a NE-S W direction.
The reservoir is characterized by pressures ranging between 60 and 75 bars and temperatures
between 270° and 350°C. These thermodynamic conditions are responsible for the presence of a
saturated fluid at the top of the reservoir, which passes to a superheated fluid towards the bottom.
The relatively high pressures indicate a poor lateral connection with the field under
exploitation in the nearby, where pressures at depth do not exceed 10-30 bars owing to field
exploitation.
The Monteverdi zone probably has thermodynamic conditions similar to the initial ones of
the Larderello geothermal area.

2.2 Val di Comia

This zone is located east and south-east of the Monteverdi one (see Fig.2). Unlike
Monteverdi, the Val di Comia zone is characterized by the presence beneath the cap rocks, again
mostly composed of argillaceous Neogene and flysch facies formations with thickness ranging from
300 to 900 m, of carbonate-anhydritic formations belonging to the Tuscan Unit.
These last have a thickness of about 300 m and represent the shallow reservoir that has been
exploited for several years now.
Below this shallow reservoir there is a palaeozoic metamorphic sequence composed of
phyllites, micaschists and gneisses. These formations, which constitute a relative structural high in
Val di Comia, form the deep reservoir which has been reached by around 20 wells with a maximum
depth of about 4,200 m.
In this zone the success ratio and the specific productivity of deep wells are the lowest in the
Larderello geothermal field.
The thermodynamic conditions of the shallow reservoir are those of a superheated steam,
with temperatures of about 240°C and pressures around 20 bars.
The few fractures in the deep reservoir are mostly located below 2,000 m.
Also the deep reservoir is characterized by superheated steam with stratum pressure of 40-50
bars and formation temperatures, below 2,500 m, higher than 350°C. In some points temperatures of
over 400°C have been recorded at depths of about 3,000 m.
In few cases overpressured gaseous fluids have been found.
The Val di Comia zone, with respect to the other ones, features the highest temperatures at
the same depths (see Fig. 2).
As can be deduced from the above data, the deep reservoir in this zone displays low
permeability on average.
It is likely that one of the causes of this low permeability is the high temperature. At this
temperature level, the rocks probably have a ductile or semiductile behaviour, causing a gradual
attenuation of the permeability.
It can be observed that the seismic reflection ‘K’ horizon (present all over western Tuscany
and considered a sort of brittle/ductile rheological limit) is found in this zone at a lower depth than
in the rest of Larderello and Travale-Radicondoli fields (Cameli et Al., 1993).

101-
2.3 Bruciano-Monterotondo i
The Bruciano-Monterotondo zone is located east-south-eait of Val di Comia and represents
the south-east margin of Larderello field so far investigated.
This zone has geological and structural characteristics that are in part similar to those of the
previous zone, in part different.
The similarities are the presence of a shallow reservoir composed of the chiefly triassic
carbonate-anhydritic formations of the Tuscan Unit and the underlying metamorphic sequence
(phyllites, micaschists, gneisses) which constitutes the deep reservoir.
The differences are the greater completeness and thickness of the Tuscan Unit, the proximity
to a broad area where this Unit outcrops. This area is both an area of cooling and of potential field
recharge by infiltration of meteoric water.
As demonstrated by data from the deep wells, there is a sufficient separation between the
large area of infiltration and the deep reservoir to keep it from cooling. This may have considerable
importance for the prospects of developing deep resources.
Thirteen deep wells have been drilled in this zone, 12 of them productive and one dry. The
wells have an average flow-rate of about 30 t/h.
Most of the productive fractures are located between 2,000 and 3,000 m depth. While the
temperature and pressure of the shallow reservoir in the Bruciano-Monterotondo zone are about
200°C and 10 bars respectively, the temperature of the deep reservoir is around 350°C and the
pressure ranges between values of 50 and 65 bars.

2.4 Valle Secolo

Valle Secolo is one of the most exploited zones as regard shallow reservoir, where the
stratum pressure has fallen to around 5 bars.
Below the cap rock, composed mostly of Neogene and flysch facies formations (Ligurid
Unit), the shallow reservoir is represented by the chiefly carbonate-anhydritic formations of the
Tuscan Unit and by the top of the underlying metamorphic sequence.
The reservoir is located at a depth of about 500-800 m and displays very high permeability.
The metamorphic sequence is fractured at various depths, especially between 2,000 and
3,000 m.
Nine deep wells have been drilled, six of them are productive, with an average output of
around 25 t/h of superheated steam.
The temperatures in the shallow reservoir are about 240-250°C. In the deep reservoir,
temperatures are lower than 300°C; the pressure of about 30 bars is affected by the long exploitation
of the shallow reservoir.

3. TRAVALE-RADICONDOLI GEOTHERMAL FIELD

The Travale-Radicondoli field is crossed by an important geologic structure, a NW-SE

trending master fault system, that separates the Neogene sedimentary basin (Graben) of Radicondoli
to the east from a structural high (Horst) of flysch facies formations (Ligurid Units) and from the
underlying, mostly carbonate-anhydritic formations of the Tuscan Unit, to the West.
These formations make up the shallow geothermal reservoir which has been initially
explored and exploited in corrispondence of the Horst.
Investigation of the upper part of this reservoir gave negative results caused by inflow of
meteoric water. Exploration and exploitation of the same reservoir continued at greater depth also
inside the Radicondoli Graben. Afterward, R&D activities were extended to deep layers (to over
4,000 m depth) within the metamorphic sequence.

-102-
 These efforts also regarded areas in which limestones and anhydrites outcrop. Cooling of
these formations by meteoric water resulted to be confined to the shallow layers. Infact
impermeable horizons separate the shallow layers from deep fractured ones in the metamorphic
complex, determining an increase of temperatures up to values of 330-350°C (Barelli et Al.,
1995/a).
In this field the temperature at 3,000 m is considerably lower than the temperature at the
same depth in the SW part of Larderello field (see Fig.l).
The degree of fracturing of these deep reservoir layers (depths of about 4,000 m) is
unusually high as well as the productivity of the wells.
About 20 deep wells have been drilled, over half of them are productive (mean productivity
is approximately 50 t/h).
The fluid produced by these wells is superheated steam. The stratum pressures of the deep
reservoir are around 70-75 bars.

4. MOUNT AMIATA GEOTHERMAL FIELDS (Bagnore and Piancastagnaio)

In the Mount Amiata volcano area (Fig.3), exploration and exploitation of geothermal
resources in the 1950s and ’60s were focused on shallow geologic structures (400-1,000 m)
constituted, as in Larderello area, by prevalently carbonate-anhydritic formations of the Tuscan Unit
(Bertini et al., 1995).
The fluids are characterized by temperatures ranging between 160°C (Bagnore) and 220°C
(Piancastagnaio); the fluids had initially high gas content with stratum pressure between 23 and 40
bars respectively.

LEGEND
K horizon isobathes
in m b.s.l.
Isotherm at — 2500 m
and its value °in C

Vulcanites

Fig.3 - Deep drilled zones in Mount Amiata geothermalfields.

-103
 At the end of the 1970s an intensive deep drilling programme was begun; so far 35 deep
wells have been drilled, 27 of them in the Piancastagnaio field.
The exploitation of deep resources in the Mount Amiata volcano area has had considerable
success. The percentage of productive wells is very high (almost 90%), as well as the mean
productivity of the wells (>30 t/h of steam). This has made it possible to increase the installed
capacity by 80 MWe.
At both Bagnore and Piancastagnaio, deep wells have shown the existence of a large deep
reservoir (between 2,000 and 3500 m depth), characterized by good permeability due to fracturing,
stratum pressures of about 200-250 bars and temperatures around 350-360°C (see Fig.3).
This is a water-dominated reservoir that, although hydraulically connected with the shallow
one, is separated from it by a low permeability layer 800-1,000 m thick.
Thus, although structurally similar to the Larderello and Travale-Radicondoli geothermal
system (the reservoir formations are analogous), this system has different thermodynamic
characteristics.
In the northern part of Mount Amiata a well deeper than 4,800 m has pointed out the
presence of impermeable rocks with a thickness of about 4,000 m, characterized by a rather low, but
constant thermal gradient (0.7 °C/10 m). Below this depth there are still fractured levels with fluids
having pressure of about 330 bars and temperature higher than 320°C.

5. NORTHERN LATIUM GEOTHERMAL FIELDS

The geothermal framework in northern Latium is quite different from that in Tuscany (Baldi
et al., 1993). The exploration and exploitation activities carried out in this region in the 1970s and
’80s showed the presence of water-dominated geothermal systems characterized by temperatures
ranging from 140°C at Alfina to 220-230°C at Latera and Cesano fields.
These resources are stored in mesozoic carbonate reservoirs (Tuscan and the Umbrian-
Sabina Units)_beneath a cover composed mainly of clayey (U. Mioc. - Plioc.) and flysch facies
formations (Ligurid Unit) at depths ranging between 500 and 1,000 m (Buonasorte et Al., 1995).
Numerous deep wells have been drilled in the Alfina, Latera and Cesano fields, with little
success. These wells have shown that in Latium the carbonate formations are always very thick,
often due to the presence of several overthrusts and folds. Metamorphic rocks have not been
encountered by wells up to the maximum drilled depths (4,826 m).
The degree of fracturing of the reservoir formations is generally low, often because of self­
sealing processes. The permeability of these rocks is therefore usually very low in all the
investigated zones, so most of the wells are either dry or non-commercial.

6. KNOWLEDGE AND RESULTS

The deep drilling activity has considerably increased the knowledge of the deep geothermal
systems of central Italy, supplying useful indications for the further development of this activity. In
summary, the main elements of knowledge are the following:
• The geothermal anomalies of Larderello, Travale-Radicondoli and Mount Amiata, at depth, are
much wider than originally thought. These anomalies do not end with the outcroppings of
reservoir rocks that, up to a few years ago, represented the edges of the fields. Basically, these
anomalies are separate at the surface but ‘unified’ at depth, where they become single large
anomalies (Baldi et Al., 1995/a).
• The heat source that underlies these anomalies is linked to recent granitic bodies. In various
zones, from Monteverdi in the west to Travale in the east, deep wells have encountered granitic
-104-
 dykes and bodies ranging in age between 3.7 and 0.5 MA. This demonstrates the presence of a
phenomenon of prolonged granitisation of the crust.
• The above is also in agreement with two important geophysical features: the tuscan geothermal
areas fall within large negative gravity anomalies, explainable only by the presence of light
bodies within the metamorphic basement (see Fig.l). Moreover, earthquake tomography (Batini
et Al., 1995) clearly indicates the presence of low-velocity bodies below Larderello and Travale-
Radicondoli areas, attributable to acidic intrusions that have not yet cooled.
• Seismic reflection surveys have also shown a strong and continuous seismic reflection horizon
(‘K’ horizon) that, in the most thermally anomalous areas, nears the surface like a dome (see
Figs. 2 & 3). This horizon might indicate the transition between an upper crust with a brittle
behaviour and a lower crust with a more ductile behaviour. Seismic reflections are often present
inside the metamorphic formations whose geological significance is not always easy to identify.
• The fracture-derived permeability of the deep metamorphic reservoir in Tuscany is not as high
or diffuse as that of the shallow reservoir; however, it is often sufficient to allow good and
sometimes excellent production. Nevertheless, the permeability tends to disappear when the
temperature rises above 350-370°C. Deep exploration has reaveled that, within a temperature
range of 300°-350°C, it is possible to find fractured layers up to depth of 5,000 m, both in
sedimentary and metamorphic rocks.
The deep layers of Travale-Radicondoli and Val di Comia are a case in point. In the former,
where temperatures lower than 350-370°C exist beyond 4,000 m, there are fractured layers even
at this depth; in Val di Comia, where such temperatures are present at little more than 2,000-
2,500 m, the permeability tends to disappear beyond this depth.
. Despite many attempts of interpreting jointly different kind of data, it has not always been
possible to identify the causes that determine the fracturing of deep reservoirs and their
distribution and geometry.
. From an idustrial point of view, R&D of deep geothermal systems have provided on the whole
rather good results. We can estimate that more than 200 MWe have been acquired up to now by
deep seated resources. Nevertheles these results cannot be generalized to all the areas with high
temperature anomalies. These could be characterized by low permeability caused by too high
temperature or by self-sealing phenomena.

7. PROSPECTS

The knowledge gained on Italian geothermal systems makes it possible to affirm that the
exploration and exploitation of additional deep resources have good prospects, especially in
Tuscany. Those prospects regard:
• The margins of the exploited fields of Larderello, Travale-Radicondoli and Mount Amiata,
which still display possibilities for extending the drilling; in some of these areas deep
exploratory wells have been already planned;
• New areas within the above mentioned large geophysical anomalies (negative gravity
anomalies, seismic velocity anomalies, etc.), characterized at the surface by outcrops of rocks
belonging to the shallow reservoir (Tuscan Unit) and therefore cooled by meteoric water;
. Other areas characterized at the surface by H.F. values higher than 150-200 mW/m2 which
display favourable conditions at depth in certain geological and structural situations for the
accumulation of geothermal resources of industrial interest (Baldi et Al., 1995/a).
• Methodological research activities must be necessarily developed in order to minimize the
mining risk in deep exploration. Efforts will be focused on the reconstruction of fracturing
models by mean of geological and structural studies and advanced geophysical methods.

-105-
 REFERENCES

Baldi P., Bellani S., Ceccarelli A., Fiordelisi A., Rocchi G., Squarci P., Taffi L. (1995/a).
Geothermal anomalies and structural features of Southern Tuscany (Italy). Proceedings of the
World Geothermal Congress, vol. 2, pp. 1287-1291, Florence, Italy.
Baldi P., Bertini G., Ceccarelli A. (1993). Geothermal fields of Central Italy. Resource Geology,
Special Issue, No. 16, pp. 69-81.
Baldi P., Bertini G., Ceccarelli A., Dini I., Ridolfi A., Rocchi G. (1995/b). Geothermal research
in the Monteverdi zone (western border of the Larderello geothermal field). Proceedings of the
World Geothermal Congress, vol. 2, pp. 693-696, Florence, Italy.
Barelli A., Bertani R., Cappetti G., Ceccarelli A. (1995/a). An update on Travale-Radicondoli
geothermal field. Proceedings of the World Geothermal Congress, vol. 3, pp. 1581-1586,
Florence, Italy.
Barelli A., Cappetti G., Stefani G. (1995/b). Results of deep drilling in the Larderello-
Travale/Radicondoli geothermal area. Proceedings of the World Geothermal Congress, vol. 2,
pp. 1275-1278, Florence, Italy.
Batini F., Fiordelisi A., Graziano F., Toksoz N. (1995). Earthquake tomography in the
Larderello geothermal area. Proceedings of the World Geothermal Congress, vol. 2, pp. 817-
820, Florence, Italy.
Bertini G., Cappetti G., Dini I., Lovari F. (1995). Deep drilling results and updating of
geothermal knowledge on the Monte Amiata area. Proceedings of the World Geothermal
Congress, vol. 2, pp. 1283-1286, Florence, Italy.
Buonasorte G., Cameli G.M., Fiordelisi A., Parotto M., Perticone I. (1995). Results of
geothermal exploration in central Italy (Latium-Campania). Proceedings of the World
Geothermal Congress, vol. 2, pp. 1293-1298, Florence, Italy.
Cameli G.M., Dini I., Liotta D. (1993). Upper crustal structure of the Larderello geothermal
field as a feature of post-collisional extensional tectonics (southern Tuscany, Italy).
Tectonophysics, 224, pp.413-423.
Cappetti G., Celati R., Cigni U., Squarci P., Stefani G., Taffi L. (1985). Development of deep
exploration in the geothermal areas of Tuscany, Italy. International Symposium on geothermal
energy, GRC international volume, pp. 303-309.

-106-
 DEEP GEOTHERMAL RESOURCES IN THE PHILIPPINES:
AN UPDATE OF TWO PNOC EDC EXPLORATION PROJECTS

Francisco G. Delfin Jr

PNOC Energy Development Corporation (PNOC EDC), Ft. Bonifacio, Metro Manila, Philippines

ABSTRACT

Results of deep drilling, flow-testing, and surface exploration are integrated to provide
updated working models of the Mt. Labo and Northern Negros geothermal fields. In Mt. Labo, a
diorite intrusion mapped from gravity survey at 3-4 km depth is believed to actively supply heat
and magmatic volatiles into the overlying hydrothermal system. High-temperature (260-280°C)
but acidic fluids are encountered in the region closest to this presumed intrusion. West of the
acidic reservoir, neutral-pH fluids with temperature of 265°C are present at depths of over 2000
m. The exact extent and capacity of this neutral chloride resource are the focus of current
investigations. In Northern Negros, an intrusive body at depths of 3.5-5 km has also been
inferred based on gravity data. Unlike in Mt. Labo, the wells drilled closest to the inferred
intrusive body show no preferential increase in temperature suggesting that such intrusion is not
the heat source of the hydrothermal system. The latter is a 250°C reservoir at depths of 2200-
2500 m containing neutral-pH chloride brine with no indications of magmatic input.

Delineation drilling are currently on-going in both areas to determine their commercial
capacity. But their long-term development and utilization will have to contend with the thick
cover of the reservoir, their relatively lower temperature and fair to moderate permeability
compared with currently producing Philippine geothermal fields.

INTRODUCTION

The current geothermal power

LEGEND:
capacity in the Philippines is 1445 MWe O: powyganeangproiBcts
: • :.E*{i(yaiiar=Oeiv-e(opme(iid-'iliTg

generated from six major fields: Makban .;b.

'A.WCarjceeiMere
(425.7), Tiwi (330), Bacon-Manito (130),
Leyte (314.5), Palinpinon (192.5) and
Mindanao 1 (52) (Fig. 1). By 1998, this
capacity is expected to increase to 1900
MWe with the commissioning of additional
32 MWe in Bacon-Manito, 383 MWe in
Leyte, and 40 MWe in Mt. Apo. All these
high-enthalpy fields produce from i(Atbay-Sorsogon)
PNOC-£OC(130UW6;
reservoirs generally between 1000-2000 m
depths and can thus be classified as TONGONAN (Leyte)
PNOC-UDC (314.5 MWe?
intermediate-depth resources. Continued ALTO PEAK
LOBi/MAHAGNAO
exploration and development of the SO. LEYTE
INIT
country’s geothermal resources suggest
that a few more intermediate-depth high- a.BALATUKAN

enlhalpy resources remain unexploited. No

conscious efforts have been made to tap
deep-seated (>2000m) geothermal
resources in the Philippines. Instead, the
discovery of deep-seated resources resulted sj§f&AKA0 MHo. Cotab&o)-
AMACAM-MAHJCT
PNOC-EDC{S2MWo)
from drilling into geothermal reservoirs MT. PARKER-

initially regarded to lie at intermediate

j th Figure 1. Philippine geothermal areas.

-107-
 In this paper, we provide an update on the results of exploration in two PNOC EDC
projects: the Mt. Labo geothermal field in southeastern Luzon and the Northern Negros field in
the island of Negros (Fig. 1).

MT. LABO

Mt. Labo (1514m asl) is a Quaternary andesitic strato-volcano whose products, erupted
between 0.58 Ma and 80,000 ybp, overlie a Late Miocene sequence of submarine volcanics and
intercalated sediments (Susung Dalaga Formation) in the west and Pliocene sediments (Vinas
Formation) in the north and northeast (Delfin and Alincastre, 1988; Zaide-Delfin et al., 1995).
The prominent surface hydrothermal manifestations include 50°C acid-sulphate springs at 540m
elevation and boiling neutral-pH chloride springs at 200 m elevation,3 and 10 km southwest of
Mt. Labo, respectively (Fig. 2). Various warm springs discharging secondary waters are found
scattered around the volcano.

Figure 2. Locality map of Mt. Labo with isoresistivity (MT) contours at about 1000m depth
(adapted from Los Banos et al., 1996).

After an integrated surface exploration program in Mt. Labo which included vertical
electrical soundings in 1987 (Layugan et al., 1988), a three-well drilling program was conducted
between 1990 and 1991. This was followed by a three-well delineation drilling program from
1992 to 1994. Of the six wells, only one sustained discharge of high-temperature neutral fluids,
one discharged neutral fluids at non-commercial rates, two were acidic, one did not discharge and
one abadoned during drilling. The results of drilling indicated an acidic reservoir immediately
south of Mt. Labo and a neutral-pH resource southwest of the volcano with a probable maximum
power potential of 60-70 MWe.

108 -
 To further constrain the location of the neutral-pH reservoir and to aid future drilling,
magnetotelluric (MT) soundings and regional gravity surveys were conducted in 1995. Thirty-
two MT soundings were measured in sites located west and south of Mt. Labo using the far-
remote reference technique and employing three sets of Phoenix V-5/SPV-5 MT system
recording at frequencies ranging from 384 Hz to 0.00055 Hz (Los Banos et al., 1996). The
regional gravity survey occupied 169 stations scattered throughout and beyond the volcanic field;
station elevations were measured using single base altimetry utilizing two BAROMEC
microbarometers (Los Banos and Maneja, 1996). The combined results of deep drilling, MT, and
gravity modelling are presented in Figure 3.

Elevation
(m.)

RESISTIVITY
BOUNDARY
-20 Dm

IB-5D

mmm
GRAVITY HIGH UPFLOW

INTDUSJVE BODY
GRAVITY HIGH

Figure 3. Model of the Mt. Labo geothermal resource (adapted from Los Banos et al., 1996).

The geothermal reservoir lies southwest of Mt. Labo at depths of a little over 2000m
within the low-density but slightly resistive (30-40 ohm-m) Susung Dalaga Formation.
Temperature in this zone reaches 260-280°C. A pronounced residual gravity high mapped south
of Mt. Labo is modelled as an intrusive body 3-4 km from the surface; this intrusion is believed to
supply the heat and magmatic volatiles into the upflow of the system. Wells LB-ID and LB-5D
drilled closest to the presumed intrusion are the most acidic, showed the highest pressure, and
among the hottest of the Mt. Labo wells. LB-3D, farther to the west, obtained temperature of
265°C and discharged neutral-pH chloride fluids at flow rates equivalent to —6 MWe before
turning acidic after 30 days of flowtest. This decrease in pH was accompanied by an increase in
mass output and an increase in total cleared depth of the well signifying a late clearing of the
welll’s bottom permeable zone previously clogged by drilling debris.

Overlying the production zone is a 1500-2000 m thick cap composed of intensely altered
and highly conductive (1-4 ohm-m) Labo volcanics. This alteration halo is thickest over the
upwelling zone and thins out to the southwest. This thinning low-resistivity layer may represent
the lateral plume of hot fluids to the southwest which emerge as the boiling chloride springs of
Kilbay and Alawihaw. Alternatively, the geophysical modelling suggest that a gravity high
directly beneath these springs might represent a shallower intrusion that could be the heat source
of a separate geothermal system southwest of Mt. Labo.

-109-
 Well LB-7D, drilled in 1996 to test the western extent! of the neutral-pH resource,
obtained temperature comparable to LB-3D. Permeability, as indicated by several circulation
losses during drilling, was good. The use of high-density mud to allow drilling progress into the
soft Susung Dalaga Formation, however, resulted to poor injectivity upon well completion. Acid-
stimulation in the well is programmed to increase bore permeability. In addition, the bottom zone
of LB-3D has been cement plugged to seal off the presumed acid feed. The discharge of wells
LB-3D and LB-7D after the above work-overs will hopefully provide a more definitive picture of
the extent and capacity of the neutral-pH resource.

NORTHERN NEGROS

The Northern Negros geothermal field lies on the northwestern flank of Canlaon
volcano, a large polygenetic andesitic stratovolcano characterized by a N-S-trending belt of
eruptive vents (Pamatian et al., 1992). Only the volcano’s southernmost crater, about 8 km
southeast of the geothermal field, is currently active (Fig. 4). In 1978, two exploratory wells,
MC-1 and MC-2 drilled to depths of ~1400 m on the basis largely of electrical resistivity,
confirmed neutal pH fluids with temperature of ~200°C. Temperature, geological, and
geochemical trends from the wells suggest that they lie on the margins of a hotter resource.
Deposition of calcite blockages in both wells forced the temporary abandonment of the project in
1979. Additional geological, geochemical, and resistivity studies from 1990 to 1992 (Gerardo,
1990; Layugan and Apuada, 1992; Pamatian et al., 1992) led to deep exploratory drilling of wells
HG-1D, PT-1D, CT-1D and PT-2D in 1994. Almost concurent with the deep exploratory drilling
program, MT soundings and a regional gravity survey were conducted as part of the resource
assessment (Rigor et al., 1995; Rigor and Los Banos, 1997). A model of the resource based on
drilling and geoscientific data is presented in Figure 5.

Key:
□ WIT station
• Geothermal well
* Thermal spring
- Residual gravity
7 contour line (mgal)
A-A' Cross Section Line

Resistivity contour color code:

0 30 50 100 130 150

(ohmm)

Scale Bar
8 km

Figure 4. Location Map of Northern Negros with residual gravity contours on MT isoresistivity
at 2500m depth (adapted from Rigor and Los Banos, 1996).

-no-
 The Northern Negros wells intersected three formations: the Quaternary Canlaon
volcanics (CnV) consisting of fresh to altered andesitic extrusives 800-2000 m thick, the Pliocene
Cabling Formation (Cf) composed of interbedded volcanics and sediments as much as 1000 m
thick, and the Miocene Talave Formation (Tf) made up of recrystallized limestones (Zaide-
Delfm, 1996). Gravity modelling suggests that a diorite intrusion (CD) underlies this sequence at
depths of 3.5-5 km beneath the drilled area which shallows to ~1 km further to the southeast
(Fig. 5). The MT results showed three major electrical units: a surficial and thin layer of very
resistive unit (40-1000 ohm-m) corresponding to fresh lava flows, a low resistivity layer (< 5
ohm-m) corresponding to altered rocks, and a moderately resistive basement of 20-200 ohm-m.
The geothermal reservoir is believed to lie where the low-resistivity layer is thickest, between
MT-30 and MT-04 (Fig. 5). In this interpretation, the thick conductive layer represents the
alteration halo over the reservoir but not the reservoir itself. The latter is represented by the
moderately resistive basal unit. The increase in resistivity as one goes from the alteration halo to
the reservoir is believed due to the replacement of hydrous clays with non-hydrous but higher
temperature alteration minerals such as epidote, calcite, albite and chlorite. This geophysical
picture of the resource is in general accord with the drilling results.

Figure 5. Model of the Northern Negros geothermal resource (adapted from Rigor and
Los Banos, 1996).

Well PT-2D was drilled closest to the presumed center of the resource in 1994, and
recorded the highest temperature of 250°C at the bottom prior to the development of a blockage
at shallower depths. Moderate permeability allowed the well to discharge, after N2 gas-
stimulation, neutral-pH brine with Cl contents of ~5100 ppm (Sanchez, 1996). The blockage at
depths of about 2100 m did not allow PT-2D to discharge from the deeper, hotter, and more
permeable segment of the bore between 2200-2500m and caused the discharge to end after ~30
days of flow test. Well CT-1D which reached 2800 m recorded only a maximum temperature of
~190C due to a strong downflow of cold fluids from the well’s production casing shoe. If the

— Ill —
fluid inclusion homogenization temperature reflects the true borjs temperature, then the well
bottom may reach 220°C (Pamatian et al., 1995). The cold water downflow and the relatively
low bottom temperature confirm the position of CT-1D at the outflow of the system as indicated
by the geophysical model. The southernmost well, HG-1D (Fig. 4), reached 2600 m, obtained
good permeability between 2200-2600 m, and recorded a maximum temperature of 230°C.
Despite the moderate temperature, indicative of the well’s position in the margin of the resource,
the well flowed for 30 days discharging neutral-pH brine with Cl contents of 13,000 ppm.

Based on the drilling, discharge, and surface exploration data, the Northern Negros
system was estimated to have a minimum power potential of 35 Mwe (Pamatian et al., 1995). A
similar power capacity was estimated by an OECF reviiew mission (Saprof, 1995). The southern
margin of the resource may be represented by well HG-1D (and MT -30) while the northern limit
lies close to well CT-1D (and MT-04). The center of the resource was deemed to be further
southeast of PT-2D inside the Canlaon National Park. Based on the geophysical model (Fig. 5),
the Canlaon diorite intrusion (CD) might be deeper in this region than in the north or south. This
suggests that such intrusion most likely is not the current heat source of the system. The lack of
magmatic signatures in the well discharge fluid provides additional support to the idea that this
intrusive does not provide heat and mass input into the Northern Negros hydrothermal system.

At present, two delineation wells PT-3D and PT-4D are being drilled to the south and
southeast of PT-2D to define the limit of the high-temperature zone.

CONCLUDING REMARKS

The two deep-seated geothermal reservoirs described here provide a contrast to the
intermediate depth resources exploited thus far in the Philippines. Despite the deeper wells in
these projects, measured temperatures are not higher and, in fact, are slightly lower compared to
intermediate-depth resources. Permeability in these wells vary markedly but in general are
somewhat poorer compared to those of producing fields. There is evidence in both Mt. Labo and
Northern Negros Tor the occurrence of intrusive bodies beneath the currently drilled sectors. The
Mt. Labo intrusion is believed to be actively providing heat and mass (volatiles) input into the
system giving rise to higher temperature but acidic discharge in some of the wells. In contrast,
the modelled intrusive beneath Northern Negros may be an old pluton related to older magmatic
events of the Mt. Canlaon volcanic complex. Lack of magmatic geochemical signatures in the
fluid discharge and non-correlation of modelled intrusive depths with temperature in the wells
indicate that this intrusion is not the likely heat source of the system.

The thick (-2000 m) cover of the geothermal reservoirs, the fair to moderate
permeability, the relatively small resource size compared to producing fields, and in Mt. Labo,
the presence of acidic fluids, will be important constraints to future development and exploitation
of the Northern Negros and Mt. Labo geothermal resources.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

The author wishes to thank PNOC EDC management for permission to present this paper,
Menchie Melo for help in the manuscript preparation, and Willie Carmen for drafting the figures.

REFERENCES

Delfin, F.G. Jr. and Alincastre. R.S. 1988. Geology of the Del Gallego (Mt. Labo) geothemal
prospect. PNOC EDC internal report.

Gerardo, J.Y. 1990. The geochemistry of the Northern Negros geothermal project. PNOC EDC
internal report.

-112-
Layugan, D.B. and Apuada, N.A., 1992. Review of SRT and YES surveys at Mambucal-Canlaon
geothermal prospect, Negros Occidental. PNOC EDC internal report.

Layugan, D.B., Maneja, F.C. and Fragata, J.J. 1988. Resistivity measurements at Del Gallego
(Mt. Labo) geothermal project. PNOC EDC internal report.

Los Banos, C.F. and Maneja, F.C. 1996. Regional gravity survey of Mt. Labo geothermal project,
Camarines Norte, southeastern Luzon, Philippines. PNOC EDC internal report.

Los Banos, C.F., Layugan, D.B., Maneja, F.C., Apuada, N.A. and Delfin, F.G. Jr. 1996.
Geophysical model of Mt. Labo geothermal field, southeastern Luzon, Philippines.
Proceedings of the 18th Annual PNOC EDC Conference, Makati.

Pamatian , P.I., and eight others, 1995. Draft report on the preliminary resource assessment of the
Northern Negros geothermal project, Mt. Canlaon, Negros Occidental, Philippines. PNOC
EDC internal report.

Pamatian, P.I., Salonga, N.D., and Tebar, H.J. 1992. The geology of the Northern Negros
geothermal project. PNOC EDC internal report.

Rigor, D M. Jr., Apuada, N.A., Layugan, D.B., Los Banos, C.F., Maneja, F.C. and Delfin, F.G.
Jr.. 1995. Interpretation of magnetotelluric data of the Northern Negros geothermal
project, central Philippines. PNOC EDC internal report.

Rigor, D M. Jr. and Los Banos, C.F. 1997. Regional gravity survey in the Northern Negros
geothermal project, Mt. Canlaon, central Philippines. PNOC EDC internal report.

Sanchez, D.R. 1996. Geochemistry of medium term discharge of PT-2D of Northern Negros
geothermal project. PNOC EDC internal report.

Saprof, 1995. Final report on special assistance for project formation (saprof) for Northern
Negros geothermal project in the Philippines. The Overseas Economic Cooperation Fund
(OECF), Japan.

Zaide-Delfin, M.C. 1996. A review of the stratigrraphy of Northern Negros. PNOC EDC internal
report.

Zaide-Delfin, M.C. and seven others. 1995. Mt. Labo resource assessment update. PNOC EDC
internal report.
 DEEP WELL GEOTHERMAL DEVELOPMENT
IN CERRO PRIETO, B. C. MEXICO

By Jaime Mario E. Vaca Serrano and Hector Gutierrez Puente

Comision Federal de Electricidad

ABSTRACT

The object of this paper is to describe the project of drilling an exploratory deep well down to 6000 m, in the Cerro
Prieto geothermal field, in order to re-evaluate the estimated reserves of the field and to up-date the conceptual
geological model.This model relates the heat source with the hypabyssal rocks which give origin to the Nuevo Leon
magnetic anomaly in Cerro Prieto, in the east zone of the field, which would help to define the feasibility of a deep
geothermal development.

INTRODUCTION
The Cerro Prieto geothermal field is located in the alluvial plain of the Mexicali Valley, 30 km southwest of the
City of Mexicali, in the Northeastern portion of Baja California State (Fig. 1).

fig. 1 Location of Cerro Prieto geothermal field

The Mexicali Valley, along with the Salton Through, make up one of the geologic provinces with the largest
geothermal resources in the world. Several studies have been performed in this province, aimed to determine its
geothermal potential, having obtained as a result the discovery and development of the Cerro Prieto Geothermal
Field.

-114-
In order to enlarge the knowledge of the geothermal system used to generate electric power, Comision Federal de
Electricidad (CFE) is planning to drill a deep well. Drilling of this well would allow to re-evaluate the estimated
reserves of the resource and update the conceptual geological model that relates the heat source whith the hypabyssal
rocks and that give rise to the Nuevo Leon magnetic anomaly, in the Eastern part of the geothermal field.

GEOLOGICAL SETTING
Geologically, the province of the Mexicali Valley is located within the transform system of the San Andres fault,
which is regionally characterized by the Cerro Prieto spreading center (Elders et al., 1972, and Goldstein et al.,
1982), formed by the Imperial and the Cerro Prieto faults.

The volcanic structure of Cerro Prieto, is of rhyodacitic composition and the age of its rocks, according to Boer
(1979), is 110,000 years, since then, volcanic activity continued on and off until 10,000 years ago.

Five main lithological units have been very well defined for the Cerro Prieto geothermal field: granitic basement,
gray shale, brown shale, mudstone, and clastic unconsolidated sediments (Fig. 2). Also the presence of igneous
hypabyssal rocks is known, which have been identified in 9 wells towards the NE of geothermal field (Lippmman,
1987). The rocks are mainly basalts and andesites.

VJH

seccion saxcsiM on. cuco aorrajuco

x cam HMETO t I

Fig. 2 Geological section of the geothermal field

The granitic basement has been reached by 4 wells and it has been interpreted that these rocks gradually deepen
towards the East (Fig. 3), reaching estimated dephts, based on gravimetry, magnetometry and reflection
seismology, of 6000 m (Fonseca and Razo, 1979).

-115-
 >yi i/i i i i i

* f* t
-3.5- PRCFUN0ID4D DE BA! ‘NTOl EN t.

J 1 L I . I.-I 1.1.1 I

Fig. 3 Granitic basement configuration

The gray shale unit is constituted by an intercalation with lenticular sandstones. The thickness of the gray shale in
the field is 2147 m, therefore, with the drilling of the deep well, its total thickness towards the East portion will
be determined. Partially overlaying the former sedimentary complex, there are brown shales whit a maximum
thickness of 500 m. On the top of those units there are erratically distributed mudstones that reach a thickness of
500 m.

Because of the fact that the age and depositional environment of the sedimentary units at east of the field are
unknown, some stratigraphic studies will be perfomed in the deep well that CFE will drill.

According to the spreading center model proposed by Elders (1972) (Fig. 4) for Cerro Prieto, a tectonic basin filled
with sediments located on acid intrusive rocks (granites) should be expected. The basin must be intruded by basaltic
magma, causing methamorphism of the sediments, and in a later stage, by tholeitic magmas coming from the mantle
that assimilate and melt the granitic basement. This, along whit the rise of geothermal fluids, produces shallow green
schists facies on the consolidated and unconsolidated sediments.

With the drilling of such deep well, igneous rocks will be identified and classified. This will lead to a better
knowledge of the magmatic evolution in the subsurface, in order to update the geological model of Cerro Prieto.

Lippmman and Bodvarsson (1983), suggest that in its natural state, the field is recharged from the east by hot (about
355°C) deep water and from both the east and the west by colder (between 50° and 150°C) waters from shallower
aquifers.

—116 —
 Fig. 4 Transform fault and spreading center model proposed by Elders

GEOPHYSICAL SETTING

Geological interpretation of the subsurface has demanded the carrying on of geophysical studies, like reflection and
refraction seismology, microseismicity, gravimetry, magnetometry, direct current electric methods, self-potential,
magnetotelluric, thermometry, and geophysical logs in wells.

Seismological and gravimetric studies have lead to infer the presence of a crystalline basement structure with NW­
SB trended faulted blocks, limited to the west by a graben and to the east by a deepening of the basement. Later
seismologic studies found an important series of earthquakes in the proximities of Cerro Prieto and Imperial faults
that, along with the recent tectonic activity, allowed to suggest the existence of a transform fault system and the
presence of a spreading center in Cerro Prieto (Lomnitz et al., 1970).

Magnetic anomalies map showed characteristics similar to those in the Bouguer anomalies plane, that were
associated to the results of the crystalline basement whose magnetic susceptibility is bigger than that of the
sedimentary filling. Figure 5 shows the positive magnetic anomaly and the interpretations of the body source that
is located to the east of the reservoir. This, along with hypabyssal rocks of well NL-1, allowed the interpretation
of a magnetic body associated to the heat source of the hydrothermal system (Elders et al., 1984; Lippmman et al.,
1987).

-117-
 3605000 3605000

- 3595000

3575000

Fig. 5 Bouguer Anomalies map

Goldstein et al. (1984) estimated that the roof of the magmatic source is located 3.5 km below the surface, and that
the melt zone could be located between 9 and 10 km depth, as it is determined from observations an from an
analysis of Curie’s isotherm (Lippmman, 1983). Recent analysis of magnetic data confirm the existence of a
magnetic body, but its peak is inferred at 6,000 m depth, and its dimensions are greater.

From the interpretation of seismic lines of reflection (Romero, 1986) within the field and in the Mexicali Valley,
two transform faults with a dextral movement (to the east of the Cerro Prieto fault and to the west of the Imperial
fault), conform a graben. This graben has a NW-SE trend, its shallowest part to the NW of the area, and a trend
to deepen towards the SE.

-118
DRILLING PROPOSAL
Location: To the east of well M-202 and northeast of well M-201 (Fig. 3).

Name: H-l.

Depth: 6,000 m approximately.

Completion: 6" diameter, open hole.

Objectives of Deep Well

- To determine the real thickness of the Cerro Prieto geothermal reservoir.

- To improve the geological model.

- To re-evaluate the potential of the reservoir and to establish new exploitation alternatives in the Eastern portion.

Drilled wells background

Deep exploratory wells have been drilled where the proposed deep well H-l will be drilled. The deepest one is well
M-205, at 4,389 m depth, having gotten lithological information and a measured temperature of 340°C (Table 1).

TABLE 1. DEEP WELLS DRILLED IN THE AREA OF WELL H-l

Casing depths (m)

Well Total depth Hole <t> 20" 13 3/8" 9 5/8" 7" 4 1/2" Observations

M-201 3817 6" 57 1041 2392 2340- 3565- 3810

3609

M-202 3987 6" 103 1000 2440 2389- 3435-3986

3488

M-205 4389 6" 53 682 2478 2423- 3733-4388

3764

M-206 4024 8 1/2" 94 681 2233 — — Completed in 8 1/2"

open hole.

Drilling Activities Program

First stage
It will be drilled a 26" diameter hole to a depth of 160 m using mud as drilling fluid, sealing the permeable zones.
20" diameter casing will be installed and cemented from 150 m depth to surface.

Second stage
It will be drilled a 17 1/2" diameter hole, from 160 to 2450 m depth, using mud as drilling fluid, sealing all the
permeable zones. 13 3/8" diameter casing will be intailed and cemented from 2,440 m depth to surface

-119-
Third stage
It will be drilled a 12 1/4" diameter hole, from 2450 to 3700 m depth, using mud as drilling fluid, sealing all the
permeable zones, in order to install and to cement 9 5/8" diameter casing from 3,700 m depth to surface.

Fourth stage
It will be drilled a 8 1/2" diameter hole, from 3700 to 5150 m depth, using mud as drilling fluid, sealing all the
permeable zones, once the geothermal characteristics have been known and evaluated. In order to install and cement
the 7" diameter liner from 3600 to 5,150 m depth.

Fifth stage
It will be drilled a 5 7/8" or 6" diameter hole, using mud as drilling fluid from 5150 to 6000 m depth as planned.
The well will be completed in open hole. During drilling all the potential geothermal zones will be evaluated and
then sealed in order to continue the drilling to reach the total depth.

Associated Activities During the Deep Well Drilling

- The stratigraphic and mineralogical columns of the sedimentary sequence will be determinated.

- The thickness, ages and depositional environment of the sedimentary complex will be determinated.

- The depth of the basement, its classification and rock geochemical composition will be defined.

- Hypabyssal rocks will be identified and classified.

- Relation between the hypabyssal products and/or basement rocks, and the Nuevo Leon magnetic anomaly will be
investigated.

- Chemical and isothopic characterization of geothermal fluids will be done.

- Pressure, temperature and geophysical logs will be performed.

- Rock and core sampling will be done.

- Production tests at depths below 4,000 m will be run.

- Pressure-temperature and spinner loggings will be run during production tests.

PROBABLE LITHOLOGICAL CONDITIONS OF DEEP WELL H-l

Temperature distribution
Considering the static formation temperatures of well M-202 and of those wells near it, the temperatures that could
be measured in well H-l were estimated. At a depth of 2,700 m it is expected to find a temperature of 200°C. At
3,700 m depth, 340°C, reaching 350°C before 4,500 m. It is expected that reaching 6,000 m depth, temperature
will be near 360°C.

-120-
Estimated Lithological and Mineralogical Conditions

According to configurations of the top of the lithogical units in the referred area, it is expected to drill the following
units:

DEPTH (m) LITHOLOGICAL UNIT

1,800 Base of unconsolidated clastic sediments.

2,000
Top of mudstones.

2,200
Top of brown shale.

2,400 Top of gray shale.

3,700 Top of the silica-epidote mineralogical zone.

5,100 Top of the granitic basement.

Proposed Completion
Completion of the well, excepting 20" diameter casing, will be determined according to lithological contacts, so it
is estimated to be as follows:

DEPTH (m) CASING (diameter)

0- 150 20 "

0 - 2,440 13 3/8"

0 - 3,700 9 5/8"

3,600 - 5,150 7"

5,150 - 6,000 6 " (open hole)

Well Tests During Well Drilling

Stabilized temperature determination

Temperature logs will be run at the following depths: 4,000, 4,500, 5,000, 5,500 and 6,000 m, with 4, 8, 12, 16
and 20 hours of repose time, in order to determine the stabilized formation temperature.

-121-
Test description
In order to run this test, the well must be prepared with the lightest possible mud, which will must have a hardening
time no longer than 24 hours. High temperature Kuster equipment will be utilized. CFE personnel will be in charged
of measurements.

Transitory pressure tests

Injection-recovering test.

Transitory pressure tests are planned to be made at a depth of 4,500 m and 5,500 m, with the following purposes:

a) To identify potential feeding areas.

b) To determine the average permeability of the zone, to know if the well could be used for production or
for injection.

c) To determine the injection well index.

Temperature, pressure and flow loggings (spinner) must be made during these tests. Duration of this test will be
48 hours.

Production tests
If an interesting zone would be found and if it would be decided to make the well flow in order to evaluate it,
having installed the rig, the induction should be made using nitrogen injection with continuos equipment, to reduce
the stimulation time. The estimated time for this test will be three days.

CONCLUSIONS

Drilling of the deep well will allow to confirm several hypothesis and interpretations on deep subsuface conditions
in Cerro Prieto. Among those: to define the actual density of the geothermal deposit; improve the geological model
of the field; to re-evaluate the potential deposit, in order to define exploitation alternatives of the field’s deep
portion. Also, definition of the necessary activities for drilling such deep well, will allow resolution of related
problems as: very high temperatures, drilling rates, circulation losses, drilling tools or drill pipes failures, etc.

-122-
 CONTRIBUTIONS FROM HE, MEXICO, TO THE DEEP GEOTHERMAL
RESOURCES TASK OF THE IEA GEOTHERMAL IMPLEMENTING
AGREEMENT

Eduardo R. Iglesias

Instituto de Investigaciones Electricas, Geothermal Unit

Apdo. Postal 1-475, 62001 Cuernavaca, Mor., Mexico

ABSTRACT

The Instituto de Investigaciones Electricas, Mexico, through its Geothermal Unit, has submitted three projects to the
International Energy Agency's "Implementing Agreement for a Cooperative Programme on Geothermal Energy Research
and Technology". Two ofthem, Borehole Logging Based on Optical Fiber Technology and Development of an Expert
System for Assessment and Management of Geothermal Fields Underproduction correspond to the Agreement's
Task IV Deep Geothermal Resources. In this paper we summarize these projects. The first project aims to develop
a borehole logging system capable of simultaneously measuring distributed temperature and pressure along geothermal
wells. This system will be rated to 450°C and 500 bar at depths to 4,000 m, with spatial resolution of 0.25 m and
aquisition time of - 4 minutes. We will apply the high-quality data obtained with this logging system to develop
techniques for better assessment of geothermal reservoirs and wells. The goal of the second project is to develop a
sophisticated and powerful expert system for assessment and management of exploited geothermal reservoirs. From
analysis of production histories corresponding to groups of wells, this system will infer the mechanisms that control
reservoir production at the present time, in different areas of the field. Then, it will warn about likely consequences for
future production.

INTRODUCTION

The Instituto de Investigaciones Electricas, Mexico, through its Geothermal Unit, has submitted three projects to the
International Energy Agency's "Implementing Agreement for a Cooperative Programme on Geothermal Energy Research
and Technology". Two of them, "Borehole Logging Based on Optical Fiber Technology" and "Development of an
Expert System for Analysis of Geothermal production data” correspond to the Agreement's Task IV Deep
Geothermal Resources. The other one, "Natural Levels ofContaminants in Prospect Geothermal Areas " belongs
to Task I Environmental Impacts of Geothermal Energy Development .

In this paper we summarize the projects mentioned in the first place.

BOREHOLE LOGGING BASED ON OPTICAL FIBER TECHNOLOGY

This project is in the context of Subtask B "Drilling and Logging Technologies". The objectives of this Subtask include
"... interpretation of logging data and development of logging tools." (IEA, 1996a).

In what follows we describe how this project will contribute to Subtask's B objectives and probably enlarge them.
Enlargement would come about by generating new and more accurate techniques for assessment of geothermal
reservoirs and wellbores.

Background

Geothermal heat is mined through wells that intercept hot-water and steam reservoirs. One main tool to
evaluate geothermal mass- and energy- reserves and their deliverability is well logging (e.g., Grant et al., 1982). This
is the only way to obtain direct measurements of reservoir and well pressures and temperatures. Furthermore, it
provides crucial information about reservoir transmissivity and storativity, permeability type, the existence, type and
location of reservoir boundaries, whether and to what extent the formation closest to the well is damaged or fractured,
formation temperature above the reservoir, etc.
 Well logging is also the major tool to evaluate the wells, this most important link to the reservoir. Geothermal
wells must be evaluated to locate their feed zones and their relative strenghts, the existence and importance of thief
zones, the mechanical conditions of the well, etc.

Deep-geothermal-well logging presents unique difficulties, due to the associated high temperatures (which may
exceed 400°C), substantial pressures and agressive chemical environment. The first tools used for geothermal well
logging were of the Amerada type. These gages, first developed for the oil industry, were standard fare for many years
in die geothermal industry and are still used in some places. They typically use Bourdon tubes and bimetals or gass-filled
Bourdon tubes, as pressure and temperature sensors respectively. Their data acquisition system consists of a stylus,
driven by the sensor, that scratches a blackened card, which is driven, in turn, by a mechanical clock. Operators then
read the data from the card by means of a microscope and record them by hand. Pressures and temperatures must be
recorded with different gages. The gages are lowered inside the wells and retrieved by means of steel wirelines. Profiling
of a well requires emplacing the gage(s) at a given depth, waiting for the sensor to equilibrate with the environment,
recording the time and depth, moving to the next station and repeating the same procedure. Because this is laborious
and time-consuming, the spatial resolution achieved this way is usually low: several tens of meters to hundreds of meters.
Also, the accuracies and resolutions of these gages are low by today's standards.

In time, more convenient, sophisticated and accurate logging tools were developed. Currently, the most popular
geothermal logging tools use platinum resistances, thermocouples or thermistors as temperature transducers, and strain
gages, capacitors or quartz cristal oscillators as pressure transducers. Typically, they are able to measure pressure and
temperature simultaneously. Thus tey are termed PT tools. Their data acquisition systems are computer based, and many
are capable of automatically recording real-time data at the surface.There are two main groups: tools that do not include
downhole electronics and tools that do. The first group typically relies on multi-conductor electromechanical cables (e.g.,
Adomi et al., 1985; Dennis et al., 1985; Dennis, 1990; Arisi et al., 1995) or more complex combinations of
multiconductor cable and steel tubing (e.g., Pruett, 1992) to deliver the transducer's signals to the surface. Their
temperature rating depends mostly on the temperature rating of the insulation of the conductor cable. Due to their
complexity, these cables are bulky and expensive; also, they require heavy and costly equipment for their deployment.

The second group deploys electronic circuits together

with the transducers, downhole. The electronics are heat- TEMPERATURE (°C)
shielded by a dewar flask. They usually relie on 235 24C 245 250 255 280 265 270

monoconductor (e g., Davarzani and Sloan, 1988) or multiple

conductor (e.g., Itoh et al., 1985) armored cables to deploy the
tools and to transmit the information to the surface . A variant Sftfema METRE
of this type uses electronic (e.g., RAM) memory and steel (Augutt 1996}
wireline or cable for deployment. In this case the data are read
at the surface after retrieving the tool.

During the last several years our group at I.I.E.

developed, demonstrated and applyed Has METRE System, a
geothermal, electronic, simultaneos pressure-temperature-flow
logging tool (e.g., Iglesias et al., 1995). Our system may
operate in two modes: real-time data aquisition in the surface — — Temperature
for temperatures of up to 320°C and electronic memory for Pressure
higher temperatures. It can also log continues PTS profiles
with a spatial resolution ofup to 0.25 m, depending on logging
speed (Fig. 1). PRESSURE (psi)

As a result of having successfully completed this

sophisticated technological development, our group amassed Fig. 1. An exiimple of continuous, simultaneous
substantial expertise and know-how on geothermal well pressure and temperature profiles recently obtained
logging equipment, transducers, sealing systems, high- with IIE's METRE System.
temperature materials and devices, high-temperature
electronics, computer systems and software development. Furthermore, we have built a considerable infrastructure,
which includes a fully equiped logging truck with its data aquisition system and winch, 4.5 km of armored
monoconductor cable, 4.5 km of swab line, a hydraulic-crane auxiliary truck, wellhead lubricator, diesel and gasoline
generators, calibration facilities, high-temperature testing facilities, in-house cappability for reeling cables under
prescribed tension, computers and peripherals, software to aid interpretation of the data, etc.

-124
 Current technological trends in this field indicate that the next generation of logging tools will be based on
optical fiber technology. Early attempts to apply optical fiber technology for temperature logging in wellbores were
published starting seven years ago (e.g., Angel et al., 1989; Sharma et al., 1990). Shortly after that Bjomstad et al.
(1991) discussed ongoing development of a pressure/temperature well logging system based on optical fiber technology,
intended for oil wells. Two years later Kluth et al. (1993) reported on another pressure/temperature optical fiber sytem
based on a different technique, also intended for oil wells. A common characteristic of this earlier developments, in
addition to being based on optical fiber technolgy, is that their measurements are point-like. That is to say, pressures
or temperatures are measured at a particular depth in the well. If one is interested in the values of these variables
elsewhere in the well, one must relocate the tool accordingly.This is also the way most earlier devices discused in
previous paragraphs, based on mechanical, electrical and electronic sensors, work.

More recently, Hurtig et al. (1994, 1995) reported on a new technique, based on optical time-domain
reflectometry, to measure distributed temperature in wellbores. This technique provides a "snapshot" of the temperature
distribution along the optical fiber. Nearly at the same time, Osato et a/. (1995) reported field testing of another logging
system that profiles temperature using the same technique, and measures bottomhole pressure by means of a
conventional capillary tube/chamber device.

This technique for measuring distributed temperature along optical fibers constitutes a technological
breakthrough in well logging. For the first time ever we are able to obtain a nearly-instant (few minutes) temperature
profile of a whole well. The space resolution of this device is rated ar about 1 m. These characteristics open exciting
possibilities for enhancing the asessment of geothermal wells and reservoirs.

Project's Objectives

0 To develop a borehole logging system based on optical fiber technology for simultaneously measuring
distributed temperature and pressure.

0 To apply the high-quality data obtained with this logging system to develop techniques for better assessment
of geothermal reservoirs and wells.

Final Product

0 A geothermal borehole logging system capable of simultaneously measuring distributed temperature and
pressure along the well. The system will be rated to 450°C and 500 bar at depths to 4,000 m, with spatial
resolution of 0.25 m. Suitable optical fibers, conveniently protected in armored cable, will act as the downhole
temperature, pressure and depth sensors. An optoelectronic data acquisition subsystem, linked to a personal
computer for control and display, will complement the sensors. Critical components will be protected by
built-in redundance. Ad-hoc software will facilitate tabular and graphical display of the data as well as
calibration, unit conversion, routine checks on the system, etc. The system will be mounted on a logging truck.

0 Techniques for better assessment of geothermal reservoirs and wells.

Specifica tions of the Proposed L ogging System

Temperature: Accuracy: 0.1 bar

Resolution: 0.01 bar
Sensor: optical fiber Spatial resolution: 0.25 m
Range: 0 to 450 °C
Accuracy: 0.5 °C
Resolution: 0.1 °C
Spatial resolution: 0.25 m

Pressure:

Sensor: optical fiber

Range: to 500 bar

-125
General system:

Logging depth: to 4,000 m

Maximum sampling rate: 10 Gigasamples/s

Sampling window:
Minimum lag: 1 ns
Maximum lag: 100 ps

Acquisition time: ~ 4 min.

Control and display: Pentium personal

computer.

Justification

The proposed system will make three main contributions to borehole logging:

(i) simultaneous measurement of distributed pressure and temperature;

(ii) very short (compared to typical time scales of most reservoir and wellbore phenomena) aquisition time;

(ii) high spatial resolution.

These characteristics, plus the good pressure and temperature accuracies attainable with fiber optic technology,
will open exciting opportunities for improving the current techniques for interpretation of pressure and temperature logs.
For example, simultaneous pressure-temperature profiles of newly drilled or recently repaired wells undergoing their
heating stages, will reveal, in minute detail, the locations and relative strengths of their feeding and thief zones. Another
interesting possibility is to use time sequences of temperature profiles while cementing tubular goods in wells, to aid
in diagnosing the results of this all-important operation, with high spatial resolution.

We also envision several applications to improve the interpretation of transient pressure tests in geothermal
wells. One such application would be to exploit the knowledge of the time variations of the pressure and temperature
profiles in the well during testing, to deconvolve the wellbore storage effects from the transient pressure (and
temperature?) effects generated by the reservoir. We also envision several other exciting possibilities in this context.

DEVELOPMENT OF AN EXPERT SYSTEM FOR ASSESSMENT AND MANAGEMENT OF

GEOTHERMAL FIELDS UNDER PRODUCTION.

This project is in the context of Subtask A "Exploration Technology and Reservoir Engineering". "This Subtask
will involve collaborative research on ... reservoir engineering, including reservoir characterization and reservoir
modelling" (IEA, 19966).

In what follows we describe how this project will contribute to Subtask's A objectives.

Background

Energy production is the ultimate goal of any geothermal development. Energy production is accomplished
through wells that intersect the reservoir (or reservoirs).

Production of geothermal wells varies with time. This may be due to "normal" or to "pathological" causes.
Normally, well production diminishes with time due, mainly, to exploitation-induced reservoir pressure drawdown. On
the "pathological" side, several causes may impair the capacity of a well as a conduit. For example, mechanical damage
of its internal casing (piping), scaling by minerals precipitated from the produced fluid, partial occlusion by measuring
or drilling equipment accidentally left in the well, etc. Production may also be influenced by many "pathological" causes
affecting the reservoir (or reservoirs) intersected by the well. These include invasion by colder waters from neighboring
aquifers or from injection of spent brines, permeability reduction near the well by mineral deposition triggered by

- 126 -
boiling or by mixing of different fluids, production from two or more reservoirs having fluids with different enthalpies
or chemical compositions, etc., and combinations of these. Often some of these causes affect production not only at the
reservoir level, but also by impairing the capacity of the well as a conduit (e.g., scaling of the well piping induced by
the arrival of a cold front).

From a practical point ofview, production problems can be classified into those that affect only one well, and
those that affect some or all the wells in a certain area. In economic terms, the latter are obviously more important. In
general, production problems with the capacity to affect a significant area, or even a whole field, can be detected early
in one or a few wells, before much damage is done. Early detection allows, in many cases, implementation of remedial
actions to correct the causes of the problem, or to delay as much as possible their effects on production. Though usually
less important, diagnostic of individual well production problems is also economically significant. For these reasons,
diagnostic ofproduction problems in wells is a crucial capability to have, for successfully managing geothermal fields.

Wells act as conduits for production of fluid and heat from the reservoir. Because of the serial nature of the
flow, the production histories of fluid and heat (e.g., pressure, enthalpy, chemical composition, etc.) corresponding to
each well in the field, provide information about processes ocurring in the area of the reservoir (or reservoirs) they
intersect Thus, in principle, from the analysis of production histories of a well one can infer the processes controlling
its production. And, from analysis of production of a number of wells, it is possible to infer processes affecting then-
production area or even the whole field.

This approach has been followed by several authors (e.g., Truesdell et al, 1989; Lippmann and Truesdell,
1990; Arellano et al, 1991; Truesdell et al, 1992; Truesdell et al, 1995, Iglesias et al, 1996). From their collective
experience it is fair to conclude that diagnostic ofproduction problems in geothermal wells is a complex inferential task,
which requires processing great amounts of data, considerable knowledge of its possible causes, careful assessment of
multidisciplinary evidence, and enough experience. These characteristics make this task a good candidate for a
computerized expert system.

In 1992 our group published the first version of WELLDR, an expert system for production diagnostics of
geothermal wells (Arellano et al, 1992). Not long after that, our group's experience in production analysis was
considerably incremented by comprehensive studies of several tens of wells from the Cerro Prieto Field (Iglesias et al,
1996). This experience evidenced that WELL DR necessitated a major upgrade. That is the main goal of the present
project.

Project's Objectives

E To develop an expert system for assessment and management of geothermal fields under production.

Final Product

E A user-friendly expert system with the cappability to analyze production histories of the wellfield to infer the
mechanisms that control reservoir production at the present time, and to warn about likely consequences for
future production.

Specifica tions of the Proposed Expert System

To facilitate its use at the Institutional/departmental level, the system will be installed in a network server. We
have chosen the Windows NT platform to implement this aspect of the project.

The system will be composed of the following main moduli:

ANPROD, the actual expert system, will analyze the production histories of individual wells. From this it will
generate diagnostics about the causes of production behavior in different stages of the well history and will alert about
likely future consequences. At user's request, ths system will be able to pool the information corresponding to a number
of wells from related areas of the field and make inferences about the processes affecting the reservoir in the covered
area. The necessary data will be automatically retrieved from the database in the NUCLEO module, which will also
provide visualization cappability. Part of the original data must be pre-processed for ANPROD. Pre-processing will
be tackled by the COMGEO and SIMFLU moduli.

-127-
 NUCLEO will consist of a relational database, developed specifically for assessment and management of
geothermal fields, with visualization cappability. Our relational database BDGEO (e. g., Iglesias eta/,1994), developed
and installed in the Unix platform will be ported to the Windows NT platform. This will be accomplished by means of
MS Access, a powerful and flexible database management system native of Windows.

The visualization cappability of NUCLEO will be based on MATLAB. This well-known, high-performance
numeric computation and visualization software package will be linked to the database by means of MS Visual Basic.
Visualization will include displaying specialized plots correlating different production histories, field maps and sections,
well's tubular goods, etc., at user's request.

COMGEO will integrate a variety of standar geochemical computations. For instance, it will automatically
perform the charge balance analysis of the chemical composition of the produced fluids, compute temperatures from
several chemical geothermometers, infer concentrations of chemicals at reservoir level, etc. This module will
automatically retrieve the necessary data from NUCLEO and will use MATLAB's numerical computation cappabilities.
It will also automatically transfer its results to ANPROD.

SIMFLU will compute bottomhole parameters, such as pressure, enthalpy, saturation, temperature, from
standard wellhead data. These data and the necessary information about the geometrical parameters of the well, its feed
zones, etc, will be automatically retrieved from NUCLEO. SIMFLU's results will be automatically fed to ANPROD,
for its use. This module will be based on a reliable, well proven, wellbore flow numerical simulator developed in-house
several years ago.

Justification

This system will make three main contributions to geothermal reservoir characterization:

i) to capture and code extensive experts' knowledge about the complex relationships existing between
geothermal reservoir thermophysical, chemical and hydrodynamic mechanisms, and field production;

ii) to automatically apply this knowledge to infer the current reservoir mechanisms controlling production and
warn about likely consequences for future production; and

iii) to automatically retrieve and process the (usually) huge datasets necessary to make these inferences.

We conceive this expert system mainly as a tool to considerably alleviate the work of the human experts who,
in the end, will take responsibility for the diagnostics related to field production assessment and related
recommendations. As a byproduct, the system could be used to train selected personnel in modem reservoir assessment.

CONCLUSIONS

The Institute de Investigaciones Electricas, Mexico, will contribute two projects to Task IV Deep Geothermal
Resources of the International Energy Agency's "Implementing Agreement for a Cooperative Programme on
Geothermal Energy Research and Technology".

One project, Borehole Logging Based on Optical Fiber Technology, is in the context of Subtask B "Drilling and
Logging Technologies". Its aim is to develop a borehole logging system capable of simultaneously measuring distributed
temperature and pressure along geothermal wells. This system will be rated to 450°C and 500 bar at depths to 4,000
m, with spatial resolution of 0.25 m and aquisition time of - 4 minutes. We will apply the high-quality data obtained
with this logging system to develop techniques for better assessment of geothermal reservoirs and wells.

The other project, Development of an Expert System for Assessment and Management of Geothermal Fields Under
Production, is in the context of Subtask A "Exploration Technology and Reservoir Engineering". From analysis of
production histories corresponding to groups of wells, this system will infer the mechanisms that control reservoir
production at the present time, in different areas of the field. Then, it will warn about likely consequences for future
production.

-128-
REFERENCES

Adomi, N., Ceppatelli, L., Papale, R. and Parmeggiani, A., 1985 "Instrumentation for geothermal wells: present status
and future prospects", Geothermics, 14-2/3,287-307.

Angel, S.M., Garvis, D.G., Sharma, S.K and Seki, A., 1989 "Field applications of fiber-optic sensors. Part
^Temperature measurements in a geothermal well", Applied Spectroscopy, 43-3,430-435.

Arellano, V.M., Nieva, D., Barragan, RM. and De Ledn J., 1991 "Developments of geothermal energy in Mexico - Part
thirty seven - Procedure to diagnose production abatement problems in geothermal wells", Heat Recovery Systems &
CHP, 11-6,471-181.

Arellano, V.M., Iglesias, E.R., San Roman, G. and Nieva, D., 1992 "WELL_DR: An expert system for production
diagnostics of geothermal wells", Expert Systems and Computer Simulation in Energy Engineering - Selected
Papersfrom the Second International Forum, Erlangen, Germany, 17-20 March 1992, Eds. K. Hanjalic and
J.H. Kim, Beggel House Inc., New York, 248-254.

Ansi, S., Ceserani, A., Papale R. and Tarquini B., 1995 "Innovative system for the measurement of temperature and
pressure in geothermal wells", Proc. World Geothermal Congress 1995, 2, 1489-1493, International
Geothermal Association, New Zealand.

Bjomstad, B., Kvisteroy, T. and Eriksrud M., 1991 "Fibre optic well monitoring system", SPE-23147, 425-432,
presented at the Offshore Europe Conference, Aberdeen, 3-6 Sept. 1991, Society of Petroleum Engineers.

Davarzani, J. and Sloan, M., 1988 "Simultaneous TPS logging system", G.R.C. Transactions, 12,441-448.

Dennis B., 1990 "High-temperature borehole instrumentation developed for the DOE Hot Dry Rock Geothermal Energy
Program", G.R.C. Bulletin, 19(3), 71-81.

Dennis, B.R., Koczan S.P. and Stephani, E.L., 1985 "High-temperature borehole instrumentation", Report LA-10588-
HDR, 46 pp., Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, New Mexico, USA.

Grant, M.A., Donaldson, I.G. andBixley,P.F., 1982 "Geothetmal Reservoir Engineering", Academic Press, New York.

Hurtig, E., Gro(3wig, S., Jobmann, M., Ktlhn, K. and Marschall P., 1994 "Fibre-optic temperature measurements in
shallow boreholes: Experimental application for fluid logging", Geothermics, 23-4,225-364.

Hurtig, E., GroPwig, S. and Ktlhn, K, 1995 "Distrubuted fibre optic temperature sensing: a new tool for long-term and
short-term temperature monitoring in boreholes", Proc. World Geothermal Congress 1995,2, 1495-1498,
International Geothermal Association, New Zealand.

Iglesias, E.R., Arellano, V.M., Torres, R.J. and Carvajal M., 1994 "BDGEO v3.1: A computerized database for
geothermal reservoir assessment and management", 15th Philippine National Oil Company - Energy
Developmement Corporation Geothermal Conference, Manila, 24-25 February 1994.

Iglesias, E.R., Aragon, AA, Torres, R.J., Baca, A.A. and Siller R. V., 1995 "Desarrollo de Tecnologia para Mediciones
en Tiempo Real de Presion, Temperatura y Flujo en el Interior de Pozos Geotermicos", Informe
HE/11/10004/02/P, 113 pp., Institute de Investigaciones Electricas.

Iglesias, E.R., Arellano, V.M., Izquierdo, G., Barragan, R.M., Torres R., Aragon A., 1996 "Estudio de dates quimicos
yde produccionde pozos del campo geotermico de Cerro Prieto", Informe IIE/11/1320/01/F, 927 pp., Institute
de Investigaciones Electricas.

International Energy Agency, 1996a "Implementing Agreement for a Cooperative Programme on Geothermal Energy
Research and Technology"", Annex IV, pg. 42.

International Energy Agency, 1996b "Implementing Agreement for a Cooperative Programme on Geothermal Energy
Research and Technology"", Annex IV, pg. 41.

-129-
Itoh, T., Miyairi, M. and Takeyama T., 1985 "Super-high-temperature geothermjal well logging tools (450°C) and log
interpretation", Proc. 1985 International Symposium on Geothermal Energy, International Volume, 471-
479, Geothermal Resources Council.

Kluth, E.L.E., Farhadiroushan, D.A., Svendsen D.A., Withers, P.W. and Beresford, G., 1993 "Fiber optics, hydraulics
sense downhole pressure and temperature", Petroleum Engineer International, June 1993,21-24.

Lippmann M.J., Truesdell A.H., 1990 "Reservoir simulation and geochemical study of Cerro Prieto I wells", Proc.
15th Wkshp. Geoth. Res. Eng., Stanford University, pp. 211-220.

Osato, K., Takasugi, S., Osawa, S., Hashiba, K. and Perales, K., 1995 "Temperature profiling /bottom pressure
monitoring system using optical fiber and capillary tube - Field test in a geothermal well", Proc. World
Geothermal Congress 1995,3,1921-1926, International Geothermal Association, New Zealand.

Pruett, E., 1992 "Pruett's Industries Series 9000 Logging System", G.R.C. Bulletin, 17-19, January 1992

Sharma, S.K., Seki, E., Angel, S.M. and Garvis D.G., 1990 "Field testing of an optical fiber temperature sensor in a
geothermal well", Geothermics, 19-3, 285-294

Truesdell A.H., Terrazas B., Hernandez L., Janik C., Quijano L., Tovar R., 1989 "The response of the Cerro Prieto
reservoir to exploitation as indicated by fluid geochemistry", Proc. Symp. in the Field of Geothermal
Energy, Comision Federal de Electricidad - U.S. Department of Energy, pp. 123-132.

Truesdell A.H., Mahon A., Quijano L., Coplen T., Lippmann M., 1992 "Boiling and condensation processes in the
Cerro Prieto beta reservoir under exploitation", Proc. 17th Wkshp. Geoth. Res. Eng., Stanford University,
pp. 205-214.

Truesdell A.H., Lippmann M.J., Quijano J.L., D'Amore F., 1995 "Chemical and physical indicators of reservoir
processes in exploited high-temperature, liquid-dominated geothermal fields", Proc. World Geothermal
Congress 1995, International Geothermal Association, vol. 3, pp. 1933-1938.

130
 DEEP GEOTHERMAL RESOURCES IN THE TVZ: RESEARCH
STRATEGIES AND DIRECTIONS AT IGNS

BW Christenson, Wairakei Research Centre

Institute of Geological & Nuclear Sciences, New Zealand

ABSTRACT

A 6-year multi-disciplinary programme is under way at IGNS which aims to

characterise geothermal reservoir environments at depths of 2 - 4 km in the Taupo
Volcanic Zone (TVZ), and thereby provide a framework of understanding on which
deep exploration and production programmes can be based. Emphasis is placed on
determining the P-T-X constraints of the near-heat source regions, and on developing
techniques that can be used to explore for them. The nature of the thermal boundaries
of the fields is also being studied in order to better understand processes affecting
recharge at depth. Ultimately, this work will constrain large scale models of the
evolution of TVZ geothermal systems.

INTRODUCTION

Recent NZ Government strategy papers have acknowledged that NZ will become

more dependent on its geothermal resources for power production into the next century,
particularly as local reserves of natural gas are depleted. Indeed, given that an estimated
12,000 GWh of energy, or more than one third of the country’s current energy
requirements, are contained within New Zealand’s known geothermal resources (Fig. 1), it
is sensible that these resources be utilised.

However, experience with production from < 1500 m depth at Wairakei, Kawerau
and more recently Ohaaki has shown that sustainability of the resources is an issue, not
only with regard to steam supply, but also from an environmental perspective. Subsidence,
cold inflows and/or the destruction of natural features at Wairakei and Kawerau, and the
rapid rundowns experienced at Ohaaki all demonstrate the problems inherent in the current
approach to geothermal development. A more sustainable approach, and one which has
been identified in the 1995 NZ Energy Strategy document, would be to draw production
fluids from deeper (ie. 2-4 km), higher temperature environments than is presently
practiced.

However, little is presently known of the deeper reservoir environments of the TVZ
geothermal systems. This, combined with the high costs of deep drilling and the emphasis
on high success rates from production drilling, leave commercial geothermal
developers/operators unwilling to accept the risks associated with deep exploration. In
response to this problem, scientists at IGNS (in conjunction with the NZ Foundation for
Research, Science and Technology and a number of other collaborating organisations),
have embarked on a 6 year programme of study to delineate the chemical and physical
characteristics of the heat source regions of the TVZ geothermal systems. The ultimate
goal of this work is to provide a framework of understanding on which future deep
exploration and production strategies might be developed.

-131-
Fig. 1. Location map of TVZ geothermal systems.

White Island
Auckland

Lake /
Rotorua1, A Kawerau

Ohaaki
WairakeL
Ngatamariki

Hydrothermal Systems
Delineated by drilling
Delineated by geophysics
Other thermal areas
, Andesitic volcanos
A Ruapehu 0_____ 25 50 75 km
Crater Lake "

Key questions which this programme aims to address include:

• What are the P-T-X characteristics of the reservoir in the vicinity of the magmatic
heat sources? What are the key chemical and physical processes operating there, and
what are some likely production scenarios for these environments?
• How does recharge occur in the heat source region? Are shallow and deep thermal
boundary zones fundamentally different? Are hot-dry-rock production techniques
feasible for such environments?
• What geophysical and geochemical techniques are most effective in exploring these
regions?

Current projects aimed at resolving these issues are discussed in the following sections.

THE MAGMA-HYDROTHERMAL CONNECTION IN THE TVZ

Direct evidence of the location of present-day magmatic heat sources in TVZ

systems is lacking. Despite the fact that nearly all of the systems are juxtaposed to
either Pleistocene or Holocene andesitic volcanoes or to ring fault structures associated
with large silicic eruptive centres, all discharges from the presently explored systems are
dominated by meteoric water, with only a small fraction (up to 14 %) possibly deriving
from andesitic magma (Giggenbach, 1996). Although the ultimate source of the
principle volatile species in the TVZ geothermal fluids (eg. C, S, N, Cl) is “magmatic”
(Giggenbach, 1996), none of the TVZ heat sources have beer located to date.

-132
 Similarly, few clues as to heat source location are forthcoming from
hydrothermal alteration studies of the active systems, most of which have found
alteration assemblages to be largely in equilibrium with present-day alkaline-chloride
production fluids (eg. Wairakei, Steiner (1977); Waiotapu, Hedenquist and Browne,
1989; Ohaaki, Browne and Ellis, 1970). Evidence of past magmatic interaction within
TVZ hydrothermal reservoirs is found in just two systems, at Kawerau (Christenson,
1989, 1995) and Ngatamariki (Wood, unpublished data).

Studies at Kawerau have revealed that at least two transient magmatic events
significantly altered the equilibrium state of that hydrothermal system in the past. Two
dacitic extrusives occupying positions along the current western margin of the field have
40Ar/39Ar of 138 ± 7 ka (M.O. McWilliams, pers comm 1995), making them
considerably younger than the 200 ka minimum age of the hydrothermal system reported
by Browne (1979). This, and other geological evidence, suggests that the domes were
intruded through an active hydrothermal reservoir. More recently, extrusion of the
andesitic massif of Mt Edgecumbe situated at the southeast margin of the field occurred
between ca 14.5 and 1 ka and resulted in extensive hydrothermal eruptions from the
system (Naim and Wiradiradja, 1981).

Whereas present day (ie. open fracture) mineralisation is in chemical and

isotopic equilibrium with present day reservoir fluids (Christenson, 1987), hydrothermal
alteration in stockwork mineralisation adjacent to the Onepu Domes and in sealed
hydrofractures associated with the hydrothermal eruptions along the south-east side of
the field have distinctive parageneses and stable isotope signatures.

Table 1. Occurrence of mineral assemblages bearing magmatic signatures in the

Kawerau systems.

MRL quartz adularia anhydrite hematite calcite wairakite pyrite

3-571 • • • * •
3-603 • • • * •
3-631 # # • • • •
3-781 • • • •
10-701 • • • • • •
12-721 • # • • • • •
16-509 • • •
17-737 • • •
17-767 # • # # •
35-559 # • • •
29-689 e • e
29-899 e • •

Quartz, adularia, calcite and wairakite are common alteration phases in NZ

geothermal systems, but hematite and anhydrite (Table 1) are exceedingly rare and are
indicative of redox conditions rather more oxidising than those observed in present-day
reservoirs. Fluid inclusion analyses on quartz and calcite from these distinctive veins
show the parent fluids were uniformly at or near boiling point for their respective
depths. Using this information, and the 5180 signatures from calcite and quartz to
calculate the Sl80 of the equilibrium parent fluid, we find that the parent fluids were
strongly enriched with respect to 180 relative to both “normal” vein assemblages and to

-133
present day waters in the system (Fig. 2). Adopting the assumption that variations from
present day meteoric water signatures of more than 1 per mil above the meteoric values
are due to mixing of “magmatic water” (eg. Giggenbach, 1996), mixing fractions of up
to 60% magmatic water component are obtained for some of the parent fluids.

Fig. 2. S180 compositions of paleo-fluids in the Kawerau hydrothermal system.

-100 - Present Day

Reservoir Fluids
-200 -

Mixed Fluids in
-300 Condensate Zone

-400
cc
E -500

-600
Q.
Q -700

-800 g Magmaf/c

-900

-1000
% magmatic component
-1100
-10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10

That the oxidation state of fluids which precipitated the isotopically heavy
calcite is significantly higher than the present day fluids is evident from Fig. 3. The RH
(=log (fHi/fHiO) values of present day production discharges plot uniformly along the
FeO/FeOi.s rock buffer described by Giggenbach (1986). For comparison, also plotted
on the diagram are the nominal locations for magmatic fluids of similar temperature
from White Island, lower temperature “hydrothermal” fluids from White Island, and a
field representing acid crater lake environments, such as that observed on Mt. Ruapehu.
The equilibrium reaction:

pyrite + wairakite + adularia = hematite + anhydrite + illite

occupies a region which is intermediate between gas buffered magmatic fluids and those
resident in the present day geothermal reservoir, and is consistent with mixing between
these end-member compositions.

-134-
Fig. 3. Oxidation state of past and present Kawerau reservoir fluids.

Kawerau '

Onepu
event

Wl
hydro-
thermal

Wl
magmatic

400 500

Fluid mixing is readily simulated using thermodynamic reaction path models.

The value of such models is that they provide multi-component views of complicated
geochemical interactions, and offer a complete picture of the physical and chemical state
of a system.

Output from the computer code REACT (Bethke, 1992; Fig. 4) shows the
effects of titrating S02, the main oxidant in a volcanic volatile gas stream, into a
reservoir fluid which is here represented by a discharge from Kawerau well KA21. In
this case, the chemical system comprised of 1 kg of geothermal fluid which is saturated
with respect to quartz at its equilibrium temperature of 273 °C, and is equilibrated with
5cm3 each of epidote, illite, and calcite prior to the titration of 1 mole of S02.

Early in the reaction sequence, calcite and epidote are replaced with anhydrite
and pyrite respectively, and hematite becomes a stable phase at the expense of epidote.
Calcite dissolution buffers the solution pH over the early stages of the reaction, but once
totally dissolved, pH abruptly falls to the point where alunite saturates, and the
assemblage alunite-illite is able to momentarily buffer the solution at approximately
pH=4. On disappearance of illite, pH again sharply declines until a more protonated
clay phase (in this case beidellite-H) saturates. Solution Eh increases only slowly at
first, but after the last of the ferric iron phases dissolves, system Eh is dictated total by
sulfur chemistry.

This single simulation provides only a snapshot of the conditions extant along
fracture pathways extending from the magma conduit through which the Onepu Domes
were extruded. However, the methodology allows for much wider evaluation of the
-135-
sensitivity of the system to various reservoir processes. For example, it provides the
basis for development of 1 dimensional reactive transport modelling of such systems,
and it can be developed to predict such parameters as the corrosivity of fluids in such
environments.

Fig. 4. Reaction path model of the effects of magmatic SO2 input into the Kawerau
hydrothermal reservoir. Model is run at 273 °C.

03
V
o
E
o>
o
03
2
CD
c

.3
.2
.1
0
-.1
-.2
-.3
-.4
6

4
Q-
3

1
O .1 .2 .3 .4 .5 .6 .7 .8 .9 1

S02(g) reacted (moles)

-136-
 The other TVZ hydrothermal system that presently exhibits an obvious
magmatic connection is located at Ngatamariki (Fig. 1). Here, a quartz diorite pluton
was intersected at relatively shallow depth (2200 m, Fig. 5). 40Ar/39Ar dating of
hornblende phenocrysts in the pluton (at 400 ka) indicate that the pluton does not appear
to be a present day heat source for the system. However, extensive hydrothermal
alteration associated with the intrusive bears close resemblance to that found in
porphyry copper deposits, and demonstrates that there was a significant magma
hydrothermal interaction in the system.

Fig. 5. Stratigraphic section of Ngatamariki well NM-4.

Ngatamariki Well 4

o
Sediments

Rhyolite

500
Tuffaceous Sediments

Lithic Crystal Tuffs

(Ignimbrite)
Siltstone
f 1000 Dacitic Lavas & Tuffs
Siltstone
& : Seriate
s
q 1500
i
Phyllic Zone (Intensely
Altered Volcanic rocks)

2000

Anhydrite . immiscible
Phyllic Zone (Micro- i Fluids
diorite Transition)
W High Salinity
2500 .................................1>40%NaCI)
Fluid Inclusions
Amphibole
Quartz Diorite V

3000

An extensive zone of phyllic alteration some 100 m thick envelopes the quench
margins of the pluton, and is characterised by coarsely crystalline sericite, quartz and
pyrite alteration. Within the microdiorite - volcanic transition zone, veins of anhydrite
and quartz ± sericite are prevalent, but there is a later overprinting by an assemblage
consisting of quartz, wairakite, calcite and chlorite with lesser epidote.

The earlier quartz veins contain fluid inclusions indicative of fluid immiscibility
in the precipitating hydrothermal fluid. One population of low salinity inclusions
homogenise in the vapour phase, and is interspersed amongst a group of high salinity
inclusions (halite + sylvite bearing) which homogenise in the liquid phase. Homo­
genisation temperatures are > 400 °C, and bulk salinities > 40 wt. % NaCl equivalent.

A work plan including petrology, mineral chemistry, mineral and fluid inclusion
stable isotope analysis, and fluid (+ glass) inclusion studies is presently under way
which will enable us to characterise the degassing history of the pluton. These data will
-137-
be used, as previously described, to ascertain the P-T-X conditions of the hydrothermal
environment in and adjacent to the pluton, and thereby constrain thermodynamic and
heat/mass transport models of this environment.

EXPLORING FOR PRESENT DAY HEAT SOURCES

One of the stated goals of this programme is to develop remote methodologies

which will assist in locating present day magmatic heat sources which fuel the TVZ
geothermal systems. Over the next six years, a sizable effort will go toward researching
and applying new geochemical techniques, and refining existing electrical geophysical
methods with the common aim of delineating the locations of shallowly seated magma
bodies.

In years one and two, we are focussing geochemical efforts primarily on the
Ohaaki system which is of interest because the discharge fluids from that system have
two spatially distinct geochemical signatures, one possibly carrying a magmatic
signature (Giggenbach, 1996). The approach will entail a comprehensive sampling of
production discharges across the field, and application of all presently known
geoindicators to the problem. In addition to the well established discriminating methods
for gases and liquids (Giggenbach and Goguel, 1987), we will also analyse for stable
isotopes of O, H, C, S, Cl, N and B, rare gas isotope signatures, and trace and ultra­
trace non-volatile solutes. The data will be rigorously evaluated against “magmatic”
signatures from active volcanoes in the TVZ, and correlation criteria thereby developed.
In years three through six, these techniques will be applied to the Kawerau system,
while new methodologies involving rare earth elements and IJ-series disequilibrium will
be developed on the well characterised Ohaaki system.

The deep (2-4 km) resistivity structure of the Ohaaki and Kawerau fields will be
mapped using a variety of techniques. Emphasis will be placed on the eastern borefield
at Ohaaki, and the area beneath the 1000 year old Mt Edgecumbe volcano at Kawerau,
both of which are known for high temperatures and low permeabilities at depth.
Multiple source DC dipole-bipole and TDEM surveys will be carried out in conjunction
with natural source magneto-telluric (MT), controlled source MT and TEM soundings
of these areas.

CHARACTERISATION OF THE TVZ FIELD BOUNDARIES: HOW DO THEY

WORK?

Critically important to the development of models of heat and mass transfer in

the heat source regions is a thorough understanding of the manner in which recharge
fluids enter the convective domain. Consequently, a major effort is going toward
quantifying the geological, geochemical and geophysical nature of the boundary regions
in the three extensively drilled systems at Wairakei, Ohaaki and Kawerau.

Petrological and geochemical studies have commenced on cores, cuttings and

fluids from 10 wells which have been sited close to the resistivity boundary of the
Wairakei system. Two of these wells were deviated through the boundary, and finish in
adjacent groundwater reservoirs. Temperature profiles for these deviated wells (eg.
WK305, Fig. 6) are quite irregular, indicating that a complex system of counterflows
-138-
exist along the field margin. Initial findings from WK305 show that the well fluids are
cool (< 95 °C), HCO3" rich, and saturated with respect to calcite. Alteration intensity
declines rapidly across the boundary zone (over == 100 m), and it appears that the zone
has remained largely static through time. Calcite veinlets present in core recovered from
the resistivity boundary proper indicate that this phase plays a role in controlling the
permeability of the field margin.

Fig. 6. Temperature profile in Wairakei well WK305. AQ refers to “aquiclude”.

RESISTIVITY
I OUNDAR r
INSIDE FIELD ZZMlUiLS 1

500m

1000m

1500m —

2000m —

500m 1000m 1500m 2000m

Work planned for the next 18 months includes quantification of the rank and
intensity of alteration across the boundary, analysis of fluid inclusions trapped in
hydrothermal phases in this zone, and the development of reaction path models for the
chemical processes operating in the zone constrained by well data. Predictive models of
processes operating in the deeper boundary environments will then be attempted.
Detailed re-evaluation of existing DC resistivity data in the vicinity of the marginal
wells will be carried out, and will be augmented by tensor time-domain electromagnetic
measurements (TDEM) across the boundary. Penetration depths of up to 3 km are
feasible with the latter technique, which will provide insight into the deeper reservoir
boundary environment.

CONCLUSIONS

Projects detailed above are effectively the core of the current research
programme on Deep Geothermal Resources in the TVZ. Initial results are encouraging,
and we feel confident that over the next six years we will advance our understanding not
only of magma ambient environments, but provide insight into the bigger picture of how
the large TVZ systems operate and evolve through time.
-139-
REFERENCES

Bethke, C, 1992 The Geochemist’s Workbench: A users guide to Rxn, Act2, Tact,
React and Gtplot. University of Illinois, 213 p.
Browne, PRL and Ellis, AJ, 1970 The Ohaki - Broadlands hydrothermal area, New
Zealand: Mineralogy and related geochemistry. Am. Jour. Sci., v.269, p97-31.
Browne, PRL, 1979 Minimum age of the Kawerau system geothermal field, North
Island, New Zealand. Jour. Vole. Geoth. Res., 6, p213-215.
Christenson, BW, 1987 Fluid-mineral equilibria in the Kawerau hydrothermal system,
Taupo Volcanic Zone, NZ, Univ. Microfilms Int’l. no 8904865,452 p.
Christenson, BW, 1989 Fluid inclusions and stable isotope studies in the Kawerau
hydrothermal system, New Zealand: Evidence for past magma-fluid interaction in
the active system. Proc. WRI 6, pl55-159.
Christenson BW 1995 Magmatic interludes in active hydrothermal systems: Processes
and Signatures, ms and Abstract in Proceedings of XXI General Assembly of the
IUGG, Boulder Colorado. p.A467.
Giggenbach, WF, 1986 Redox Redox processes governing the chemistry of fumarolic
gas discharges from White Island, New Zealand. Appl. Geochim. 2, 143-161.
Giggenbach, WF and Goguel, RL, 1989 Collection and analysis of geothermal and
volcanic water and gas discharges. Chem. Div. DSIR Rep. CD2401.
Giggenbach, WF, 1996 Variations in the chemical and isotopic composition of fluids
discharged from the Taupo Volcanic Zone, New Zealand. Jour. Vole. Geoth. Res.
68, p89-l 16.
Hedenquist, JW and Browne, PRL, 1989 The evolution of the Waiotapu geothermal
system, New Zealand, based on the chemical and isotopic composition of its fluids,
minerals an rocks. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 53, p2235-2257.
Nairn IA and Wiradiradja S, 1981 Late Quaternary hydrothermal explosion breccias at
Kawerau geothermal field, New Zealand. Jour. Vole. Geoth. Res., vol.
Steiner, A, 1977 The Wairakei geothermal are, North Island, New Zealand: Its
subsurface geology and hydrothermal rock alteration. NZ Geol. Surv. Bull. 90, 136 p.

-140
 DEEP EXPLORATION OF THE OHAAKI GEOTHERMAL FIELD

B S CAREY

Geothermal Resource Manager, Contact Energy, Wairakei, NZ

PFBIXLEY

Mandalanusantara, Jakarta, Indonesia

J ANDERSON

B J Hughes Services, Jakarta, Indonesia

ABSTRACT

The Ohaaki geothermal field is typical of those in the Taupo Volcanic Zone in New Zealand,
having high permeability and relatively high temperatures at shallow depths. The wells drilled at
Ohaaki from the mid 1960’s to the mid 1980’s, produced 240-280°C geothermal fluid from volcanic-
derived formations between 400 and 1000 m depth. Production-induced pressure drawdown since the
Ohaaki Power Station was commissioned in 1988 has resulted in an influx of cool water into the
shallowest production zones, and decline in steam production. In 1995 three exploration wells were
drilled to investigate the production potential of the greywacke sediments that were known to be
present below the volcanic formations. Permeable zones were not found within the hot greywacke.
Target zones for deeper production from 280-300°C fluid were identified towards the bottom of the
volcanic sequence and BR15 and BR49 are presently producing about 12 MWe from these zones.

INTRODUCTION

The first exploration wells at Ohaaki were completed in the mid 1960’s. The depth of these
wells was effectively limited to about 1500 m by the capacity of the National T12 rig that was
available to drill them. Three deeper wells, BR15, BR24 and BR34 were drilled, but none of these
encounter good permeability.

The successful wells produced 5-10 MWe with the main feed zones at a depth of 400 to 1000
m. During the extended field test from 1968-71 a steam zone developed at the top of this interval.
Towards the end of the test period an influx of cooler shallow fluids was evident through the changes
in enthalpy of the produced fluid, the fluid chemistry and the downhole surveys. The full significance
of this influx of cooler fluids was not recognised at the time.

Production for the 114 MWe Ohaaki power station commenced in 1988. Dilution and cooling
of the shallow-feeding wells in the western part of the field became apparent almost immediately and
dilution has followed in some of the wells in the eastern field. By 1996 two wells had failed through
cooling and the feed water temperature for several others had declined from 240 to approximately
200°C.

While wells with shallow feed zones have been affected by the influx of cooler fluids, wells
with deeper feed zones, below 600 m depth, generally showed a slower decline in potential (little
change in feed water characteristics based on chemistry and physical data). Up until the end of 1995
the bulk of fluid produced from the Ohaaki reservoir was derived from the volcanic formations at 400-
1000 m depth.

It became evident that deeper exploration of the Ohaaki reservoir was needed to investigate
the possibility of producing hotter fluid that was less affected by the shallow diluting fluids. In the
nearby Rotokawa and Ngatamariki geothermal fields, potential production had been proven from
depths down to 2.5 km within volcanic-derived formations. Formation temperatures below 1000 m at

—141 —
Ohaaki were known to be in the range 290-310°C. Reliable production could be expected if suitable
permeability could be located

Prior to undertaking the 1995 deep drilling at Ohaaki the results of recent deep (>2.5 km)
exploration programmes world-wide were reviewed together with the production potential of the
deeper formations and structures throughout the Taupo Volcanic Zone.

Based on this review it was decided to investigate the deeper resource at Ohaaki by drilling
three deviated wells with nominal drilled depths of 3 km and deviation angles of 45° from the vertical.
These wells were programmed to be drilled to cross the regional structural trend, seeking to locate
permeable fractures and zones within the greywacke below the volcanic formations.

DRILLING

The locations of the three wells are shown on figure 1.

O PRODUCTION WELL

REINJECTION WELL

NEW DEEP WELL

-- DEVIATED DRILL TRACK

WAIKATO $—■©■'
RIVER
BR49

GRAPHIC SCALE

Figure 1 - Map of the Ohaaki Geothermal field showing the well tracks of BR47,48 and 49. Other
production and reinjection wells are also shown.

142
 Figure 2 is an indicative geological cross section along the BR49 well track. The well
deviation is also shown in figure 2. The kick-off point was at 300 m, with build-up rates of up to
8°/100 metres, reaching full deviation of about 45° at approximately 970 m depth. The 9-5/8”
production casing was originally programmed to be set into the greywacke at 1200-1300 m but this
was pulled back to 1100m. The well was drilled to 2.8 km.. The bottom part of the production casing
and the open hole were essentially in the tangent section of the hole. Because of the deviation angles,
two of the wellheads were able to be located outside the hotter surface area of the Ohaaki field and the
wells drilled through the “field boundary” in order to reach the target zones. This provided an
advantage in that down to about 500 m depth the wells were effectively in non-geothermal conditions
which reduced the likely difficulties associated with gas, steam and unstable surface conditions that are
sometimes encountered.

HUKA FALLS FORMATION

huka falls formation

WAIORA FMN BROADLANDS DACITE

500m
BROADLANDS DACITE

RAUTAWIRI BRECCIA

EAST BROADLANDS RHYOLITE

1000m
jAST BROADLANDS RHYOLITE
—----- fiANGfTAIKI IGNIMHPirr

1500m

2000m

500m 1000m 1500m 2000m

Figure 2 - Cross section along the BR49 well track

The wells were drilled using Parker Drilling Company’s Rig 228. The rig was mobilised from
Singapore to New Zealand to undertake the work. The rig has a maximum hook load of 500 tonnes
and was fitted with a TESCO hydraulic top drive unit for the Ohaaki contract. Well bore direction and
deviation were continuously controlled using retrievable MWD instruments.

—143 —
DRILLING RESULTS

The well details are documented in Table 1 below. Drilling commenced in January 1995 and
the three wells were completed by late June 1995. The first well took 49 days to drill, that being the
longest time of the three. Some of this time being attributed to establishing the operation and the rig
crew becoming familiar with the rig and the top drive unit.

Table 1 - Drilling Data For Ohaaki Deviated Wells Drilled During 1995

Well BR47 BR48 BR49

Casing depth (m) 1300 1137 1094
Total drilled depth (m) 2983 2243 2798
Average deviation of open hole section (°) 50 47 50
Vertical depth (m) 2336 1858 2080
Horizontal throw (m) 1604 1086 1610
Days drilling 49 39 41
Maximum Measured Temp (°C) 302 295 290
Permeability - kh - (dm) 0.05 33 1

WELL LOGGING

An important objective of the programme was to determine the characteristics of fracture

zones and in particular the fluid producing fractures and zones intersected by the well bore. To
achieve this it was planned to log the wells, where possible, using fracture logging (Schlumberger
microresistivity-based FMS supported by calliper, sonic, density and porosity logs) to determine
fracture orientation, in conjunction with spinner / flowmeter logs to identify which fractures accepted
and / or produced fluid. Additional logging methods such as vertical seismic were considered and
tested while drilling BR47, but were not used for the later wells.

To successfully run the more sophisticated fracture logs required that the well bore was stable
(ie unlikely to collapse) and could be cooled to less than about 100°C to with in the limitations of the
logging cable and downhole instrumentation. For wells drilled into high temperature formations - in
this case greater than 290°C - this means that there must be permeability (fracture zones) towards the
bottom of the well which will accept cool water injected from the surface. With deep permeable zones
present the well bore temperature should be able to be kept cool enough to run the logs. If permeable
fractures are not found it may be possible to cool the well by pumping under high pressure, but this
would cause the formation to be stimulated and logging would not reflect the natural fracture
conditions.

Conventional completion tests were also undertaken on the wells.

RESULTS

The three wells were designed primarily as exploration wells to find out more information
about the resource. The geological interpretation of the deep exploration programme is covered in
more detail by Wood (1996).

BR47 was cased into the greywacke. It found no fracture permeability with the overall
injectivity in the order of 1 t/h/b.. A rhyolite dyke was found within the greywacke formation, but
there was no permeability associated with this feature. Temperatures were greater than 290°C
throughout most of the open hole section. No fracture logs were run as there was no indication of
significant permeability and the well temperatures precluded running the tool.

144-
 BR48 was drilled below 1500 m with complete lost circulation. A temperature log made on
completion of the drilling showed it was cool enough to run the fracture logging suite of tools. Sonic,
porosity and density logs were successfully completed but the FMS logs were abandoned after the tool
string became stuck at 2000 m due to hole conditions. The tools were subsequently fished by the rig
and recovered.

The programmed production casing shoe depth for BR49 was changed to ensure that it was
above the likely volcanic-greywacke contact. This was to improve the probability of locating some
permeability in this well. The major permeable zone in BR49 was found subsequently within the
volcanics and close to the contact zone with the greywacke but little if any permeability deeper within
the greywacke. While preparing to run the FMS logs there were problems with a temperature log run
in the open hole. This required another fishing operation to recover the logging tools and the
subsequent fracture logs were not run because of the likelihood of the tool string becoming stuck .

Preliminary tests on BR48 and BR49 indicated production potential. Given the success that
was achieved, with two out of the three wells drilled being suitable for production, it was decided to
undertake a review of the existing wells with the view to rentering and redrilling. BR15 and BR42
were re-entered and redrilled with deviated well paths to new locations in November and December
1995. Redrilling BR15 was successful but BR42 resulted in little change in its productivity.
Production testing of the new wells showed than an additional 20 MWe potential was immediately
available from the new wells drilled and the old wells reentered. BR15 and BR49 are connected to the
production system and are producing about 12 Mwe. BR48 is expected to be connected into the
system later in 1997.

BR15, BR48 and BR49 have feed zones in the volcanic formations above the greywacke,
temperatures encountered are up 300 °C. At the time of writing the chemistry of BR48 has not
stabilised with the influence of drilling fluids evident. BR15 and BR49 are connected to the production
system and are producing alkali chloride waters of the following composition.

BR DATE WHP H MASS Na Ca Cl S04 HC03 Cl (RES) TQTZ TNK TNKC C02 C02/H
ID 2S
b.g. kj/kg t/hr mg/kg ppm °C °C °C wt%
15 Aug-96 19.7 1338 302 947 2.2 1613 2.6 183 1014 282 291 295 1.53 62
49 Dec-96 14 1066 144 958 0.5 1028 21.6 489 731 248 247 283

DISCUSSION

The present production depths at Ohaaki are relatively shallow and subsurface temperature
data shows that there is a substantial heat reserve at greater depths. The 1995 deep exploration
programme was successful in locating new production zones below the present producing levels.

• Good production potential and additional reserves are located deeper in the volcanic formations and
near the contact zone between greywacke and overlying volcanics.

• No significant permeability was found to be present in the greywacke sediments which were drilled
during the 1995 exploration programme.

Production from wells BR 15 and BR 49 are currently adding some 12 MWe to the output of
the Ohaaki power station.

BR48 is programmed for further testing in early 1997. Connection into the production system
is anticipated during 1997.

There is energy available in the reservoir and drilling additional wells will enable some of the
production decline caused by dilution and cooling in the shallower depths of the reservoir to be made
up with production from deeper hotter fluids. Additional wells need to be drilled into the zones
identified from the 1995 drilling programme to assist in making up for the decline that is occurring.

-145-
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The authors thank Contact Energy Ltd for enabling publication.

REFERENCES

Wood, C P. (1996). Basement Geology and Structure of TVZ Geothermal Fields, New Zealand.
Proc. 18th NZ Geothermal Workshop, pl57ff.

—146 —
 MATHEMATICAL MODELLING OF HEAT AND MASS TRANSPORT IN DEEP
GEOTHERMAL RESERVOIRS

Graham J. Weir

Applied Mathematics
The New Zealand Institute for Industrial Research and Development
PO Box 31-310, Lower Hutt
New Zealand

ABSTRACT

Current mathematical modelling of deep geothermal processes in New Zealand include generic
supercritical chemical research, single field pluton/hot plate modelling, and conceptual multi-field
modelling. This paper concentrates on a conceptual model of Taupo Volcanic Zone, (TVZ), New
Zealand, emphasising the implications of the findings of recent GPS and micro-seismic studies in TVZ
on models of processes transporting mass, heat and chemicals. We argue that in addition to the well
established process of groundwater convection extracting heat and chemicals by interacting with
magmatic-like intrusives under TVZ, that two other processes may be important. Firstly, the existence
of a ductile layer between about 7 to 15 km depth will produce a region of “enhanced conduction” in
which very high conductive fluxes of energy arise from a temperature distribution which varies
exponentially with depth. Secondly, water may transport up through the ductile layer, episodically, as a
result of extensional processes in the ductile region. Heat transfer in the TVZ of about 4200 MW may
be made up from about 1300 MW from the cooling of intrusives in the brittle region in the upper 7 km;
of about an additional 2300 MW of conducted heat entering the brittle region from the ductile region;
and about an additional 600 MW of episodic water transport through the ductile region.

Keywords heat flow, deep geothermal fields, extension, conduction

TABLE 1
Approximate TVZ parameters

Symbol Meaning Assumed value

V average extensional speed 10 mm/year
z vertical coordinate
2m “linear” ductile thickness 2km
c Magma specific heat 1.3 x 103 J/kg/C
D Thermal diffusivity 5.9 x 10"7 m2/s
H Brittle thickness 7 or 15 km
Jk Equation (4) 0.47 W/m2
K Rock conductivity 2 W/m/C
L Magma crystallization energy 3.5 x 105 J/kg
S TVZ length 160 km
Tf Brittle/fracture temperature 400°C
T„ Melting temperature 1200°C
W TVZ width 30 km
Y Ductile layer thickness 8km
8 Scaled ductile layer thickness 7.3 km
P Rock density 2600 kg/m3
AT Temperature difference (1) 800°C

-147-
1. INTRODUCTION

The aim of this paper is to summarise some of the current research in New Zealand on the
mathematical modelling of deep geothermal reservoirs. We begin by briefly outlining generic chemical
modelling research; and modelling of single plutonic intrusions. We then discuss the TVZ region of
New Zealand, and develop a conceptual multi-field model of the TVZ.

2. GENERIC CHEMICAL RESEARCH

Deep geothermal reservoirs may extend to depths of perhaps 8 km, or greater, and involve pressures
of the order of 1000 bar, and temperatures up to 800°C. Two methods are being used to extend
chemical equilibrium software to these extreme supercritical regions. Chemical equilibria data is
missing for most of this region of phase space. However, once temperatures are above about 300°C,
then if ionisation is small, chemical reactions may be relatively unimportant, and the key factors in
modelling may be determination of phase equilibria and the corresponding physical phase properties
such as density, viscosity and enthalpy.

2.1 Empirical Phase Equilibrium Relationships

McKibbin and McNabb (1993) have constructed empirical relationships describing the phase
equilibria for H2G - NaCl, and McKibbin and Palliser (personal communication) are well advanced in
determining the corresponding H20 - NaCl - C02 relationships, for temperatures to 800°C and
pressures of up to 1000 bar. Their research approximates the phase diagram for these systems, and
approximates the corresponding physical properties of the phases.

2.2 Equation of State Thermodynamics

White and Nicholson (personal communication) have just completed an Equation of State for an
H20 - NaCl system, up to 5000 bars and 1200°C, based on work of Anderko and Pitzer (1993).
Densities and enthalpies are constructed from the EOS, and viscosities are calculated independently
using correlations of Phillips et al. (1981).

2.3 Two Phase/Supercritical Chemical Transport

The chemistry of surface features can indicate deep flow processes, and by modelling such features,
information may be determined on deep transport For example, White (personal communication) has
extended previous work (White and Kissling, 96) to include sulphur and C02 chemistry to model acid
sulphate and steam-heated bicarbonate pools. The relative location of these two types of pools depend
on the degree of cross-flow in the reservoir.

3. PLUTON INTRUSION MODELLING

Numerical models have been constructed by Kissling (1996) of the transport of mass and energy
from depths of 8 km. A given magmatic water flux and energy flux are specified at a depth of 8 km,
equal to the measured surface outflow values. The temperature of the base, and of the rising plume, are
calculated. Groundwater is entrained by the rising geothermal plume. The width of the intruded pluton
was varied, together with the permeability structure, until the plume temperature and the magmatic to
groundwater ratios are approximately those measured at a depth of about 3 km. Calculations to date
have imposed cylindrical symmetry, and suggest that quite low permeabilities (about 1 mD) exist below
the TVZ.

—148 —
4. CONCEPTUAL MODEL FOR TVZ

The Taupe Volcanic Zone (TVZ) is in the North Island of New Zealand, extending in a north-south
direction (Cole, 1990), and opening in the north to be about 60 km in east-west extent (Grindley, 1965).
TVZ consists of a northern segment containing the andesitic volcano White Island; a central region
between Edgecumbe and Taupo containing mostly rhyolitic volcanism; and a southern andesitic region
containing Mt Tongariro, Ngauruhoe and Ruapehu. The geological, geochemical and geophysical
properties of TVZ have recently been summarised in a Special Issue (Simmons and Weavers, 1995) on
TVZ.

Hochstein (1995) has emphasised that the long term eruption rate of rhyolites from TVZ is the
highest on earth for a volcanic arc setting, and also that the total crustal heat transfer is arguably the
highest on earth for an arc setting. A widely accepted model of crustal heat transfer in TVZ (Stem,
1987) is that the region of extension within TVZ is occupied by high temperature magma, which is
eventually cooled by groundwater. The heat source from these intrusives is then equal to

S Hvp(L + CAT) (1)

where S is the slip distance (160km), H depth (15 km), v extension rate (12-20 mm/year), p rock
density (2600 kg/m3), L latent heat (3.5 10s J/kg), C heat capacity (1300 J/kg/°C), and AT is the
temperature difference (800°C) between molten rock and rock cooled by convecdng groundwater. The
heat production rate is therefore between 3400 and 5800 MW, which straddles the measured total
output of4200 MW over an area of 5000 km2.

The “intrusive” model in (1) has the great advantage that it predicts that the chemical output from
TVZ will reflect the composition of the emplaced magmas. Extensive chemical and isotopic studies
(Giggenbach, 1995) of geothermal waters show that the ratios of Cl, B, Li and Cs are approximately
those occurring in magmatic rocks, strongly suggesting that such waters have formed from leaching
magmatic rocks, or have been in close association with such rocks for a long time.

4.1 Recent Micro-seismic and GPS Implications

Recent micro-seismic studies (Bibby et al, 1995) in the Taupo Volcanic Zone suggest that below
about 7 to 9 km, the rocks under TVZ are ductile, because aftershocks are confined to above that level.
This is also consistent with well temperatures in the Wairakei geothermal field (McNabb, 1992), which
are at about 255°C at one kilometre depth, and increase by about 20°C in the next kilometre. If rocks
become ductile at 450°C - 700°C, (Fournier, 1988, Lister, 1975) then this may occur at about 8.5 km
depth.

In addition, TVZ contains about 20 geothermal fields, spaced about 15 km apart. If this spacing is
due to convection cells, then the depth of these cells may be about 7.5 km in a uniform porous media.
Some caution is needed, however, in performing such extrapolations, as about the upper 2.5 km of TVZ
is occupied by low density pyroclastic infill (Bibby et al., 1995), characterised by seismic velocities of
about 3.2 km/s. Hence, groundwater flow conditions in the upper 2.5 km may not necessarily reflect
deeper flow conditions.

For the remainder of this paper we will accept the microseismic evidence, and assume that at a depth
of about 7 km the rocks become ductile under TVZ, and that groundwater does not penetrate to below
about 7 km. This assumption modifies the intrusive model above in two obvious ways. Firstly, the heat
to chloride ratio from TVZ will be altered, as the volume of chemicals available to the groundwater has
been approximately halved. Secondly, if water cannot penetrate down to the full depth H in (1) of 15
km, but only to say 7 km, then the heat production rate estimate in (1) must be reduced, since 7) is
unattainable in the ductile region, and so AT in (1) must be reduced.

-149
 Inferences can also be drawn from geodetic measurements of extension. The heat output estimated
in (1) is too great, since the average extension rate v used in (1) of 12 - 20 mm/year seems to be too
great. For example, in order to obtain a heat output of about 4200 MW from (1), requires an average
extension rate of about 15 mm/year (for a height H of 15 km). While local extension rates of 18
mm/year have been measured (Darby and Williams, 1991), it does seem that extension rates vary both
in time and in location, but are on average somewhat less than 15 mm/year (D. Darby, personal
communication). Terrestrial geodetic measurements over a 50 year time interval show an extension
rate of about 8 mm/yr for the northern TVZ (Sissons, 1979), and space based GPS measurements over a
one year period (1990-1991) are consistent with this result (Darby and Meertens, 1995). We shall
proceed in this paper by assuming an average extension rate of 10 mm/year.

In this paper we shall assume that the intrusive model of magma passively occupying volume
generated by extensional processes is basically sound. However, since we have reduced the height H in
(1) from 15 km to 7 km, and v to 10 mm/year from 12 - 20 mm/year, (1) yields an energy contribution
from cooling of intrusives of about 1300 MW. To account for a total output of 4200 MW then requires
an additional 2900 MW. The main aim of this paper is to discuss transport mechanisms which can yield
such an additional heat flow.

5. ENHANCED CONDUCTION MODEL

An enhanced rate of conductive heating is possible from the ductile region through the emplacement
of magma. If the magma is intruded at temperature Tm, then it will cool down to the average
temperature T at that depth in the ductile region, rather than to 7) which occurs in the brittle region.
This leads to a reduction in the estimate of the total heat output from the TVZ, relative to the
“intrusive” model, but will increase the conductive loss of heat from the ductile region as estimated
from a linear temperature profile.

If we assume a steady temperature profile in the ductile region, then the temperature at depth z
below the brittle region satisfies

(2)

where

w WD
(3)
pCv v

and W is the width of TVZ, which we take as 30 km. In (3), D is the thermal diffusivity. For an average
opening rate of 10 mm/year, 5 equals 7.3 km.

Integrating (2), and imposing the boundary conditions that T equals T{ and Tm at respectively z
equalling 0 and Y, yields the conductive flux JK from the ductile region into the brittle region as

(4)

When 7/ Sis small, then the conductive flux is linear, with length scale Y. However, when Y J Sis
large, then the heat flow predicted by (4) becomes independent of Y, and the relevant length scale is 5,
( tJw D / V ), or about 7.3 km when v equals 10 mm/year. Interestingly, this is close to the thickness
of the ductile layer under TVZ.

- 150-
 Taking Y, the depth of the ductile region, as 8 km, yields JK equalling 0.47 W/m2 for an average
opening velocity of 10 mm/year. Over the TVZ area of 5000 km2, this enhanced conductivity yields
2300 MW. Adding this enhanced conductive output to the output from the cooling intrusions in the
brittle region of 1300 MW yields a TVZ energy output of abut 3600 MW. Consequently, an additional
energy source of about 600 MW is still needed, and this must be supplied by convective transport
though the ductile region.

6. WATER TRANSPORT MODEL

One mechanism which can supply water and chemicals from the ductile region is through the
upward buoyant rise of such a fluid through the ductile region. We are seeking a missing 600 MW of
energy to be transported by this process. We shall assume that this flux is associated with the
volumetric extension occurring in the ductile region.

One mechanism which may operate in the ductile region is that extension may produce volume. If
this volume is initially occupied by water, either from outgassing within the ductile layer, or is supplied
from beneath the ductile layer, then the rate of flow of water through the ductile layer is just the rate of
volume creation within the ductile layer. This volume must be replaced eventually by intruding rock
substance or magma to preserve isostacy.

If the ductile region is 8 km deep (between 7 and 15 km depth), 160 km long, and opens at an
average rate of 10 mm/year, then volume is created at 0.43 m3/s. We assume that the average
temperature in the ductile region is 800°C, and the average pressure is 1600 bars (600 bars of
hydrostatic and 1000 bars of lithostatic pressure). Extrapolating densities and enthalpies in the Steam
Tables suggests the water substance density is about 410 kg/m3, and its enthalpy about 3.45 MJ/kg.
Thus 600 MW are available from this process. The almost exact agreement with this energy source and
the missing energy must be taken as somewhat coincidental, but these calculations do suggest that
buoyant transport of water through the ductile region may be important.

Within the brittle region, volume is created at 0.37 m3/s. This corresponds to about 960 kg/s of
magmatic intrusions. Consequently, the apparent magmatic water content of the intruded rocks is about
19% (176/960). To this may be added an insitu 2% water content in the intruded magma. In either
situation, the apparent water content of the intruded rocks is about 20%.

In an independent chemical analysis of magmatic contents of TVZ geothermal fluids, Giggenbach

(Table 3, 1995) has suggested that a separate phase of water exists in intruded magmas in TVZ. He
calculates that "andesitic" waters have a 13% water content, and rhyolitic waters a 4% water content.
Unfortunately, the rhyolitic water data of Giggenbach contains considerable scatter, and so there is
uncertainty about the rhyolitic water contents.

The presence of two independent predictions of such an apparent water phase within intruded
magmatic rocks is very interesting, and may be relevant to mineral deposition. In Giggenbach's model,
the water is assumed to occur as a foam within the rock. In this paper, the water is assumed to occur as
a connected phase within the ductile region.

7. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

This paper has briefly reviewed current work in New Zealand on the mathematical modelling of
deep geothermal reservoirs in TVZ. The key new result has been a modified model of magmatic
intrusions into a region of extension, which allows for a lower ductile region, in which we assume
groundwater cannot travel. Since the intrusion model assumes inflowing magma replaces the volume
created in the region of extension, magma must enter both above and within the ductile region. This
produces an imbalance between the energy entering the ductile region, and the rate at which such
energy can be transported away by conduction.

- 151-
 The resulting high temperature gradients, produced from a temperature gradient which varies
exponentially with depth, results in very high conductive fluxes of energy. This enhanced conduction
model produced an energy flux of about 0.47 W/m2. The total energy flux from TVZ is about 0.8
W/m2, and so conduction would play a much higher role in this model, than in any of the previous
models of geothermal areas.

Added to this conductive flux is the energy flux from the cooling of intrasives in the region above
the ductile region, of about 0.26 W/m2. These two energy fluxes yield about 90% of the observed total.
Given the uncertainties in the parameters used, such as opening rates, thermal conductivities, and
thicknesses of the brittle and ductile regions, a 90\% agreement may be close enough to support the
intrusion model. If a slightly greater energy flux is needed, then this could be obtained by slightly
altering some of the parameters used above, such as increasing the opening rate, or the thermal
conductivity. However, if an additional energy flux is needed, in addition to that from intrusives and
conduction, then we suggested the most likely source is from episodic water convection through the
ductile region, perhaps from water released from the subducting Pacific Plate to the east of TVZ.

An additional apparent water phase in magmatic rocks has been deduced by Giggenbach (1995)
from chemical and isotopic analysis of geothermal waters in TVZ. We suggested that such a phase may
be mobile, initially occupying the extending ductile region, and eventually being replaced by intruding
magma. This produces an additional energy flux of 0.12 W/m2 to the groundwater. The total energy
flux from these three mechanisms is therefore 0.85 W/m2, which is extremely close to the observed
value of about 0.84 W/m2. Given the uncertainties in the appropriate choice of model parameters, such
a close agreement was assumed to be coincidental.

A new length scale associated with the ductile region was deduced. The vertical length scale, 5 in
(3), is associated with enhanced conduction in the ductile region. Its depth is about 8 km, which,
interestingly, is close to the thickness of the ductile region, as inferred from micro-seismic and seismic
studies.

Finally, we emphasise the tentative nature of the models proposed above. While the model of
groundwater circulating through the top 2.5 km of TVZ, transporting heat and chemicals, is widely
accepted, the nature of transport processes below that level are at present speculative. Numerical
modelling of deeper flows under TVZ has only just begun (Kissling, 1996).

REFERENCES

Anderko, A. and Pitzer, K.S., 1993. Equation of state representation of phase equilibria and volumetric
properties of the system NaCl-H20 above 573K, Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, 57, 1657 -
1680.

Bibby, H.M., Caldwell, T.G., Davey, F.J. and Webb, T.H., 1995. Geophysical evidence on the structure
of the Taupo Volcanic Zone and its hydrothermal circulation, J. Volcanology and geothermal
research, 68,29 - 58.

Cole, J.W., 1990. Structural control and origin of volcanism in the Taupo volcanic zone, New Zealand,
Bull. Volcanol., 52,445 - 459.

Darby, D.J. and Merteens, C.M., 1995. Terrestrial and GPS measurements of deformation across the
Taupo back arc and Hikurangi forearc regions in New Zealand, J. Geophys. Res., 100, 8221 -
8232.

Darby, D.J. and Williams, R.O., 1991. A new geodetic estimate of deformation in the Central Volcanic
Region of the North Island, New Zealand, 34,127 -136.

Fournier, R.O., 1988. Accumulation of thin subhorizontal bodies of fluid in quasiplastic crystalline
rocks at temperatures exceeding 350° - 400°, EOS, 69,478.

- 152-
Giggenbach, W.F., 1995. Variations in the chemical and isotopic composition of fluids discharged from
Taupo Volcanic Zone, New Zealand, J. Volcanology and geothermal research, 68,89 -116.

Grindley, G.W., 1965. The geology, structure and exploitation of Wairakei geothermal field, New
Zealand, N.Z. Geol. Surv. Bull., 75.

Hochstein, M.P., 1995. Crustal heat transfer in the Taupo Volcanic Zone (New Zealand): comparison
with other volcanic arcs and explanatory heat source models, J. Volcanology and geothermal
research, 68,117 -151.

Kissling, W.M., 1996, Large scale numerical models of TVZ-type geothermal fields, Proc. 18th New
Zealand Geothermal Workshop, University of Auckland, 18,275 -281.

Lister, C.R.B., 1975. Qualitative theory on the deep end of geothermal systems : Second United Nations
Symposium on the Development and Use of Geothermal Resources, 1,459 - 643.

McKibbin, R. and McNabb, A., 1993. Modelling the phase boundaries and fluid properties of the
system H20 - NaCl at high temperatures and pressures, Proc. 15th New Zealand Geothermal
Workshop, University of Auckland, 15,267 - 275.

McNabb, A., 1992. The Taupo-Rotorua Hot-Plate, Proc. 14th New Zealand Geothermal Workshop,
University of Auckland, 14, 111 -114.

Phillips, S.L., Igbene, A., Fair, J.A., Ozbek, H. and Tavana, M., 1983. A Technical Databook for
Geothermal Energy Utilisation, LBL-12810, Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory, Berkeley, CA.

Simmons, S.F. and Weaver, S.D., 1995. Taupo Volcanic Zone, New Zealand, Special Issue, J.
Volcanology and geothermal research, 68,1 - 3,1238.

Stem, A.T., 1987. Asymmetric back-arc spreading, heat flux and structure associated with the Central
Volcanic Region of New Zealand, Earth and Planetary Letters, 85,265 - 276.

White, S.P. and Kissling, W.M., 1996, Including chloride and CO% chemistry in large scale reservoir
models. Proc. 18th New Zealand Geothermal Workshop, University of Auckland, 18,295 -301.

- 153-
 CORROSION IN VOLCANIC GASES

Keith A Lichti, Susan J Swann and Stephen P White

Materials performance Technologies, Industrial Research Limited, New Zealand

Norio Sanada, Yoshiaki Kurata, Hiroshi Nanjo and Jun Ikeuchi

Tohoku National Industrial research Institute, AIST, MITI, Japan

Bruce W Christenson
Institute of Geological and Nuclear Sciences, New Zealand

ABSTRACT

Volcanic gas environments on White Island, New Zealand, and Kuju-Iwoyama, Kyushu, Japan,
have been used to study the corrosion properties of materials which might be used for engineering plant for
energy production from deep-seated and magma-ambient geothermal systems. The corrosion chemistry of
gases derived from natural volcanic features varies, from being no more aggressive than conventional
geothermal fluids, to being so aggressive that only highly alloyed and expensive materials show suitable
resistance. Models of corrosion product phase stability for common alloy elements contained in
engineering alloys have been developed for gaseous environments using thermodynamic principles and
conventional corrosion theory. These models give reasons for the observed corrosion kinetics and can be
used to help to predict the performance of other alloys in similar environments. Deficiencies in the
knowledge base for selection of materials for aggressive geothermal environments are identified, and
directions for future research on materials having suitable corrosion resistance for anticipated deep-seated
and magma-ambient production fluids are proposed.

INTRODUCTION

Research on the performance of materials in aggressive deep-sealed geothermal production fluids

has been limited because of the availability of wells capable of safely producing such fluids over a
reasonable period of time for materials exposure tests. Natural volcanic features such as high temperature
fumaroles and hot pools provide reasonable interim test sites for such work.

In New Zealand, a joint Japan/New Zealand initiative began the testing of materials in natural
volcanic features on White Island in 1993 (Kurata et al, 1994, Kurata etal, 1995, Lichti etal, 1996). White
Island was chosen for its relative ease of access and variety of environments available within a single site.
The materials tests involved the direct exposure of metal samples in the v olcanic features, and in tests in
open fumaroles this resulted in inclusion of air in the test environments.

In Japan, corrosion studies in volcanic environments were initiated in 1992 at Kuju-Iwoyama in

Kyushu, as part of a series of activities aimed at demonstrating the feasibility of producing energy from
such environments (Ehara, 1994). The geothermal environment was derived from a shallow borehole
drilled into a fumarolic area and cased with a 2 inch carbon steel pipe. The discharge gases were directed
into an insulated test chamber where the metal specimens were held on exposure racks (Saito et al, 1994).
The test arrangement gave a non-aerated superheated gas environment.

Volcanic gas environments, such as those encountered in fumaroles, have aggressive chemistries
due to the presence of corrosive gases S02, H2S, HC1 and HF. Corrosion chemistries of such mixed gas
environments have recently been characterised for iron, in an attempt to rationalise differences observed in
corrosion kinetics between aerated and non-aerated corrosion test environments (Lichti et al, 1996). This
paper reviews corrosion kinetic data obtained for these differing environments and extends the
thermodynamic models for other alloying elements to describe the performance of common engineering
alloys in gaseous fumarolic environments. A later paper will consider corrosion results and models of
corrosion in hot pool-type liquid volcanic environments.

- 154-
VOLCANIC GAS TEST SITES

The test sites used for corrosion studies on White Island included a high-temperature fumarole,
WI #9 (Noisy Nellie) and a low-temperature fumarole, WI # 12 (Table 1). Exposed samples were placed
directly into the open fumaroles for the duration of the test periods. WI #9 (Noisy Nellie) is of large
diameter, >15 m and depth, >12 m, while WI #12 is about 1.5 m in diameter and about 1 m deep.

Over the three year period of tests, a number of differing environments were encountered in WI #9
(Noisy Nellie), these included (Table 1):
• a period of stable high temperatures in the range 230 ° C to 190 °C, dry superheated gas, aerated
• a period of lower temperatures apparently below the dew point for the gas mixture, wet gas, aerated
• a period of very low temperatures in the base of the fumarole where the metal samples were exposed at
19 ° C to 114 ° C, very wet gas, aerated.

Testing of metals in a fumarolic environment on Kuju-Iwoyama in Japan (see Table 1) was done
by drilling a small bore hole below an area where significant fumarolic activity was observed. The hole
intersected what appeared to be a feed zone and gave single phase superheated steam at a temperature of
233 °C. The tests were conducted in an insulated metal chamber at atmospheric pressure with steam feed
taken directly from the discharge pipe, and hence it is believed that air was excluded from this nominally
dry gas test environment.

Table 1- Volcanic gas environments used for corrosion tests.

Exposure Site Start Date Temperature Comments

High-temperature fumaroles °C
White Island #9 (Noisy Nellie) Atmospheric Pressure
(Exposures Directly In Fumarole) Natural Aeration
- 1st test - Coupons + SCC -111 days 14.01.94 230 to 190 Dry Gas Environment
- 2nd test - Coupons - 7 days 21.02.95 95 to 145 Acid Formation Evident
- gas sampling 21.02.95 192 Dry Gas Sampled
- 3rd test - Coupons + SCC - 44 days 28.02.95 90 to 119 Acid Formation Evident
- 4th test - Coupons * 14.02.96 19-114 Condensation Evident
- gas sampling 14&17.02.96 120
Limited Gas Discharge
Kuju-Iwoyama Atmospheric Pressure
(Exposures In Insulated Steam Chamber) Non-aerated Steam/Gas Taken
Coupons + SCC - 10 months 27-12-92 230 From Fumarole Area Borehole
Low-temperature fumarole *
White Island #12 Atmospheric Pressure
(Exposures Directly In Fumarole) Natural Aeration
- 1st test - Coupons -111 days * 15.01.94 98 Sulfur Precipitation Evident
- 2nd test- gas sampling + SCC - 30 days * 21.02.95 98 Sulfur Precipitation Evident

* The results obtained in these low temperature tests will be the subject of a future paper.

The geochemistry of the test sites on White Island and on Kuju-Iwoyama are summarised in Table
2 (Lichti et al, 1996). These chemistries are similar to those derived from other volcanic fumaroles (see for
example, Giggenbach et al, 1990), and also show some similarities to gases derived from aggressive
geothermal wells, in for example, the Philippines (Maturgo, 1996, Salonga, 1996).

Table 2- Geochemistry of Fumarole Environments Used for Corrosion Testing (Lichti et al, 1996).
Location Date T CO* h2s so2 NH, HF HC1 CO h2 o2* n2 ch4 Ar h2o Gas*
°C mmol gas/I 00 mol gas plus steam wt%
wi#9[n 15.6.88 280 425 82.6 309 0.23 0.25 5.33 0.002 34.8 - 4.36 4.55 0.03 99134 2.3
WI #9f2] 21.2.95 193 1381 94.3 133 15.5 3.87 35.1 - 43.1 (62.8) 119 5.48 0.90 98169 4.3
WI #1212] 15.1.94 98 9171 53.7 40.0 0.07 0.07 0.94 - 0.07 (0.13) 69.1 16.2 0 11 90649 22.8
Kuju-Iwoyama!31 27.12.92 230 1400 750 240 - 10.0 30.0 - - - - - - 97580 5.8

* 02 in original samples, results shown are corrected for air contamination; **Total Gas in Steam
[1] Giggenbach and Sheppard, 1989; [2] Lichti et al, 1996; [3] Saito et al, 1994

— 155 —
CORROSION OF ENGINEERING ALLOYS IN VOLCANIC GASES

Engineering alloys as described in Table 3 were exposed in the differing tests in volcanic gases on
White Island (Kurata et al, 1994, Kurata et al, 1995) and Kuju-Iwoyama (Saito et al, 1994). The tests cover
a range of high temperature dry gas environments, both aerated and non-aerated, and wet (condensate
containing) aerated environments as outlined in Table 3. Evaluated surface corrosion and stress corrosion
cracking results are summarised in Table 4. Table 5 gives a summary of analysis results for corrosion
products formed in the differing environments.

The surface corrosion rate and stress corrosion cracking results indicate:
• low rates of surface corrosion in the dry non-aerated superheated gas (Table 4 - Kuju-Iwoyama, Coupon
samples)
• metal sulfide and hydrated ferrous sulfate corrosion product stability in the dry non-aerated superheated
gas (Table 5 - Kuju-Iwoyama, Coupon samples)
• high rates of surface corrosion in the dry aerated superheated gas ( Table 4 - White Island, Coupon
samples)
• metal oxide and metal chloride corrosion product stability in the dry aerated superheated gas (Table 5
- White Island, Coupon samples)
• high rates of surface corrosion in the wet aerated gas (Table 4 - White Island, Coupons and U-Bend
samples)
• stress corrosion cracking of types SUS304 and 316 stainless steels in dry non-aerated superheated gas
(Table 4 - Kuju-Iwoyama, Bent Beam samples)
• stress corrosion cracking of types SUS304 and 316 and the duplex alloy 22Cr-5Ni in wet aerated gas
(Table 4 - White Island, U-Bend samples)
• an absence of coherent corrosion products in wet aerated gas with an oily film containing high
concentrations of dissolved metal ions and contaminant corrosive ions (Table 5 - White Island, U-Bend
samples)
• significant cross contamination of corrosion products (see FeS2 on A-5083 aluminium alloy and
contaminant metal ions on Ti alloys in Table 5). (Note that the all U-Bend materials except the Ti
alloys were stressed using straps made from Alloy 1925hMo fixtures and corrosion product from this
material is entrained in the wash water samples for these alloys.)
• CaS04 precipitation in the dry gas environments (Table 5 - White Island and Kuju Iwoyama, Coupons
and Chamber Wall)

MODELS OF CORROSION IN VOLCANIC GASES

1. Dry gas environments

The corrosion chemistry of dry superheated high temperature gas fumarole environments can be
described using phase stability diagrams for metals and metal reaction compounds as a function of log
pS02 vs log p02 (Lichti et al, 1996). Figure 1 shows a series of such diagrams for the alloying elements
iron, nickel, chromium, molybdenum and titanium as well as a phase stability diagram for nickel as a
function of log pCl2 vs log p02. Equilibrium phase stability calculations suggest the conditions in the
White Island and Kuju-Iwoyama test sites had similar pS02 at 10"3 atm but had differing p02 values, Noisy
Nellie, 10"3 atm and Kuju-Iwoyama, 10"33 atm (Lichti et al, 1996). The pCl2 in these environments was
calculated to be 10"22 atm when pHCl was 10"3 atm. The diagrams were constructed using thermodynamic
data extracted from the Outokumpu HSC Chemistry database.

Reactions of the Wl #9 (Noisy Nellie) and Kuju-Iwoyama fumarolic gas mixtures with iron are
illustrated on the Fe-S-0 diagram of Figure 1. The air-free and air-in-equilibrium gas mixtures have
partial pressures which stabilise layers of Pyrite (FeS2) and Troilite (FeS) or Pyrrohotite (Fe(i_x)S) as the
metal surface is approached from the metal sulfide/gas interface. The non-equilibrium air-containing gas
has a range of possible concentrations which coincide with ferrous and ferric sulfates and Hematite (Fe203)
and Magnetite (Fe304) forming on the metal surface. The predicted sulfide stability on carbon steel
samples is confirmed for the Kuju-Iwoyama tests, Table 5 (Saito et al, 1994) while oxide stability was
observed on tests in WI #9 (Noisy Nellie) at these temperatures, Table 5 (Kurata et al, 1995). Kuju-

- 156-
Table 3- Metals and Alloys Tested for Resistance to Corrosion on White Island, WI (Kurata et al, 1995)
and Kuju-Iwoyama, K-I (Saito et al, 1994).

Material Type UNSNo. Normal Composition Dry Gas Wet Gas LowT *
WI#9 K-I WI #9 WI #12
Carbon and Low Alloy Steels
SS400 — Carbon steel C c C c
Cast Iron —— c
SMA49AW — Cor-Ten c c
N80 — API standard c c
L80 — API standard c c
CrMoV — Low Alloy Steel CB
2.5Ni — Low Alloy Steel CB
Ferritic and Martensitic Stainless Steel
SUS405 S40500 12Cr CB
13Cr S41000 13Cr c c
13CrMo — 13Cr-lMo CB
23Cr-6Al — 23Cr-6Al c
17-4PH SI7400 17Cr-4Ni-4Cu-0.3Cb CB
Austenitic Stainless Steels
SUS304 S30400 18Cr-8Ni cw CB cwu cu
SUS304L S30403 18Cr-8Ni-0.03C CB
SUS316 S31600 18Cr-10Ni-2.5Mo cw cw c
SUS316L S31603 18Cr-10Ni-2.5Mo-0.03C CB u u
Duplex Stainless Steels
22Cr-5Ni S31803 22Cr-5Ni-3.0Mo-0.15N cw u cu
25Cr-7Ni S32750 25Cr-7Ni-3.5Mo-0.01N cw CB c c
25Cr-7Ni-N S32750 25Cr-7Ni-3.5Mo-0.02N cw
High Alloy Stainless Steels and Nickel Base Alloys
SS 2562 (904L) N08904 19.5Cr-25NiA.5Mo-1.5Cu cw cwu cu
254 SMO S31254 21 Cr-17Ni-6Mo-0.6Cu-0.2N u u
1925hMo N08926 21,5Cr-25Ni-6Mo-lCu cw cu cu
Alloy 28 N08028 27Cr-31Ni-3.5Mo-lCu u u
Alloy 600 N06600 16Cr-73Ni-9.5Fe u u
Alloy 601 N06601 23Cr-63Ni-13Fe u u
Alloy 625 N06625 21.5Cr-61Ni-9Mo-2.5Fe-3.7(Nb + Ta) cw cu cu
Alloy 690 N06690 30Cr-60Ni-9.5Fe-l(Nb + Ta) cw
Alloy 800 N08800 21Cr-32.5Ni-46Fe-0.04C cw
Alloy 825 N08825 21.5Cr-42Ni-3Mo-30Fe-2.2Cu-0.9Ti cw cu u
Alloy 59 N06059 23 Cr-5 9Ni-16Mo-1 Fe cw cwu u
Alloy 45TM — 27Cr-47Ni-2.7Si-0.08N-Balance Fe cw
C276 N10276 16Cr-55Ni-l 6M0-6F e-4W cw cwu u
G3 1406985 22.5Cr-43Ni-7Mo-20Fe-2Cu-Co cw cw
Alloy 903 1419903 38Ni-15Co-3Nb-l.4Ti-0.7Al-0.01C c
Alloy B-2 1410665 69Ni-28Mo-1 Cr(max)-2Fe(max) cw
Cobalt Alloy
S 816 — 20Cr-20Ni-47Co-4Mo-4W-4(Nb + Ta) c
Aluminium Alloy
Al Alloy A95083 A-5083, 5Mg CB
Titanium Alloys
Ti Grade 1 1150250 Ti(a) cw cw
Ti Grade 4 1150700 Ti(a) u u
Ti Grade 5 1156400 T1-6AMV cw CB cwu u
C = Coupon exposures for surface corrosion, W= Weld bead applied to coupons for Stress Corrosion
Cracking test
B= Three point bending samples for Stress Corrosion Cracking tests
U= U-Bend stressed samples for Stress Corrosion Cracking tests (Surface corrosion by macroscopic
measurements)
* The results obtained in these low temperature tests will be the subject of a future paper.

- 157-
Table 4- Summary of Surface Corrosion and Stress Corrosion Cracking Test Results in Dry and Wet Gas
Conditions (Kurata et al, 1995, Saito et al, 1994).
Material Material Loss Stress Corrosion Material Loss Stress
rrnn/y Cracking mm/y Corrosion
Cracking
Environment Dry Superheated Gas Dry Superheated Wet Gas Wet Gas
Gas
Location WI #9 Kuju-I WI#9 Kuju-I WI #9 WI #9
Exposure Time 40 111 10 111 10 7 44 7 44 7
days days months days months days days days days days
Aeration Air Air No Air Air No Air Air Air Air Air Air
Monitor (see Table 3) C C C W B C C U W U
Carbon and Low Alloy Steels
Carbon Steel 0.707 0.735 0 038 35.4
Cast Iron 0.042
Cor-Ten 0.029
N80 0.785 0.652
L80 0.759 0.613
CrMoV 0.029 No
2.5Ni 0.027 No
Ferritic and Martensitic Stainless Steels
SUS405 0.021 No
13Cr 2.236 2.112
13CrMo 0.022 No
23Cr6Al 3.048 2.922
17-4PH 0.014 No
Austenitic Stainless Steels
SUS304(Annealed) 0.613 1.304 0.007 No No 2T8 Lost 61 Lost Severe
SUS304(650°Cx2hrs) 0.008 Yes-at 2 months
SUS304L(Annealed) 0.006 Yes
SUS304L(650°Cx2hrs) 0.006 No
SUS316(Annealed) 0.466 1.086 No 21.3 Lost Lost
SUS316L(Annealed) 0.001 Yes 55 Severe
SUS316L(650°Cx2hrs) 0.001 Yes
Duplex Stainless Steels
22Cr-5Ni 0.907 1.327 No 60-117 Yes
25Cr-7Ni 1.082 1.389 0 No No 34.0
25Cr-7Ni-N 1.020 1.061 No
High Alloy Stainless Steels and Nickel Base Alloys
SS 2562 (904L) 0.601 0.650 No Lost 29 Lost No
254 SMO 29 No
1925hMo 0.243 0.309 No 19.4 11.2 35 No No
Alloy 28 33
Alloy 600 35 No
Alloy 601 43 No
Alloy 625 0.048 0.038 No 8.4 11 No
Alloy 690 1.879 0.933 No
Alloy 800 1.278 1.263 No
Alloy 825 0.903 0.506 No 16.4 29 No
Alloy 59 0.003 0 No 0.043 n.d. No No
Alloy 45TM 1.389 1.402 No
C276 0.013 0.016 No 7.7 5.85 20 No No
G3 0.123 0.162 No 8.5 No
Alloy 903 0.358 0.409
Alloy B-2 3.04 No
Cobalt Alloy
S816 0.142 0.068
Aluminium Alloy
A-5083 0.374 No
Titanium Alloys
Ti Grade 1 0 0 No Gain No
Ti Grade 4 n.d. No
Ti Grade 5 0 0 0 No No 0.043 n.d. No No
n.d. = not detected

-158
 Table 5- Summary of Analysis of Corrosion Products Formed in Volcanic Corrosion Test Environments
(Kurata et al, 1995, Saito et al, 1994).

Dry Superheated Gas Wet Gas White Island 95-145°C

Material White Island Kuju-Iwoyama Contents of Washed “Oily” Films and Corrosion
Aerated Non-Aerated Products in 100 ml of Distilled and Deionised
Water (mg/kg)
Fe Ni Cr Cu Mo Cl SP4 F pH
Carbon and Low Alloy Steels
SS400, N80 Fe203, CaS04
L80, 13 Cr Fe203, CaS04
23Cr-6Al Fe203, CaS04
CrMoV FeS2, FeS04-7H20
2.5Ni FeS2, FeS04-4H20, (38) (0.3) (9) (3.1)
FeS04-7H20,
Austenitic Stainless Steels
SUS304 Fe2G3 1900 630 250 420 4 2960 20 2 2.3
SUS316 Fe203
SUS316L FeS2, FeS04-7H20, 900 430 200 430 9 1800 55 3 2.4
(Cu, Fe, Ni)S2
Duplex Stainless Steels
22Cr-5Ni Fe^.FeOOH, CaSO 4 2080 480 290 420 7 3210 30 1 2.1
25Cr-7Ni
SS 2562(904L) Fe203, Cr02 620 520 200 430 10 1650 75 2 2.5
High Alloy Stainless Steels and Nickel Base Alloys
254 SMO 790 530 230 420 11 1840 110 8 2.4
1925hMo 640 500 230 420 12 1620 95 3 2.5
Alloy 28 460 610 180 430 8 1420 75 7 2.6
Alloy 600 350 275010 420 0 4210 25 0.4 2.7
Alloy 601 730 2450530 420 3 3590 45 26 2.9
Alloy 625 230 840 150 420 6 1320 140 5 2.8
Alloy 690 NiCl2-6H20
Alloy 800 NiCl2-6H20, Fe203
Alloy 825 NiCl2-6H20,Fe203 470 730 180 410 9 1520 65 3 2.6
59 250 330 130 410 9 750 65 2 2.8
Alloy 45TM NiCl2-6H20,
NiCl2-4H20
C276 140 430 60 430 1 750 90 3 2.8
G3 Fe203Cr02(S04)3,
Ca2S04
Cobalt Alloy
S816 CoC12-6H20
Aluminium Alloy
A-5083 FeS2
Titanium Alloys

Ti Grade 4 170 160 70 420 3 740 70 7 2.8

Ti Grade 5 130 120 40 420 1 470 60 5 2.8
SUS316L Chamber Wall FeS2, CaS04, a-S, (17) (7.8) (16) (3.0)
CaS04-2H2Q

—159 —
 Phase Stability Diagram For Fe-S-O at 230 C Phase Stability Diagram For Cr-S-O at 230 C

log p S O : (g)

log pO.

Phase Stability Diagram Mo S O at 230 C Phase Stability Diagram For Nl-S-O at 230 C

WI #9
0<VI#9
NISO
MoO.
-15 -
MoO.
p S 0 2(g)

MoO.
-25 - MoO
log

MoO

,Mo /

Phase Stability Diagram For Ti-S-O at 230 C Phase Stability Diagram Ni-Cl-O at 230 C

-30 .
b 8 P S O :& )

-60 -

Tl.O

-100 -

-30
log pOj(g) log p02(g)

Figure 1- Phase stability diagrams for Fe, Cr, Ni, Mo and Ti in volcanic gases at 230°C. Arrows indicate
possible reaction paths.

—160 —
Iwoyama with low oxygen partial pressures gave iron sulfide stability and low corrosion rates (Tables 4 and
5) while exposure to air in WI #9 (Noisy Nellie) on White Island gave hematite stability and a high
corrosion rate (Tables 4 and 5) (Lichti et al, 1996).

Figure 1 also shows the types of corrosion products which might be predicted to form on alloyed
materials. Oxides of chromium and molybdenum would be expected in either the aerated and non-aerated
dry gas environments. The corrosion results suggest NiCl2 is more stable than the nickel oxides, sulfides
and sulfates (compare Ni-Cl-0 and Ni-S-0 diagrams in Figure 1). In the aerated environments there is a
marked decrease in corrosion as the molybdenum content of the stainless steels and nickel base alloys is
increased, see Tables 3 and 4 (Kurata et al, 1995) arid the phase stability diagram for Mo shows good
stability of molybdenum oxides. The diagram for Ti suggests formation of stable protective films of Rutile
(Ti02) under all conditions. Dry gas models of the type shown in Figure 1 will be sufficient for initial
predictions of corrosion in systems where steam superheat is maintained but will not apply when
condensation occurs as the temperature is lowered.

2. Condensing acids/aqueous corrosion models

The “oily” liquid formed in WI #9 (Noisy Nellie) in the temperature range 95-145°C (Table 5)
was rich in chloride ions and sulfate ions. Thermodynamic calculations have been done to determine the
potential for H2SG4 condensation at temperatures above 100°C. The results indicate that this effect is
unlikely to occur as the calculated maximum H2S04 (g) partial pressure was 10"20 atm. The volcanic gases
would not be expected to condense until the temperature approached the saturation temperature for water
(100°C). Once saturation temperature is approached and steam condensate is formed then the HC1 and HF
in particular will readily partition into the condensed phase and even though the acids formed are relatively
strong conventional aqueous corrosion models such as potential-pH Pourbaix diagrams can be used to
describe the corrosion chemistry.

The aqueous corrosion properties of initially formed steam condensate in equilibrium with
fumarole steam and gas has been estimated for the WI #9 (Noisy Nellie) fumarole chemistry given in Table
2, ie pH = 0.4 at Total S of 0.2689 mol/kg (Lichti et al, 1996). The potential-pH, Fe-S-H20 stability
diagram shown in Figure 2 describes the equilibrium thermodynamic conditions. The diagrams can not be
used to make predictions of corrosion without confirmation of corrosion rates from in-situ tests, however it
is clear that at pH less than about 4, carbon steels will not form passive films and will

Iron - Sulphur - Water

hso;
Noisy Nellie WI #9
Total S= 0.2689 molfly
H2/H+&H20/02 Lines
(a) P(H )= 4x10"4atm

(b) RO-MO"3 atm

Figure 2- Potential-pH Fe-S-H20 Diagram for Total S = 0.2689 mol/kg and T = 100 ° C (Lichti et al, 1996).

- 161-
freely corrode. Table 4 indicates a high rate of corrosion even for stainless steels and in wet aerated
conditions but again there is a decrease in corrosion for the more alloyed materials and for titanium.
Potential-pH diagrams for Cr and Ni in high salinity brines containing significant concentrations of S
suggest that these alloy elements will also readily dissolve in strongly acid condensates although titanium
shows good passive film formation (MacDonald et al, 1979). Very high molybdenum alloy content
materials, especially those which have almost no iron appear to give the best results of all the nickel base
alloys tested ie Alloy B-2 and Alloy 59 (Table 4).

DEFICIENCIES IN MATERIALS KNOWLEDGE BASE

Specification of materials for reliable energy production from deep geothermal resources will
require understanding of the corrosion chemistry and materials performance of the derived environments.
This knowledge will be collected through the development of:
• models of the chemistry of possible deep-seated and magma-ambient production fluids
• scenarios for process and plant options for handling of aggressive fluids
• models for the derived fluid chemistries - thermodynamic and kinetic
• corrosion kinetic results and models for candidate engineering alloys
• thermodynamic models of corrosion for alloyed materials
• relationships between thermodynamics models and corrosion kinetic models.

The corrosion results described in this paper have progressed the latter three points in particular
by developing an understanding of the predominant corrosion mechanisms encountered in natural volcanic
environments. The effects of increased pressures and changes in temperature have not been fully explored
but the models can be adapted so that some prediction of potential problem areas for full-size plant can be
made. The results suggest the key areas of remaining research for steam-containing mixed gases S02, H2S,
HC1 and HF, are in non-aerated environments where acid formation and condensate formation can occur
(Table 6).

Table 6- Corrosion Results Matrix for Aggressive Geothermal Environments.

Environment Conditions Results Models Mechanisms

Dry Gas T>200°C, Non-Aerated Kinetics/SCC Phase Stability Diagrams Passive Films
Dry Gas T>200°C, Aerated Kinetics/SCC Phase Stability Diagrams Non-Protective Films
Wet Gas T=100-200°C, Non-Aerated None Isocorrosion and Potential for Acid Attack
Wet Gas T=100-200°C, Aerated Kinetics/SCC Pourbaix Diagrams Acid Attack
Wet Gas T<100°C, Non-Aerated None Isocorrosion and Potential for Acid Attack
Wet Gas T<100°C, Aerated Kinetics/SCC Pourbaix Diagrams Acid Attack

The corrosion results indicate care is required in the handling of aggressive geothermal fluids. In
many “acid” wells encountered to date the produced fluids have been too aggressive to permit production,
and the wells have either been used for reinjection or cemented shut. Materials which may have sufficient
resistance can be selected from available results but care is required in the application of these alloys to new
environments. Corrosion testing in two phase and liquid dominated systems such as has been completed for
HC1 containing environments (Sanada et al, 1995) will be required.

Significant effort is also required to progress the first three points noted above in order to refine
the developed models of corrosion and the understanding of the corrosion mechanisms. The drilling and
production of more deep-seated wells will provide information on the geochemistry of these fluids and will
allow refinement of the models. Ideally, in-situ corrosion tests can be scheduled for these new wells so that
the preferred materials can be further tested. Additional chemical data will also provide input for
determining the best process and plant options which will optimize energy recovery, while minimising the
size of plant which must be constructed of more expensive, corrosion resistant materials.

CONCLUSIONS

Volcanic gas environments which are dry as a result of significant superheat give low rates of
corrosion on carbon and low alloy steels and stainless steels, so long as they are kept air free. Introduction
of air changes the stability of corrosion products, from protective sulfide films to non-protective oxides and

162
and susceptible materials readily corrode. Loss of superheat and formation of acid condensate have been
shown to further accelerate corrosion in the aerated environments.

Models of corrosion for common alloy elements contained in engineering alloys have been
developed for gaseous volcanic environments using thermodynamic principles and conventional corrosion
theory. These models confirm the stability of formed corrosion products, and give reasons for the observed
corrosion kinetics. The models can be used to help to predict the performance of other alloys in similar
environments.

Deficiencies in the knowledge base for selection of materials for aggressive geothermal
environments include wet non-aerated environments, particularly those which will be formed in heat
exchange situations when the fluids are under pressure.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors acknowledge the financial support of the New Zealand Foundation for Research
Science and Technology and the AIST, MITI, Japan in the preparation of this paper. Testing on White
Island was done with permission of Mr JR Buttle.

REFERENCES

Ehara, S. (ed) (1994). Field study of power generation by using volcanic geothermal reservoir, Report of
the Grant in Aid on General Research Supported by the Ministry of Education Science and
Culture, Japan, 19 Sept (in Japanese).
Giggenbach, W.F., Gaecia, N., Londono C., A., Rodriguez V., L., Rojas G., N., and Calvache V., M.L.
(1990). Jnl of Vol and Geothermal Res, 42, pp. 13-39.
Giggenbach, W.F. and Sheppard, D.S. (1989) Variations in the temperature and chemistry of White Island
fumerolic discharges 1972-85, InNZ Geological Survey Bulletin 103, pp 119-126.
Kasai, K., Miyazaki, S., Sasaki, M., Yagi, M. and Uchida, T. (1996). Supersaline brine in the Kakkonda
granite obtained from WD-1A in the Kakkonda Geothermal Field, Japan, in Proc VUIth Int Symp
on the Observation of the Continental Crust Through Drilling, Tsukuba, Japan, Feb 26 to Mar 2,
pp359-364.
Kurata, Y., Sanada, N. Nanjo, H., Ikeuchi, J. and Lichti, K.A. (1995). Material damage in a volcanic
environment, World Geothermal Congress, Milan, Italy, May, pp 2409-2414.
Kurata, Y., Sanada, N. Nanjo, H., Ikeuchi, J. and Lichti, K.A. (1994). Field testing of materials at White
Island, in Extended Abstracts of Workshop on Deep-seated and Magma-Ambient Geothermal
Systems, Tsukuba, Japan, Mar, pp 167-170.
Lichti, K.A., Gilman, N.A., Sanada, N., Kurata, Y., Nanjo, H., Ikeuchi, J. and Christenson, B.W. (1996).
Corrosion chemistry of some volcanic environments, in Proc of 18th New Zealand Geothermal
Workshop, Nov, U of Auckland, pp 21-28.
Lichti, K.A. and Mcllhone, P.G.H. (1994). Materials for volcanic environments, Where will the data come
from, in Proc 16th NZ Geothermal Workshop, Geothermal Institute, U of Auckland, Nov, pp
35-40.
MacDonald, D.D., Syrett, B.C. and Wing, S.S., (1979) The use of Potential-pH diagrams for the
interpretation of corrosion phenomena in high salinity geothermal brines, Corrosion, Vol 35, No
1, Jan, pp 1-11.
Maturgo, 0.0. (1996) Chemical characteristics of acid fluids in some PNOC geothermal wells, 17th
PNOC-Energy Development Corporation Geothermal Conference, Manila, Philippines, pplll-
117.
Outokumpu HSC Chemistry for Windows, (1994) Outokumpu Research Oy, Finland.
Sanada, N., Kurata, Y., Nanjo, H. and Ikeuchi, J. (1995). Material damage in high velocity acidic fluids,
Geothermal Resources Council Transactions, Vol 19, Oct, pp.359-363.
Saito, M., Takano, Y., Saito, S. and Kondo, T. (1994) Field testing of materials at Kuju-Iwoyama
solfatara, in Extended Abstracts of Workshop on Deep-seated and Magma-Ambient Geothermal
Systems, Tsukuba, Japan, Mar, pp 189-199.
Salonga, N.D. (1996) Fluid and mineral equilibria in acid NaCl(+S04) reservoir: The case of Sandawa
collapse, Mt Apo hydrothermal system, 17th PNOC-Energy Development Corporation
Geothermal Conference, Manila, Philippines, pp 119-129.

- 163-
 NEW DRILLING SYSTEM CONCEPT COULD REDUCE
GEOTHERMAL DRILLING COSTS

John C. ROWLEY, Pajarilo Enterprises, Los Alamos, NM 87544 USA

Seiji SALTO, Japan Metals and Chemicals, Tokyo, 103 Japan
Roy LONG, US DOE Morgantown ETC, Morgantown, WV, 26507 USA

ABSTRACT

The energy price for one kilogram of hot geothermal fluid is far less than for one kilogram of
hydrocarbon production. But the costs for drilling average geothermal wells arc nearly two to four, or more,
times those for oil wells drilled to a comparable depth. Therefore, the incentives for geothermal well drilling
cost reductions are far greater because well costs are a significant 40 to 60% of total geothermal electric power
projects.

Incremental improvements by use of specific technology have made some cost reductions possible
over the past two decades. Elowever, these short-term modifications of presently used oilfield drilling
equipment and practices, have not provided the major gains needed. Therefore, an innovative purpose-
designed advanced geothermal drilling system has been proposed. It is based upon the development of a new,
high-temperature, hydraulic percussion hammer. This hammer is designed for deep drilling in the very hard
volcanic, metamorphic, and crystalline rocks of geothermal reservoirs. This percussion hammer, an all-metal
downhole drilling motor, will improve the rate of penetration by at least a factor of five increasing from a
current low of <3 m/h to perhaps 15 m/h. A dual-wall corrosion resistant alloy drillstring configuration is
proposed. This type of drill string will solve two major problems of geothermal drilling: severe lost circulation
to highly fractured rocks, and also control the bottom hole circulating temperature of the boreholes by using
reverse circulation. A depth capacity of 4 km, and a temperature rating of 400° C, are targeted. An
international team has been conducting a feasibility design study for such a purpose-developed advanced
geothermal drilling system. Thus far the results indicate that significant operating cost reductions are possible.
The time frame for this development is considered a midterm effort, realizable in 5 to 10 years. Details of the
design, components of the system and analytical results thus far are presented, and the present status of the
project reviewed. Current activities and future directions arc presented.

INTRODUCTION

This is a report of work-in-progress for a project that was initiated in 1993. As advocated by a study
and workshop of the Nat'l Academy of Sciences (Nat'l Academy Press, 1994) a systems approach to improve
geothermal drilling performance is proposed. Further recommended was a development strategy that provides
for: short-term (less than 5 years); a midterm (5 to 10 years); and a long-term (10 years or greater) portfolio of
research and development efforts to be conducted.

Because geothermal developments are worldwide, a team of drilling experts was formed to select the
system and guide the project. It was decided to focus on a midterm strategy, and to select a drilling system
approach that used known and established drilling technologies. These technologies are suited to die
subsurface conditions of geothermal reservoirs far better than the current adaptation of the drilling technology
used for petroleum drilling. Therefore, the focus of the selection was: (1) Higher penetration rates in hard and
abrasive rocks, (2) Long life components in very high-temperature wells, and (3) Provide a solution to severe
lost circulation problems within the system configuration.

The magnitude of the improvement goal is illustrated in Fig. 1, where the cost of geothermal well
drilling (Kelsey, 1987) is compared to oil and gas drilling in the USA. This is a direct comparison of the use of
a drilling technology designed, and extensively developed for over 70 years, which is applied to totally
unsuitable subsurface geothermal conditions. Figure 2 illustrates the subsurface temperature conditions
encountered in geothermal drilling, and shows the extreme difference from the highest temperatures found in
the deepest, hottest petroleum wells that are 175° to 210° C. Table 1 further indicates the nature of the rock
types encountered in geothermal drilling and provides a scope for the very low rates of penetration (ROP)
usually experienced.

—164 —
 DRILLED DEPTH I Thousands of feel I

& 8"
Average Hydrothermal
2.2km (7200ft)
\

------- Fenton Hill, NM USA

Geysers, CA, USA
— — Larderatio, ffaly
...... . Woirokw, New Zealand
NesiavelKr, kekmd
...... Tiwi,Philippines
....... Sahon Sea, CA, USA
*AVG. DEPTH .... Puna, HI, USA
RHS s Roosevelt Hot Springs — —» Bukilo, Philippines
Kakkondo II, Japan
8PP Stalk Boiling Point vs. Depth

DRILLED DEPTH (kml

Temperature fC)
Fig. 1. Comparison of geothermal & oil & gas drilling Fig. 2. Selected subsurface temperature profiles
costs in the USA (Kelsey & Carson, 1987). (Modified from Otto, ct al., 1990).
Table 1. Selected drilling data & rock types for geothermal
reservoirs worldwide (Modified from Ottc, et al., 1990).

Reservoir Zone

Geothermal Average Average

Reid Gedpgic Wen Depth Penetration Bit Size
Name
Agr (m) Rate (m/hr) (cm)
Country Reservoir Rock Type

Salton Sea USA Q-T Sandstone/shale 1500 18.5 31.1

Cerro Prieto Mexico Q-T Sandstone/shaie 1900 2.0 27.0
The Geysers USA K-T Greywacke 2500 8.0 27.0
Q Microgranite
Larderello My % Carbonate/elastic 1000 2.4 31.1
PMC Phyiiiic/quanzite 1500 1.7 21.6
Monte Amiata Italy T Anhydrite/dolomite 800 31.1
Phyliite/quartzite 3500 21.6
Mori lapan Q Tuff breccia 2400 21.9
prc-T Limcstonc/slatc/chcrt
Onikobe Japan Tp Dacite tuff/Mf/breccia 750 27.0
Tm Green tuff
Broadlands New Zealand Q-Tp Tuff breccia/dacite flow 1300 25.0
ignimbriie
Wairakei New Zealand Q-Tp Rhyolite pumice breccia 800 122 19.4
Halchobaru Japan Q Andesite 1150 27B
Till Tuff breccia
Kakkonda Japan T Andesite 1200 21.9
Tm Dacitic ignimbriie
Kakkonda 11 Japan T Rhyolitic tuff 2500 3.5 21.6
Tm Slate sandtone/andacitic tuff 2.5 21.6
Bulalo Philippines Q-T Andesite tuff and lava 1600 8.5 21.9
Tiwi Philippines Q-T Andesite 1800 8.8 21.9
Saiak Indonesia Q Andesite 2000 9.1 31.8
Krafla Iceland Q Basaltic lavas and intrusives 2000 7.5 21.9
Coso USA K Granite 1500 3.0 22.2
Fenton Hill USA pe Granite/gneiss 4000 3.5 222

^ Q=Qua!ernary; Tp=Pliocene; Tm= Miocene; T=Terliary; K=Creiaceous; %=Triassic; pe=Precambrian.

- 165-
OUTLINE OF SYSTEM SELECTION

It is well known that there are solutions to the problems associated with the inappropriate use of oil
and gas drilling methods for geothermal drilling. Based on these solutions an advanced geothermal drilling
system (AGDS) concept is set forth. Therefore, the following system goals were established: (1) Reduce costs
to equal or less than petroleum drilling. (2) Select a rock penetration method that provides an ROP greater by a
factor of five than possible with rotary, roller-cone bits, (3) Design the downhole hardware to have a life of >
200 hours, and (4) Select drillstring configurations that already have been developed to combat lost circulation.
The system selected is shown in Fig. 3. It was selected as containing the basic elements needed to
solve ihe major geothermal drilling problems, and to achieve the goals set forth. It consists of: (1) A
percussion, downhole hammer ("motor"), that has been long established as a method to achieve high ROP in
hard rocks, and (2) a dual-wall, or concentric pipe, reverse circulation drillstring that is well known to be an
effective method of controlling lost circulation to highly fractured formations.

rn 'i r
Heavy-Duty
Pipe Handling System

Rotary Table-

Air Compressors

Foam U nrt| ,

lOual Wall Dnll String^

jBaek Reaming Assembly:

{Directional Pnlltng Control:

f^fge Diameter Dorehole! :j Fluid* Driven Hammer Ekt -1

....... ]ROP>8m/h jAir/Hydroulic
iNot to Scale: (-400^ 8HST'——

Fig. 3. Proposed advanced geothermal drilling system.

CURRENT PROJECT STATUS

Several technical publications are available that attest to the correctness of the AGDS selections
(Rowley, ct al„ 1993; Rowley, ct al., 1994; Rowley, ct al„ 1995a, Rowley, ct al., 1995b; Rowley, ct al„ 1996).
The initial emphasis of the project activities was to research the current status and use of hydraulic percussion
hammers for deep drilling (Liu, 1994; Deutsch et al., 1996; Knott, 1996; Pet. Engrg. Int'l. 1996; Jour. Pet
Tech, 1995; and Malamed, et al., 1997). We learned that there is a growing interest in the petroleum industry in
percussion drilling tools for deeper, harder rocks of reservoirs now being exploited. Therefore, the period from
1994 to 1995 was spent in motivating the commercial development in the USA of a percussion hammer
dedicated to geothermal drilling. This development was accomplished (Pixlon & Hall, 1995). It is important
in the development of any AGDS that the determination of the penetration method (hole-making technique)
must be established first. Any advanced drilling project must be developed "from the bottom up." A schematic
sketch of the percussion hammer as proposed by the Novatek Co. (Provo, UT, USA) is shown in Fig. 4. A
sketch of the proposed bottom hole drilling assembly (BHA) is shown in Fig. 5.

-166-
 DRILL STRING CONNECTION

PARALLEL PLOW CIRCUIT

TO HAMMER

SELF STARTING VALVE

SHUmE valve
POSITIVE MECHANICAL MOTION
PRESSURE ASSISTED

7UNGESTEN CARBIDE KEYS

- OR SPLINES FOR ROTARY OR
PERCUSSIVE DRILLING

Fig. 4. Hydraulic percussion hammer for geothermal Fig. 5. Sketch of bottom hole drilling tool assembly
applications (Pixton & Hall, 1995). components (Rowley, et al., 1995).

It should be pointed out that a downhole motor, for BOREHOLE SECTIONS

example, an all metal turbine, and a PDC drill bit developed
for harder rocks, is another good choice for an AGDS. Such CONCENTRIC
a project is under way in Japan (Karasawa, et al., 1996). " PIPES

Once the BHA preliminary design was established,

the AGDS project has turned attention to the drillstring
designs. Two configurations were selected for initial study;
these are shown in fig. 6. The one is a rather conventional
dual-wall string. The second is a new, innovative string,
termed a MultiCon design. Both feature the use of the
INTERNAL-
annulus between concentric pipes to provide the downward EXTERNAL
flow of drilling fluids, and the central pipe for return flow. DOUBLE SLEEVE
This is the so-called reverse circulation method. This COUPLING

drillstring selection, basically, leaves the annulus between *' 4

die outer pipes and the borehole free of any function except
to be used to control lost circulation. Such drillstring are
ideally suited for use with a variety of fluids: 1) the unusual
muds, (2) nitrogen, to avoid the corrosion problems with air,
(A) Conventional (b) Multiple Flow Rath DriTlstring
and (3) mist or foams. The high-temperature and corrosive
Dual Wall Drillstring (MultiConn)
fluids often encountered in geothermal wells downhole will
dictate that corrosion resistant alloys are selected for these Fig. 6. Two options for multi-flow path, reverse
types of drillstrings. Preliminary analyses of fluid, thermal, circulation, drillstrings
and structural designs of these drillstrings are underway. (Rowley, et al., 1996).

167-
-
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

While this AGDS project has yet no formal sponsor, it does have a rather dedicated design team. The
concepts have been heavily reviewed through the submission and publication of technical papers. It remains to
now find a sponsor, and to provide a focus of technical effort. Thus far the proposed AGDS concept has
received good inputs from many experienced drilling and design engineers. The proposed AGDS will continue
to be presented by publications and reviews for technical critiques and inputs.

It seems that perhaps the petroleum drilling industry is currently undergoing rapid changes, and is
focusing on advancements (Oosterling and Faurc, 1996 and Lcisncr ct al., 1996). From the current trends, for
long-term research and development, it can be projected that advanced drilling systems will be based on a
reeled system of deployment of the drillstring. Therefore, eliminations of the present coupled joints of 10 meter
lengths of pipe and the ability to both run the tubing or pipe very rapidly are possible. Also, the potential exists
for reeled strings that are concentric tubes with space for utilities, two-way communication or telemetry
systems, and instrumentation cables. This could lead to truly automatic drilling systems. An advanced
geothermal drilling system, that further exploit percussion hammer methods, is possible because percussion
drilling is a leading candidate for use with these new reeled tubing strings.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The continued interest and many comments, questions, and ideas provided by the AGDS design team,
and other drilling and mechanical engineering experts arc gratefully acknowledged. The authors arc also very
appreciative of the response by those interested in innovative and creative system approaches to traditional
technology areas.

REFERENCES

Deutsch, U., Marx, C. and Rischmuller, H., (1995a) "Evaluation of Hammer Drill Potential for KTB”, hr.
Super-Deep Drilling and Deep Geophysical Sounding. Fuchs, K„ ct (Eds), Springer-Vcrlag,
Heidelberg, Germany, p. 310-320.

Journal of Petroleum Technology (1995) "Experts Discuss Drill-Bit Design, Field Performance”, February,
p. 137-142.

Karasawa, H., Ohno, T. and Kobayashi, H., (1996) "Improvement of PDC Bit's Performance at High
Rotary Speed", Trans. Geothermal Resources Council, v. 20, p. 503-508.

Kelsey,!, and Carson, C., (1987) "Geothermal Drilling", lour, of Geothermal Science & Technology,
Vol. 1, (1), p. 39-61

Knott, D., (1996) "Deep Thoughts on Drilling Technology," Oil & Gas Jour., June 10, p. 29.

Leismer, D., Williams, B. and Ursell, J. P., (1996) "Coiled Tubing Drilling: Real Time MWD with
Dedicated Power to the BHA", OTC 8227 (SPE 37199), Houston TX, USA, May, p. 679-688.

Liu. G., (Ed) (1992) "Diamond Drilling Handbook". Chapter 11: Hydro-Percussive Rotary (Hydro-
Hammer) Drilling. Gcol. Publishing House, Beijing, PR. China, p. 464-478.

Melamed, Y., Kiselev, A, Gelfgat, M., Dreesen, D. and Blacic, J., (1997) "Hydraulic Hammer Drilling
Technology: Development and Capabilities", 1997 Drilling Technology Symposium, Energy Week
Confr. Houston, TX, USA, p. 8.

Nat'l Acad Press (1994) "Drilling and Excavation Technologies for the Future", Washington, D. C., USA,
p. 155.

Oosterling, P. and Faure, A. M., (1996) "The Reeled System: A Step Toward Improving Cost Efficiency of
Drilling Through Introduction of Technology", ( SPE Paper No. 29358,) Jour, of Pet. Tech.
March, p. 248.

OUe, C., Pye, D. S. and Slefandiees, I. N., (1990) "Applicability of Geothermal Drilling Experience to
Super-Deep Drilling", in Fucks, K., et al., (Eds.), Super-Deep Continental Drilling and Deep
Geophysical Sounding. Springer-Verlag, NY, p. 16-32.

- 168-
Petroleum Engineering International (1996) "High ROP Hammer Drill Sets Austrialian Record",
September, p 13.

Piston, D. and Hall, IX, (1995) "Development of a New-Generation, Mud-Driven Downhole Hammer
System”, Geothermal Resources Council, v. 24, No. 8, August, p. 250-252.

Rowley, I. C., Sailo, S. and Long, R., (1996) "Purpose Developed Advanced Drilling System Could
Reduce Geothermal Drilling Costs", Mcmorias 4th Congrcso Tccnico, Guadalajara, Jal., Mexico,
p. 19-23.

Rowley, J. C., Sailo, S. and Long, R., (1995b) "An Advanced Geothermal Drilling System", Geothermal
Resources Council Trans, v. 19, Reno NV, USA, p. 123-128.

Rowley. J. C, Sailo, S. and Long, R., (1995a) "An Advanced Geothermal System: Component Options and
Limitations", ASME Drilling Technology Symposium, Proc. PD, v. 65, p. 25-32.

Rowley, J. C., (1993) "Geothermal Drilling: History and Technology Improvements", Proc. 15th New
Zealand Geothermal Workshop, Auckland NZ, p. 99-102.

Rowley, J. C., (1994) "Design Concept for an Advanced Geothermal System", ASMEZETCE Drilling
Technology Symposium, v. PD-56, Houston TX, USA, January 23-26, p. 239-247.

- 169-
 DEVELOPMENT OF A HIGH TEMPERATURE BOREHOLE FLUID SAMPLER

Nigel HALLADAY

CSM Associates Ltd.

England.

ABSTRACT

The objective of the high temperature fluid sampler development programme is to produce a downhole system capable
of capturing a very high quality, representative sample of borehole fluid at a maximum temperature of 400°C and to
deliver it to the surface for subsequent analysis. Minimal sample alteration and zero contamination are required.

The development of the high temperature fluid sampler for the NEDO Development and Production Technology for
deep-seated geothermal resources research programme began in 1993 with the first prototype tool, rated for 300°C,
scheduled for field testing during the summer of 1997. Following these tests the second prototype rated for 400°C will
be designed, built and tested. The programme is currently expected to continue through to the year 2000.

The development programme has included current state of the art, concept and feasibility assessments. Extensive
material corrosion and high temperature seal performance studies and subsystem design studies have been carried out.
Several types of sampler have been identified and the controlled displacement sampler ( CDS ) method chosen as the
one which offers the best potential for the highest quality sample and development at high temperature. A high
temperature CDS sampling tool has been designed and constructed and is ready for downhole testing.

This paper presents the developments to date and outlines the sampler design.

INTRODUCTION

In 1993 CSM Associates Limited (CSMA) was invited to participate in the NEDO geothermal research programme to
develop the technology necessary to exploit the deep seated geothermal resource. CSMA’s background in high
temperature electronics, borehole instrumentation and extensive R&D experience were considered suitable to undertake
the development of a very high performance borehole fluid sampler for use at temperatures of up to 400°C.

The sampler development programme was scheduled to take place over a period of some 7 years. The first year was a
study into the current state of the art for fluid sampling, the techniques and methods used, the operational temperatures
achieved and a recommendation for the new tool concept and its development. The second year established some basic
material and seal properties at high temperatures and a first draft of the outline design was produced. Year three
concentrated on the detailed design of a sampler rated for use at 300°C, including an extensive electronics system study,
actuation system simulation and testing and the thermal system design. During the current year four, the sampler has
been constructed and will have some preliminary downhole tests performed. Years five and six will see the sampler
tested at 300°C and the 400°C sampler designed and constructed. Year seven will test the sampler at 400°C and assess
what further developments are required.

CONCEPT STUDY

The concept study included the following:

Operational criteria and specification

Risk assessment
Technology review
Materials review
Design concepts
Design recommendation

170-
-
Operational Criteria And Specification

The basic specification for the sampler was established to be as follows:

Temperature endurance 6 hours @ 400°C

Pressure rating 70 MPa @ 400°C
Tool diameter 82mm
Tool length 10m max
Sample volume 2 Litre
Deployment cable Slickline
Fluid velocity 0-2m/s
Surface temperature 25 - 250°C
Surface pressure 0 - lOMPa

In addition to these an extensive list of analysis requirements from liquid and gas phases were given including
geochemical and isotopic measurements.

Risk Assessment

In the context of the sampler development, the interpretation of risk was the potential for a component or system to fail
to perform to specification. Four categories were identified within which the risk of failure could be considered,
namely:

Geochemical
Thermal
Mechanical
Operational

Within each category the sampler can be divided into mechanical and electronic systems.

The geochemical risks were considered to be limited to the mechanics in the form of contamination from corrosion
products or sample alteration due to the method of capture and / or retention. Careful material selection and testing
would overcome the first risk. An extensive study of sampling methods, their known problems and the geochemical
behaviour of geothermal brines would be undertaken to minimise the second risk. Leakage into and out of the sample
chamber were known to be potential problems.

The thermal risks include the mechanical issues of strength at 400°C, linear and differential expansion and stiffness of
non-metallic parts. The seals pose the most demanding challenge. There are some (static) polymeric seals that CSMA
has operated at temperatures up to 380°C and many field worthy seals for lower temperatures (up to 300°C). For very
high temperatures it is difficult to avoid the use of metal seals but these are known to be difficult to operate reliably and
the very high standard of cleanliness required does not lend itself to field operations. Electronically the risk is that the
heat shield system (dewar) will not provide the required lifetime. As the heat leakage into the dewar is proportional to
the temperature difference raised to the fourth power (AT4) the electronics system would be operated at temperatures up
to 200°C (the economics of motor and battery selection limited the final system temperature to 150°C).

The mechanical risks were confined to those associated with direct stress and were identified as being present in valves,
seals, actuation mechanisms, material matching, sample extraction and manufacturing.

Operational risks were considered to be those associated with human interaction and although difficult to
comprehensively define include those issues that could effect the ability to capture a high quality sample, eg

ease of assembly and disassembly

ease of cleaning the sample chamber
ability to test and set the system functions
ease of deployment
ability to purge and seal the transfer system

- 171-
Technology Review

The technology review was an assessment of the state of the art in borehole fluid sampling and was conducted in three
categories - a literature search, patent search and product search.

The literature search produced 82 relevant references based upon sampling devices, techniques and materials. The
patent search produced 26 relevant patents from some 10 different countries, though some were duplicate filings of the
same patent. The product search produced five relevant devices (moderately high performance) from a larger number
of low specification products.

The combination of technical papers, patents and products provided a clear understanding of the current sampling
technology and capability. Although some groups, notably in the USA - Los Alamos National Laboratories, Lawrence
Berkeley Laboratories, Sandia National Laboratories and in the UK - Leutert (North Sea) Ltd, have engaged in some
very high temperature sampling attempts none have achieved any reliable success at temperatures much above 300°C.
It was imperative that as much as possible should be learnt from their experiences.

Materials Review

The purpose of the review was to identify the materials that would be suitable from which to manufacture of the
sampler. Two environments exist within the sampler, the dewar internal volume where temperatures at the opening
could be as high as 300°C but with no contact with the borehole fluid and the sample chamber/tool structure where
400°C and high pressure, corrosive fluids would be present.

For the internal environment few problems were anticipated as there was an extensive range of alloys, plastics and
ceramics which could meet all the expected design requirements. The principal problem was in the choice of materials
for both the basic structure of the sampler and the sample chamber. Here two different levels of performance were
required. For the structure the alloys used must be sufficiently corrosion resistant in order to avoid any corrosion
damage to the close tolerance, fine finished sealing surfaces. For the sample chamber the same requirement exists
except that the level of corrosion must be sufficiently low in order not to contaminate the sample itself.

For the internal materials little review effort was required. For the structural materials there were several alloys which
appeared suitable, but for the sample chamber there was little or no data available at temperatures above 250°C or
below 700°C on which to base an informed choice. A series of high temperature corrosion tests would be required.

Design Concepts

Four basic methods of capturing a sample were identified. A pumped system where the sample is introduced to the
sample chamber by a mechanical pump, a suction system where a piston is drawn down a cylinder by a mechanical
arrangement, a flow-through system where both ends of the sample chamber are open allowing well fluid to pass
through and which is closed at the required time trapping the sample fluid and a vacuum type where an empty volume
is sealed and transported downhole to be opened at the required time allowing the well fluid to pass through a non­
return valve.

The first two methods can be discounted due to mechanical complexity and unsuitability for development at 400°C.
The vacuum system has the disadvantage that high temperature fluid entering a low pressure region will boil with
subsequent alteration to the fluid chemistry. The flow-through system is the most simple and could be used at 400°C
but cannot guarantee that the sample of fluid inside the chamber is representative of the borehole fluid at the depth of
sampling. This is particularly true in non or low flowing zones, where the fluid inside the chamber could be a mixture
from the borehole over some distance above the point of sampling.

As the concept study progressed a variation of the vacuum type of sampler became apparent, the controlled
displacement sampler (CDS). In this system the sample chamber is separated by a moving piston whose position is
controlled by a working fluid (water). When the sampler is opened, high pressure borehole fluid enters the sample
chamber above the piston. The piston can only move slowly because the working fluid flow is restricted and can only
leak away into an empty chamber at a controlled rate. As a result the pressure of the sample fluid is maintained close to
that of the borehole and there is no boiling. The principal difficulty with a CDS system at 400°C is the need for
dynamic sealing on the piston.

- 172-
Design Recommendation

Given the requirement of capturing as high a quality of sample as possible the recommended type of sampler was the
controlled displacement type. This recommendation was supported by the fact that all the technology required for the
CDS type would be required for the flow-through type and could thus be adopted as the fall back position if the CDS
proved to be unsuitable.

MATERIAL AND SEAL TESTING

Materials Testing

A study of potential materials produced a list of alloys from three principle groups - nickel, cobalt and titanium. In
addition stainless steel and bronze alloys would be included. The list of some of the materials tested is given in
Table 1.
TABLE 1
A corrosion test schedule was developed that would expose the selected
metal specimens to a simulated geothermal (hydrothermal) environment. A MATERIAL
reaction test vessel was designed and manufactured from a high strength Nickel alloy 625
stainless steel and gold lined to produce an inert enclosure. The vessel was Nickel alloy C22
designed to use a metal seal with a testing temperature of 400°C. However Nickel alloy 242
the preliminary tests to check the seal performance showed the metal seals to Nickel alloy B2
be unreliable even in laboratory conditions and so a custom made PTFE seal Nickel alloy C276
was substituted and the test temperature reduced to 325°C. This Nickel alloy S
arrangement worked well. Titanium alloy Ti 50 A
Titanium alloy Ti Grade
The downhole hydrothermal environment was created by using deionised 12
water and a mixture of mineral powders that were manufactured from Titanium alloy Ti 21 S
selected mineral specimens. The minerals - pyrite, chalcopyrite and bomite Titanium alloy Ti 6A1
with a C02/C buffer would fix the pH, hydrogen sulphide and oxygen at 14V
demanding, but geologically feasible, values. Stainless steel S316
Cobalt alloy MP35N
A total of six reaction vessels were used, one set as a buffer blank, Cobalt alloy MP159
containing no sulphide minerals but using thioacetemide to create a known
initial concentration of hydrogen sulphide free from the uncertainty surrounding the performance of the complex
mineralogical buffers and to test the possibility that the test results might have been misleading because of the
acceleration of corrosion by transition metals released from the sulphide buffers. Sufficient fluid was included to
ensure reaction pressures of approximately 20 MPa. The test vessels were filled and assembled in a dry C02
environment and sealed. They were then placed into an oven at 325°C for a period of 28 days prior to opening.

The results were determined by comparison of pre and post test weight, optical inspection, scanning electron
microscope (SEM) inspection and polished section/SEM inspection.

Some predictable results were observed eg S316 stainless steel suffered severe pitting corrosion and the bronze alloy
deep surface alteration and leaching of copper. A surprising result was the severe corrosion experienced by the
titanium alloys. Later discussions with the manufacturers of titanium alloys suggested that previous performance
expectations were based upon test temperatures of 200°C and that probable limits of 250°C apply to titanium in
corrosive environments. Plates LI & 2, PI & 2 and VI & 2 show examples of corroded specimens of titanium alloys
Ti-grade 12, Ti-21S and stainless steel S316 at low and higher magnifications.

Seal Tests

The CDS type of sampler requires the use of a dynamic (moving) seal on the piston that travels down the sample
chamber. In addition it also requires seals that will operate reliably at 400°C.

The dynamic seal that was thought to offer some useful high temperature capability is of a filled PTFE material that is
spring energised. CSMA has used a similar seal in static applications at temperatures as high as 380°C and so wished to
evaluate its dynamic performance potential.

- 173-
The test rig for the dynamic high temperature tests consisted of a slave and master cylinder arrangement. The slave
cylinder contained a piston fitted with two seals for testing. The piston could be moved by displacing the piston in the
master cylinder. As Figure 1 shows the slave is placed into the furnace and remotely connected to the master. Once the
slave was up to the required temperature the seals were moved for 30 strokes of the slave cylinder and then pressurised
differentially to 50 MPa to confirm and test the sealing integrity. This test closely reflects the requirements of the CDS
seals.
The results showed that the PTFE seals worked well at
temperatures up to 300°C but at 358°C suffered extrusion and
CSM failed. Clearly the absolute operational limit was above 300°C
OVEN @ 400 C but this was probably the safe limit.

As the corrosion tests had shown the metal seals did not perform
reliably. A series of tests were carried out to determine what
thickness of coating, when applied to the metal seal, would
achieve reliability. To do this three seals were coated with 10,
25 and 75 pm of gold respectively and fitted onto one of the
reaction vessels with an adapted lid that enabled a hydraulic
SLAVE CYLINDER pump to be connected. The intention was to raise the pressure
TEMPERATURE SENSOR
to 100 MPa at room temperature and hold this for a seven day
period. The 25 and 75pm coated seals worked well but the
10pm coated seal would not maintain a pressure above 30 MPa.
For economic reasons the 25 pm coating was the recommended
PUMP thickness.

SAMPLE CHAMBER DESIGN (300°C)

ACTUATOR SCREW
The material and seal trials confirmed what could reasonably be
expected to work at 300°C and so the detailed design of the
sampler was commenced. The main intention throughout the
design phase was to achieve 400°C rated systems where
reasonably possible. This would ensure maximum development
MASTER CYLINDER
experience and minimise the amount of redevelopment
necessary when the final 400°C sampler is designed.
FIGURE 1 SEAL TESTING ARRANGEMENT
To this end the concept for the sample chamber assembly would
be a sample chamber and working fluid housing inside a heat
shield, all located inside the main pressure housing. In this way the temperature to which the internal assembly would
rise would be controlled by the incoming hot sample fluid and the heat capacity of the mechanical assembly. There
would also be the advantage that the heat shield would keep the sample hot and eliminate the volumetric contraction
that causes the internal pressure to drop and risk the inward leakage of additional well fluid as the tool is extracted from
the borehole.

One of the main developments during the design phase was the non-metallic inlet valve seal. This was developed to
ensure reliable sealing of what will be a liquid containing fine solid particles. Large particles will be removed by
passing the sample fluid through a fine, 10pm, filter. The trials of the seal included liquid with 10pm rock particles in,
pressure ranges from 35-140 MPa for periods of some 15 hours and temperatures up to 470°C.

The other two developments were the sample extraction point bursting discs and the sampler actuation system which
uses a magnetic coupling mechanism across an internal pressure housing to operate the opening latch system.

Due to an impending patent application it is not possible (at the time of writing) to add any more detail to the above.

ELECTRONICS SYSTEM

The electronics system is being developed on two levels. The first is a comprehensive microprocessor based system
which will have the capability to monitor and record the borehole and electronics temperatures, system and actuator
battery voltages and currents and accept actuation command data, all with respect to time. The system would be self
monitoring using a “watchdog” circuit to ensure that one bad data point will not cause a system failure. The watchdog
circuit would have its own, real time, clock and in the event of a microprocessor system failure would be capable of
resetting and starting the processor inserting the actuation command data with respect to real time.
- 174-
The second level of electronics development is a simpler system for development use. This uses 9 pre-set delay periods
which are mechanically selectable. After the chosen period has expired the actuation motor is switched on until it
reaches a limit switch when it stops. There is no monitoring or fail safe system.

The simple system is being used for the 300°C sampler and it is expected to use the comprehensive system for the
400°C sampler. Both systems will be dewared and rated for use at temperatures up to 150°C.

TESTING

The 300°C sampler will be subjected to a series of tests at CSMA’s borehole test site to evaluate the systems
functionality performance. Samples at depths of 2.6 Km and temperatures of 100°C will be taken. Some tests will
include runs down the borehole but without opening the sampler. This will confirm that the inlet bursting disc system
and actuation system do not leak or operate unintentionally. After the UK based tests the sampler will be shipped to
Japan for testing at 300°C in geothermal boreholes. A similar testing programme to that already carried out will be
performed.

FUTURE WORK

After the downhole tests at 100° and 300°C the sampler design will be reviewed. Any problems with the design will be
addressed and development work carried out as necessary. Following this the 400°C sampler will be designed and
constructed. Once the testing at 400°C is completed it is possible that further development work will include developing
additional sensors on the tool to monitor the sample temperature, pressure, conductivity and pH. The development of a
multi-chamber sampler, to enable time lapsed or multiple samples from one run into the borehole, may be considered.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The author would like to thank the New Energy and Industrial Technology Development Organisation and the
Geothermal Energy Research and Development Company Ltd for their generous help with the sampler development
programme and the task of learning how to manage the administration of Japanese government funded projects. In
addition the many staff at CSM Associates Ltd who have contributed to the sampler’s development.

- 175-
 csm

Plate L1. Titanium Ti Grade 12. After the test

Plate L2. Titanium Grade 12. Corrosion coating on the surface is clearly visible.

- 176-
 csm

Plate P1. Titanium Ti 21S. At low magnification, the poor test surface finish is
already apparent.

Plate P2. Titanium Ti 21S. The dark areas are surface deposits from the reaction fluid.
The light areas are corroded metal.

177
 csm

Plate V1. Stainless Steel S316. Pitted zones on the post test surface.

Plate V2. Stainless Steel S316. The corroded areas at closer magnification.

- 178-
 DEVELOPMENT OF DRILLING AND PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGY
FOR DEEP GEOTHERMAL RESOURCES

Shinichi ISAKA, Terumichi IKAWA, Tsukashi AKAZAWA

New Energy and Industrial Technology Development Organization (NEDO)

ABSTRACT

Deep geothermal resources are believed to exist below already-developed shallow geothermal reservoirs. These
currently unutilized resources are expected to contribute to the expansion of geothermal power generation capacity in the
near future. To ensure that deep geothermal resources can be exploited safely, efficiently, and economically, NEDO is
developing appropriate technologies. The content of the technological development in this project consists of the
"development of drilling technology for deep geothermal resources" and the "development of production technology for
deep geothermal resources". This paper outlines the progress of NEDO’s technological development for exploiting deep
geothermal resources.

INTRODUCTION

The total power generating capacity of the 15 geothermal power plants in Japan is approximately 500,000 kW.
However, it would be difficult to increase geothermal power generation capacity by tapping only shallow reservoirs.
Therefore, to increase the geothermal power generating capacity further, deep geothermal resources should be developed.
The deep geothermal resources supposedly exist under high pressure conditions at a depth of 3000-4000 m and a
temperature of approximately 350 deg.C.
With regard to safe and efficient drilling and production of deep geothermal resources using conventional
technology, there are several problems in terms of technological limitation and profitability. It is important to develop
technology which enables safer and more efficient drilling and production according to each situation as well as
technology which can determine the characteristics of the resources. Under these circumstance, NEDO started in fiscal
1992 the "Development of Drilling and Production Technology for Deep-seated Geothermal Resources" project as a part
of the New Sunshine Project of the Ministry of International Trade and Industry (MITI).
This project consists of two categories: drilling technology and production technology, as shown in Fig.l.

DEVELOPMENT OF DEVELOPMENT OF
DRILLING TECHNOLOGY PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGY

Drilling Well
Production Well
Geothermal Monitoring Well
Power Plant nVrcF
Casing y
Scale Monitoring and
Drill Pipe Recovering System

PTSD Logging System

Cement Slurry!
PT Monitoring System

Downhole Motor)
Downhole Sampler

I 1 being developed [Tracer Monitoring System! Basement Rock

intrusive Rock

Fig.l. Development of drilling and production technology for deep geothermal resources.

-179
DEVELOPMENT OF DRILLING TECHNOLOGY

(1) Heat-Resistant, Durable Bits

The average life of a bit used for drilling geothermal

wells below a depth of 2000 m is 30 hours or less. The main
targeted areas for deep drilling are harder and hotter than the
areas for shallow drilling. Consequently, more bits are used
for deep drilling. Bits with higher heat-resistance and
durability should therefore be developed for longer bit life and
shorter drilling time, thus reducing the cost of drilling.
Main specifications for the development of bits are as
follows:
• Bit size : 8-1/2 inch
• Tooth type : IADC classification 537X
• Weight on bit: 10 - 18 ton
• Rotary speed : 40 - 100 rpm
• Drilling fluids : Drilling mud
• Acceptable maximum temperature (operating):
250 deg.C (over 30 Hr )
• Acceptable maximum temperature (survival):
350 deg.C (6Hr)
Main objectives of the development are as follows:
• Heat-resistant, durable bearings and sealing
• Heat-resistant, durable cutter mechanism.

Fig.2 illustrates the difficulties of using bits to drill in (lest No. 10)
high temperature, hard rock. This fiscal year those bits were
used in actual drilling for the purpose of checking their
performance and confirming whether other problems remain. Fig. 2. Components of preliminary test bits.

(2) Drilling Mud

As the temperature rises, due to degradation of the cohesion of the mad, mud fluidity and viscosity decreases. This
leads to a deterioration of the mud's ability to convey and suspend cuttings. The mud cake formation and lubrication
abilities also deteriorates. Such deterioration can cause problems in drilling, including increases in the torque, sloughing
of the hole, and sticking of the drill pipe; and can thus lead to longer drilling periods and higher drilling costs. The
maximum temperature range for the special heat-resistant mud used at present is from 220 to 230 deg.C. Development
of mud for stable use even at high temperatures can reduce drilling costs by reducing the amount of mud used and
preventing accidents in the hole.
Main specifications for the development of mud are as follows:
• Formation temperature: 350 deg.C.
• Plastic viscosity: 10 - 20 cp
• Yield value: 2-15 lbs/100ft2
• API filtration: < 75 ml
• Density (Mud weight): 1.03 - 1.20
(Each property to be measured after 3 days static aging at 350 deg.C.)
Main objectives of the development are as follows:
• Mud system for stable use
• Materials for thickener, dispersing deflocculant and lubricating potential of the mud system

NEDO has carried out this development step by step from 250 to 350 deg.C. To maintain stable theological
properties and good filtration properties of the mud for use in geothermal wells, high-temperature mud materials and
additives should be developed such as viscosifier, thinner, lubricant and total mud systems.
The main materials are as follows:
• Viscosifier: synthetic inorganic polymer, synthetic organic polymer (high molecular weight)
• Thinner: synthetic organic polymer, thermally stable and water-soluble modified materials (polymer)
• Lubricant: Soluble or dispersible type; metallic soap, modified poly alcohol, etc.
Suspensibility type lubricant ; very fine inorganic solids
• Other: mud additives to maintain the basic functions of mud.

In the previous fiscal year, a mud system for stable use at 300 deg.C. was nearly perfected in the laboratory.
This fiscal year, one of the mud system was used in actual drilling for the purpose of checking its function and also
researching its chemical properties in terms of whether other problems remain.
The test results are shown in Table 1. _ 1 on —
 TABLE 1. LABORATORY TEST RESULT OF MUD SYSTEM
Rheological Properties API Filtration
Sample Condition AV [ PV YV | Gel pH WL FC
No. (cP) (lb/100ft2) (ml) (mm)
Base Fluid 9.0 8 2 1 -2 6.9 9.6 1.2
NBP-10 + Salt 8.0 7 2 1-2 5.8 11.2 1.1
+ Cement 11.5 10 3 2-3 7.9 10.2 1.1
+ Solid 18.5 17 3 3-4 6.0 10.8 1.5
Stabilization 14.5 13 3 2-3 6.3 10.1 1.2
Base Fluid 14.5 13 3 1-2 5.8 14.4 1.3
BSP-9 + Salt 24.5 19 11 2- 10 5.9 15.0 1.6
+ Cement 8.0 7 2 1-2 6.8 15.0 1.5
+ Solid 19.5 17 5 2-3 5.8 14.6 1.7
Stabilization 10.5 9 3 1 -2 6.0 13.0 1.2
Base Fluid 12.0 11 2 1-2 5.9 12.0 1.8
BMP-12 + Salt 18.0 16 4 1 -2 5.7 18.6 2.1
+ Cement 11.5 10 3 1-2 6.9 8.5 1.2
+ Solid 18.0 17 2 1-2 5.7 13.5 1.8
Stabilization 12.0 11 2 1-2 5.9 11.7 1.3
Spec, for development - 70-20 2-15 - - <75 <2
(After 3 days at 300 deg.C.)
AV: Apparent Viscosity, PV: Plastic Viscosity, VV: Yield Value,
Gel: Gel Strength, WL: Water Loss, FC: Filter Cake

(3) Cement Slurry

Cementing is particularly important for the construction of wells and securing long-term, stable production of
steam. Conventional cement, due to the deterioration of its performance, can impede production. Geothermal formations
include areas with low reservoir pressure such as lost circulation zones. Since these areas cannot hold the weight of the
cement slurry, cement cannot be filled to the planned depth in the casing annulus. Consequently, some spots in those
areas remain cement-free water pockets. Expansion of those pockets by heat can hinder production by crushing the
casing. If conventional materials with a specific gravity less than the cement slurry are used , the performance,
including the strength, will be drastically diminished and the material will be damaged. Therefore, heat-resistant cement
and cement slurry possessing enough strength with a low specific gravity should be developed to enable proper
cementing. This will prevent problems with production and reduce additional work for repairs.
Main specifications for the development of cement slurries are as follows:
• Formation temperature : 350 deg.C.
• Depth of well : 3000 - 4000 m
• Cement slurry density : 1.35 g/cm3
• Thickening time (curing condition: at 230deg.C, for bottom hole circulating temperature with mud)
: over 3Hr
• Compressive strength : 35 kg/cm2
strength of the hardened cement slurry (curing time;24Hr, temp; 350deg.C, press;210 kg/cm2 )
• Compressive strength of the aging cement slurry
: 70 kg/cm2
• Filtration of cement slurry : < 500 ml / 30 min.
• Permeability : 0.25 md
Main objectives of the development are as follows:
• Reduction of cement slurry density
• Cement with enough compressive strength to function for a long time at high temperatures
• Slurry that can reduce dehydration at high temperature
• Cementing system

In the previous fiscal year, cement slurry for stable use at 350 deg.C. was manufactured in a laboratory for trial.
It has excellent filtration characteristics and compressive strength under high temperature.
The test results are shown in Table 2.

- 181-
TABLE 2. TEST RESULT OF CEMENT SLURRY (Density :1.5, 300deg.CL)
Cement Filtration Thickening Compressive Strength (kg/cm2) Permeability (md) x 1000
Slurry (ml / 30min) Time Aging Dates at 300deg.C. Aging Dates at 300deg.C.
(200deg.C.) 1 day 7 days 28 days 1 day 7 days 28 days
Sample 320 3:55 141.0 105.0 102.0 3.5 11.7 16.4
1 215 4:01 132.0 105.0 98.0 6.1 11.0 31.9
Sample 370 4:23 110.0 78.0 79.0 8.1 18.4 21.8
2 344 4:03 101.0 890 81.0 7.5 15.7 29.9
Sample 335 4:12 123.0 980 92.0 6-6 13.5 19.3
3 320 4:23 118.0 79.0 87.0 8.0 13.9 23.0
Spec. <500 >5.00 - - >70 - - <250

(4) High-Precision, High-Inclination Directional Drilling Technology (Downhole Motors: DHM)

In the drilling of deep geothermal resources, as in the development of shallow reservoirs, areas available for drilling
are limited and protection of the environment must be considered. It is therefore essential to improve the basis for
directional drilling of production and reinjection wells toward the target reservoirs from smaller land areas by controlling
the well's trajectory. Usually, a downhole motor is used to control well trajectory. Since there is no current downhole
motor for high temperatures, the targeted area cannot be reached because changing the direction of the well's trajectory
becomes impossible. So, re-drilling of the well must be conducted, or the well s trajectory has to be controlled from a
shallow depth. Consequently, drilling costs increase due to controlling well trajectory. A downhole motor for high
temperatures should therefore be developed to make the well's trajectory control more efficient and reduce drilling costs
by reaching the targeted area without failure.
Main specifications for the development of DHM are as follows:
' DHM type Positive Displacement Motor
' Bit size 8-1/2 inch
■ Outer dia 6-3/4 inch
' Length 20-26 ft
■ Mud flow rates 210-530 gal/min.
' Rotation speed 50 - 150 rpm
■ Max. torque 3,600 ft-lb
1 Max. power 80 HP
' Weight on bit 20 ton (approximately)
1 Acceptable max. temperature (operating) 250 deg.C (100 Hr)
Acceptable max. temperature (survival) 350 deg.C (lOHr)
There are two types of downhole motors. One is the all metal turbine type. Rubber products, which lack heat-
resistance, are not needed for this type. However, this type is not suitable for rock bits because the motors rotate at
high speed. The other type is PDM (Positive Displacement Motor) of the Moineau type. This is a low rpm high-torque
type. However, the elastomers currently used as stator manufacturing material do not have enough heat-resistance.
NEDO has developed the PDM type DHM by researching the materials used for motor rotors.
Main objectives of the development are as follows:
• Stator material for high temperatures
• Highly heat-resistant bearings and seals for high temperatures

DEVELOPMENT OF PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGY

(1 ) PTSD Logging Technology

By measuring the pressure(P), temperature(T), flow velocity(S:spinner) and fluid density(D) of a geothermal well
both in static and dynamic conditions, data for efficient control of production can be acquired. The logging cable widely
used for PTS logging is a Teflon-coated type and is heat-resistant up to 315 deg. C. Its performance is not adequate for
the logging of deep geothermal wells where temperatures are predicted to be 300-400 deg.C. Logging cables made with
a non-organic insulator are highly heat-resistant. However, manufacturing a long cable of this type is difficult and
costly, and the tensile strength is not adequate for use in deep wells. The heat-resistance of the conventional equipment,
including the chamber which contains the logging sensors, is also not adequate. For these reasons, the PTSD logging
system adopted a measuring method in which the logging data is recorded a memory module into the logging tools.
- 182-
 Main specifications for the development of PTSD logging tools are as follows:
' Acceptable max. temperature 400 deg.C
' Acceptable max. pressure : 490 kg/cm2
> Acceptable max. logging time : 6hours
• Measurement method : sensors to record data in a memory module
- Power supply : battery module
> Measurement interval : min. 0.1 sec
♦ Dimension (outer-dia x length) mm : PT-probe (56 x 2,700), S-probe (70 x 3,700)
Main objectives of the development are as follows: ^
• Heat-resistant chamber
• Heat-resistant, pressure-resistant sealing mechanism 4_Pressure Housing
* Smaller electronic devices which consume less power Heat Shield

In the memory-type PTSD logging system, control information Heat Sink

such as the start time, measuring interval and logging time are preset Battery Modu le
into the memory module on the surface before logging. While logging,
each probe can measure downhole conditions and record the time- Memory Module
transient logging data to the memory module. After the logging, Sensor Electronics
recorded data in the memory module is transferred to the data processor,
-Data Commun i cat i ona I Port
where it then can be converted to depth-data by using the logging depth­
Pressure Sensor (Pr.s.ur. <Ju»rtz g.uge)
time data measured by a cable encoder.
The construction outlines of a PT-probe and an S-probe are shown Inner Temperature Sensor
in Fig.3 and 5. i
(a) PT-probe
The PT-probe, which contains a memory module, battery module,
pressure sensor and temperature sensor, is included in the dewar. A Heat Sink
pressure quartz gauge and a platinum resistance thermometer are applied
to pressure and temperature sensors, respectively. Insulation
Elemental technology development of the PT-probe includes: Pressure Tubing
• Comparison of the battery type and battery life Temperature Sensor Wire
• Evaluation of memory module, pressure gauge, thermometer
High-Pressure,
• Heat-resistant chamber -High-Temperature seal
• Heat-resistant, Pressure-resistant sealing mechanism n
Based on the results of this elemental technology development, a
"Temperature Sensor
preliminary PT-probe was manufactured for field test. In last March, a (Platinum Resistance Thermometer)
PT-probe developed for stable use at 400 deg.C was tested in a deep Pressure Pick-up Nozzle
geothermal well to check its performance and determine whether other
problems remained. Results of this trial under static conditions are
Fig. 3. Main components of advance
shown in Fig.4.
PT-probe logging tools.

WD-1 PT Log Ttwrcorvet

---

Fig. 4. Response of the advance PT logging tool.

- 183-
(b) S-probe
The S(spinner)-probe, which measures the flow velocity of
geothermal fluids in a well under dynamic conditions, determines feed
points, injection points and the boiling point. Connector
As shown in Fig.5, this probe comprises a spinner sensor unit and ■ InsuI ation
an electronics cartridge which is covered with a dewar and pressure
Heat Sink
vessel. The electronics cartridge includes a memory module, battery
module and sensor electronics. And spinner sensor unit contains an Pressure Housing
Shield
impeller that rotates according to flow velocity, a target that converts
the rotations into the electric signals, and an eddy current type flow Memory/Battery module
sensor that transfers the electric signals into the memory module.
Elemental technology development for the S-probe includes:
Heat Sink
« Development and confirmation of the conversion efficiency the
eddy current type flow sensor Sensor Electronics
(pressure range:0-500kgf/cm2,max.temperature: 400 deg.C).
• Development and performance evaluation of the electronics
Heat Sink
cartridge.
• Heat-resistant chamber 1 nsu I at i on
• Heat-resistant, Pressure-resistant sealing mechanism
Sensor"
(c) D-probe Target
The D(fluid density)-probe, which comprises a radioactive Impeller Shaft
source(Sc-137), a detector and other electronics, is contained the
collimator. A radioactive source emits gamma rays into the geothermal mpelIer
fluids in the borehole, where the rays are then received by the detector. Bearing
The rays lose some of their energy because of Compton scattering.
The scattered gamma rays reaching the detector, at a fixed distance Centra Iizer
from the source, help reveal the geothermal fluid conditions. The
number of Compton-scattering collisions is related directly to the
number of electrons in the geothermal fluid, relevant to the fluid
density.
Elemental technology development for D-probe includes:
• Optimization of the detector's response as related to the energy Fig. 5. Main components of advance
level of the radioactive source and the distance between the source S-probe logging tools.
and the detector.
• Comparison of the material for collimator.
Fig.6 shows the conceptual design of the D-probe.

Seal Sub Flow Path Coupling

Support Arms

Fig. 6. Concept of D probe

Sc-137
Detector
Electronic Detector Collimator Source Collimator

(2) PTC Monitoring Technology

By monitoring the temperature and pressure of a geothermal reservoir, its productivity can be predicted. The
temperature and pressure of the reservoir, as well as the chemical characteristics of the geothermal fluids, are also
extremely important in controlling production. PT monitoring is currently being conducted using metal capillary tubing
and optical fiber methods. However, these methods are not suitable for use in deep geothermal wells because the
capillary tubing has low tensile strength and the optical fiber is heat-resistant only up to about 300 deg.C. The
reliability of the collection mechanism is low.
Main specifications for the development of PTC monitoring technology are as follows:
• Acceptable max. temperature : 400 deg.C
• Acceptable max. pressure : 490 kg/cm2
• Max. depth of well : 4,000 m
• pH condition : pH3 (assumed)
• Sampling volume : 2,000 cc
• Outside dia : 60 mm
-184-
(a) PT-monitoring
The Pressure(P)-monitoring system consists of a
pressure chamber, capillary tube and pressure gauge. The
bottomhole pressure is transmitted directly to a surface
pressure gauge through the inside of a pressurized capillary
tube that has been set in the geothermal well.
ARMORED
The main components of the temperature(T)-monitoring
system include an optical fiber for the temperature sensor, a CAPILLARY TUBE
laser diode drive circuit and a personal computer.
SHEATH TUBE

After inputting a laser pulse light into the optical fiber

on the surface, the laser pulse light scatters while traveling is
CONVENTIONAL
through the optical fiber. A part of the scattered light returns OPTICAL FIBER
to the input end on the surface. The depth of a point where
light changes direction and returns to the surface is determined
from the light’s velocity and the delay time from the pulsed
light input to its return. The Raman scattered light's
frequency of the light that returns to the surface is directly
divided into the Stokes light and the Anti-Stokes light. The ARMORED
intensity of the Anti-Stokes light is related to temperature. CAPILLARY TUBE
The temperature of the scattered light point is analyzed
basically by the intensity ratio of the Stokes light and the SHEATH TUBE
Anti-Stokes light.
Conventional optical fibers can be protected from the
effect of high temperatures by metal coating. METAL COATING
Elemental technology development for the PT- OPTICAL FIBER
monitoring system includes:
• In the optical fiber sensor, optimization of the metal
coating method so as to increase the temperature limit
(below 400 deg.C) and minimize the optical loss caused
by the deference in thermal strain between the optical
fiber and coating metals. \ PRESSURE CHAMBER
• Development of an armored capillary tube with
sufficient heat-resistance and tensile strength.
• Development of a method to manufacture the long Fig. 7. Outline of PT monitoring System.
capillary tube which is placed inside the optical fiber
(approximately 4,000m).

Fig.7 shows the outline of a PT-monitoring system with

two types of optical fiber sensors (conventional type and
heat-resistance metal coating type sensors).

(b) C-monitoring
It is very important to investigate the chemical characteristics of geothermal fluids for proper production control.
The C(chemical)-monitoring system consists of a downhole fluid sampler which samples geothermal fluids directly in
the production well, and a sample extraction system on the surface. The downhole fluid sampler, which comprises
electronics, an actuator and a sample chamber, is covered with a dewar and pressure vessel to protect it from high
temperature, high-pressure and shock. In order to maintain a quality of sampling fluids and a high sampling recovery
rate, the controlled displacement type sampler was adopted as the downhole fluid sampler.
In this type of downhole fluid sampler, a needle powered by an actuator system perforates the rapture-disc shield,
creating an entrance to the sample chamber at the sampling point. Highly pressurized fluid in the geothermal well
enters the sample chamber through the hole in the rapture-disc, pushing a piston to the bottom of the sample chamber.
Working fluid on the other side of the piston is pushed into a low pressure chamber. When the sample chamber is
filled with the well fluid, the entrance of sample chamber is closed by a non-return valve.
After logging, the sampling fluid is removed from the downhole fluid sampler by the sample extraction system for
chemical analysis.
Elemental technology development for the C-monitoring system includes:
• Development of the actuator system which applies force to the needle so as to perforate the rapture-disc.
• Comparison of the tool materials with a high resistance to heat, shock and corrosion.
• Comparison of the seal materials and development of dynamic seal mechanism for chamber piston and various
valves.

(3) Tracer Monitoring Technology

To predict and evaluate the life of a geothermal reservoir, the permeability between the reservoir and production
and/or reinjection wells should be understood. Tracer monitoring should be conducted for this purpose. Conventional
— 185 —
tracer materials are used at maximum temperatures of 200 to 300 degrees C. Technologies to analyze flow in deep areas
and areas between deep and shallow zones have not yet been established. Trader materials for high temperatures and
tracer flow analyzing technology therefore should be developed. Vapor phase tracers and two-phase tracers considered to
be practical as tracers for high temperatures have not yet been developed.
Main specifications for the development of tracer monitoring are as follows:
• Assumed formation temperature : 350 deg.C.
Main objectives of the development are as follows:
• Selection of two-phase tracer materials for high temperatures
• Tracer flow analyzing technology

(4) Scale Monitoring Technology

Dissolved materials and the depositing conditions of deep-seated geothermal resources and their relationship with
respect to shallow reservoirs are not yet known. Conditions regarding the formation of scales and adhesion which occur
during production, use and reinjection of geothermal fluids need to be understood in order to conduct appropriate control
of the formation of scales.
Main objectives of the development are as follows:
• Non-destructive scale detection method
• Elucidation of scale forming mechanism

(5) Anti-Scale Technology

Scale formation accompanying production, use and recycling of geothermal resources substantially affects the
drilling costs. Technologies to prevent the formation of scales, as well as technologies to remove them, should be
developed to reduce the costs of additional well drilling and maintaining surface production facilities. Measures against
scales which can be applied to deep geothermal resources and shallow reservoirs should also be developed.
Main objectives of the development are as follows:
• Technology to prevent scale formation
• Technology to remove scales
FY ’94 '95 | '96 ] '97 [ '93 | 99 ^000 | '01 | '02
OUTLINE OF THIS PROJECT 1 • /--:--- —^ -----------N C—------- N
F'eld ; t est
Bit, Mud, Cement
Fig.8 illustrates the target technologies and schedule i Drilling j . Test Drilling:
for this development project. This project began in i technology \

FY1992, and drilling technology has a priority over other l. _ J Basic Reseach
technologies. P T S (D) Probe D Probe

CONCLUSION & SUMMARY _______________[ C Monitor Field,

Basic Beseech (Sampler)
Production Test
This development project is progressing steadily and it is technology P T Monitoring
expected that the acceptable maximum temperature of Basic Reseach

conventional drilling methods will be increased to 350 Tracer Monitoring

deg.C. and drilling cost will be reduced. This development Basic Reseach

project should lead to more economic geothermal power Scale Monitoring

generation from both deep reservoirs and shallow Basic Reseach

reservoirs.
Fig. 8. Outline of this development project.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The authors are grateful to Dr.Shouichi Tanaka, professor emeritus of Tokyo University and steering committee
chairman of this NEDO project, for his guidance and advice. The authors would also like to thank all other members of
the steering committee, members of sub-committees, and cooperating companies, for the support of this project.

REFERENCES

New Energy and Industrial Technology Development Organization (NEDO), 1994

Development of Drilling and Production Technology for Deep Geothermal Resources (Annual Report Japanese)

- 186-
 RESEARCH ON DRILLING TECHNIQUES FOR DEEP GEOTHERMAL WELLS

Hirokazu KARASAWA, Tetsuji OHNO and Hideo KOBAYASHI

National Institute for Resources and Environment

ABSTRACT

The objective of this research is to develop polycrystalline diamond compact (PDC) bits for deep
geothermal well drilling, especially for downhole motor drilling. Drilling and durability tests have been
conducted using 66 mm-dia PDC core bits, 98.43 and 142.88 mm-dia PDC full-face bits. On the basis of these
test results, a PDC full-face bit with diameter of 142.88 mm was redesigned and fabricated to improve the bit
performance. The durability tests revealed that this bit has the bit-life of about 17 m in hard and abrasive
granite drilling.

INTRODUCTION

Thermal stability of roller cone bits is relatively low; therefore, their bit-lives often decrease
considerably in the drilling of geothermal wells with the formation temperature above 350-deg C. On the other
hand, the applications of PDC bits for geothermal well drilling are limited due to insufficient cutter strength,
even though they have thermal stability up to 700-deg C.
We have conducted drilling and durability tests to develop PDC full-face bits for geothermal well
drilling (Karasawa and Ohno, 1995, Karasawa et. ah, 1996). This research is divided into four stages. We
first investigated the effect of the cutter diameter on the bit performance at high rotary speeds using 98.43 mm-
dia PDC full-face bits. Second, 142.88 mm-dia PDC full-face bits were fabricated and tested based on this
investigation. In addition, durability tests with granite were conducted to understand points for further
improvements of 142.88 mm-dia bits using one of test bits. The tests revealed that not only the bit design must
be improved, but also PDC cutters with improved strength is necessary to improve the bit performance
significantly. Third, the performance of polished and conventional PDC cutters was evaluated using 66 mm-
dia core bits. Finally, a 142.88 mm-dia PDC full-face bit was redesigned and fabricated using the polished
PDC cutters based on the test results mentioned above. The durability tests were carried out to evaluate the life
of the bit. This paper reports on conduct and the results of these tests.

TEST RESULTS

- 187-
Effect of cutter diameter on bit performance
PDC bits available for downhole motor drilling must be designed and fabricated so as to be able to
rotate at high speeds of more than about 100 rpm. An idea for fabricating these bits is both decreasing the
cutter diameter and increasing the number of cutters brazed on a bit body. Thus, the effect of the cutter
diameter on the bit performance was investigated using 98.43 mm-dia PDC full-face bits. Figure 1 shows the
test bits. Details of these bits are recorded in Table 1 from Nos.l to 5. Figure 2 is one example of the test
results. This figure shows the relation between the cutter diameter and the penetration per revolution when
Sori granite (the uniaxial compressive strength: 158-209 MPa) was drilled at the rotary speed of 50 to 400 rpm.
It is noted that the penetration per revolution of all bits decreases considerably at 300 and 400 rpm as compared
to the data at less than 200 rpm. Also noted is that the penetration per revolution of bit Nos. 1 to 3 is larger
than that of bit Nos.4 and 5 at 300 and 400 rpm. The vibration of bit Nos.4 and 5 while granite drilling was
greater than that of other bits at 300 and 400 rpm.

Performance of 142.88 mm-dia bit

In the granite drilling using the 98.43 mm-dia bits, the bit with the cutter smaller than 8.2 mm-dia
performed better with respect to the penetration per revolution and the rotational stability at higher speeds of
300 and 400 rpm. Therefore, we fabricated the 142.88 mm-dia bits using the cutters with the diameter below
8.2 mm. The 142.88 mm-dia bits are shown in Figure 3. Details of these bits are described in Table 1 from
Nos.6 to 8.
Figure 4 is an example of the results of the tests with the 142.88 mm-dia bits. The penetration of all
bits increased with the rotaiy speed up to 400 rpm in drilling of Sanjome andesite and Shinkomatsu andesite

Table 1 Description of PDC full-face bits.

Bit Bit Cutter No. of Rake*

No. Dia.(mm) Dia.(mm) Cutters Angles)deg.)

1 9843 5.0 48 -10

2 98.43 6.6 36 -10

3 9843 8.2 29 -10

4 98 43 10.8 22 -10

5 98 43 13.3 18 -10

6 142 88 5.0 100 -10

7 142 88 6.6 75 -10

Figure 1 PDC full-face bits of 98.43 mm-dia. 8 142.88 8.2 61 -10

9 142 88 8.2 67 -10

* Backrake and Siderake

-188-
(the uniaxial compressive strength is 118-141 and 145-
o 400 (rpm) Sori Granite
162 MPa, respectively). On the other hand, the 18.9-19.3 kN
a 300
maximum rotary speed of each bit in Sori granite
_v 100
drilling was limited to 256 to 300 rpm, due to the severe O 50

bit vibration at speeds of more than 300 rpm. As

mentioned before, the penetration rate of the 98.43
mm-dia bits decreased at speeds of 300 and 400 rpm.
It seems that the rotary speed should be set below 200
rpm in the case of hard rock drilling such as Sori
CUTTER DIA. (mm)
granite.
To understand points for further Figure 2 Example of test results
improvements of the 142.88 mm-dia bits, durability (98.43 mm bits),
tests with Sori granite were conducted using bit No.7
(Figure 5). During the tests the wear of the cutters increased rapidly, and considerable wear flat on the cutters
set around the nose and on the gage were observed after ten meters of granite drilling. From the results of the
tests, it became clear that not only the bit design must be improved, but also PDC cutters with improved

Figure 3 PDC full-face bits of 142.88 mm-dia.

70
1 1 1 1
C Sori Granite

i
Shinkomatsu Andesite
60 " Bit No.7
- Bit No 8 - 100
_ 200 rpm
- /
BIT W E IG H T (k N )
50 VH —
LU (rpm) ZZ/
t 40 - ° 400 /// -
— Weight
------- Rate
Z a 300 rT p
o 30 - d 200 / / -

* 100 yd
< 20 £ -
or - 050 zy ac
i—
LU
Z 10
LU
CL
10 20 30
BIT WEIGHT (kN) LENGTH DRILLED (m)

Figure 4 Example of test results (142.88 mm bits). Figure 5 Results of durability tests using bit No.7.

- 189-
strength is necessary to improve the bit performance significantly for hard rock drilling.

Performance of polished PDC cutter

It is said that polishing of a PDC cutter is one of methods to improve the cutter strength. To
understand the performance of the polished PDC cutters, core bits of 66 mm o. d. and 44.8 mm i. d. were
fabricated using the polished and conventional PDC cutters (Figure 6). Each bit has eight cutters of 8.2 mm-
dia. The durability tests with Sori granite were carried out at a constant rotary speed of 100 rpm. The test
results are shown in Figure 7. It is clear that the bit weight of the bit with polished cutters is lower than that of
the bit with conventional cutters at the same penetration rate of about 7 cin/inin. And, the degree of wear of the
bit with polished cutters was smaller as compared to that of the bit with conventional cutters. On the basis of
the test results, we selected the polished PDC cutters to improve the performance of the 142.88 mm-dia bits.

12r
66mm PDC Core Bit, Sori Granite, 100rpm

Conventional
Conventional
LD
Polished
1 15 Z
ni-,—''
< X
o
LU

PDC Cutter, DC DO
(8.2 mm-dia) tn
------- Penetration Rate
z
LU -------Bit Weight
CL
Figure 6 66 mm-dia core bit. ir 10 is 20
LENGTH DRILLED (m)

Figure 7 Comparison of the performance between

polished and conventional cutters.

Improvement of 142.88 mm-dia bit’s performance

Bit No.8 in Table 1 was redesigned and fabricated using the polished cutters of 8.2 mm-dia based on
the result of the tests mentioned above. Bit No.9 shown in Table 1 is details of the bit redesigned. The main
improvements of this bit are:
• Using polished PDC cutters instead of conventional PDC cutters.
• Increase of additional six cutters set around the nose and rearrangement of cutters.
• Change of the configuration of the bit body (increase of the radius of the nose).
The durability of this bit were also evaluated using Sori granite at the speed of 100 rpm (Figure 8). Bit No.9
reached nearly the bit-life at granite drilling of about 17 m. It is obvious that bit No.9 performed better with
respect to the length drilled and the penetration per revolution at the end of testing as compared to bit No. 7.
After the tests, considerable wear flat on the cutters set around the nose was observed. The performance of the

- 190-
142.88 mm-dia bit improved, but there is room for improvement with respect to the arrangement of cutters and
the number of cutters set on the bit body.

Sori Granite
Bit No.9
100rpm

-------- Bit Weight

--------Penetration Rate .

6 8 10 12 14 16 1
LENGTH DRILLED (m)

Figure 8 Results of durability tests using bit No.9.

CONCLUSIONS

To develop PDC full-face bits for deep geothermal well drilling, drilling and durability tests were
conducted. On the basis of these test results, the 142.88 mm-dia bit (No.9) was redesigned and fabricated using
the polished PDC cutters of 8.2 mm-dia. The durability tests revealed that this bit has the bit-life of about 17 m
in hard and abrasive granite drilling. In addition, it became clear that the bit must be improved with respect to
the arrangement of cutters and the number of cutters set on the bit body in the case of hard rock drilling such as
Sori granite.
We are redesigning bit No.9 to increase the bit-life for granite drilling. The number of cutters will be
increased from sixty-seven to about ninety and the rearrangement of cutters set on the bit body will be carried
out using the design method for core bits such as the 66 mm-dia bits.

REFERENCES

Karasawa, H. and Ohno, T., 1995. “Development of PDC Bits for Downhole Motors”, Proc. of the 17th New
Zealand Geothermal Workshop, p.145-150.

Karasawa, H., Ohno, T., and Kobayashi, H., 1996. “Improvement of PDC Bit’s Performance at High Rotary
Speed”, GRC Transactions, Vol.20, p.503-508.

- 191-
 PROSPECTS FOR THE EVALUATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF MATERIALS
UNDER IEA RESEARCH COLLABORATION PROGRAM
ON DEEP GEOTHERMAL RESOURCES

Norio SANADA1 and Keith A LICHTI2

1 Tohoku National Industrial Research Institute, AIST, MITI, Japan

2 Materials Performance Technologies, Industrial Research Limited, New Zealand

ABSTRACT

Deep-seated geothermal reservoirs (>3000 m) have been identified as a viable source of energy within
existing and new geothermal fields. Drilling and proposals for utilization of these resources is increasing. The
discharge water and steam chemistries of deep-seated geothermal production wells are expected to contain
significant concentrations of aggressive species C02, H2S and HC1 for example and may be of high salinity (high
Cl) and low pH (high S04). The corrosion properties of these fluids have not been fully defined and there is a
need to collect and evaluate materials results and experience relevant to the selection of materials for deep-seated
geothermal developments. The IEA research program was proposed to encourage information exchange and
collaborative research activities including materials research. A four year program of activities is outlined to
progress this area of research.

INTRODUCTION

Deep geothermal resources, which are tentatively defined as those at a depth of more than 3000 m below
the ground surface, have the potential to provide considerably more energy than shallow reservoirs. A number of
countries have begun to drill deep geothermal wells and some of these activities are reported in this symposium.
In Japan for example the New Energy and Industrial Technology Development Organization (NEDO) drilled a
deep well, which reached 3729 m depth in the Kakkonda geothermal field. A total of eight wells greater than
4000 m in depth have been drilled in Mexico at a number of fields including Cerro Prieto. Many other countries
have drilled or plan to drill deep wells.

Materials used in exploration, drilling and well completion depend critically on the properties of the
encountered and produced fluids, in particular on their corrosive effects, so the corrosion chemistries have to be
sufficiently well understood to facilitate prediction of corrosion performance and selection of reliable materials.
In deep geothermal systems fluids from the reservoirs might be expected to result in more corrosion of
conventional construction materials because of higher temperatures and lower pH values.

This paper reviews experiences concerning materials for deep geothermal developments, the fluid
chemistry and the corrosion in aggressive fluids and describes the IEA research collaboration program on the
materials for deep geothermal developments, which is expected to start in March, 1997.

DEEP WELL DEVELOPMENTS

1. Indonesia

A geothermal field in Indonesia drilled to depths of more than 2000m gave temperatures higher than
320°C. The wells encountered corrosive fluids having pH value 1 and temperatures of 200°C, at 600 m depths
which destroyed both cement and casing. A project has been initiated to study cement and casing for corrosive
and high temperature fluids in acidic geothermal fluids (Sudarman, 1996).

-192
2. Italy

In the last decade a number of deep geothermal exploration wells have been drilled. In the well “Carboli
11” having a total depth of 3455 m in the Larderello geothermal field, a temperature of 427°C was measured at a
depth of 3328 m. Fluid inclusion and hydrothermal mineral analysis indicated a high salinity (-32 wt% NaCl
equiv.) brine of magmatic derivation at 3445 m depth (Giovanni, 1995).

3. Japan

By the year of 1993 the total number of deep geothermal wells, which were more than 2440 m in depth and
of which the deepest one was on the order of 3200 m in depth, was twenty-four (Yagi et al., 1994, Saito, 1994).
Maximum temperatures of the produced fluids were 373°C in a bore hole in the Fushime geothermal field, and
412°C in a bore hole in the Kakkonda geothermal field.

In 1992 the New Energy and Industrial Technology Development Organization (NEDO) started to
investigate characteristic of deep geothermal systems under a project entitled ‘Deep-seated Geothermal Resources
Survey’ and to drill a deep well in the Kakkonda geothermal field in Japan (Sasada et al., 1993). The deep well
was named as WD-1A, which reached 3729 m depth in 1995, but did not encounter steam production zones (Yagi
et al., 1995, Saito et al., 1996). The well is the deepest of the geothermal bore holes in Japan. In the well
completion 13 3/8” casing L-80, 61&68 lb/ft and 9 5/8” casing L-80, 47 lb/ft were used, and the cementing jobs
for both casings were performed using three and two-stage cementing methods, respectively.

Temperature measurements near the bottom of the well were made using temperature indicators of
metallic fusion compound tablets and pure metal tablets (Ikeuchi et al.,1996, Sasada et al., 1996). The
temperature was found to be over 500°C at 3700 m depth in the bore hole in the heat conduction zone, which was
below 3100 m. The temperature of over 500 °C is again the highest of the geothermal bore holes in Japan. They
also sampled supersaline and metal rich brine from the well bottom and confirmed that the borehole fluid
contained magmatic substances. The work on this well site is continuing.

Materials research on the corrosive effects of HC1 containing two-phase fluids encountered in production
wells has been conducted over a number of years in Japan. (Kurata et al, 1995, Sanada et al, 1995). Suitable cost
effective materials for production tubing have been successfully trialed for deep geothermal wells of pH>3, for
example Alloy 22Cr-5Ni.

Work on corrosion in volcanic environments having aggressive gas chemistry was initiated in Japan in
1992 at Kuju-Iwoyama (Saito et al, 1994).

4. Mexico

There have been some experiences in deep geothermal drilling in places like Cerro Prieto (Puente, 1996).
They have drilled eight geothermal wells with more than 4000 m depth (4325 m is the deepest one) and found
temperatures up to 360°C. These wells were completed using conventional casing designs, for example 9 5/8"
casing C-75, 45 lb/ft, Hydrin 563, and slotted liner 4 1/2" C-75, 29 lb/ft, HydriU S.E.U.

5. New Zealand

Deep drilling is considered to be a viable option for extending the production capabilities in existing
geothermal fields of Ohaaki and Wairakei. Deep drilling in search of additional steam at Ohaaki has been tried
and is reported separately in this symposium. The wells were shallower than planned and produced fluids were
similar to those of the shallower fluids.

A joint Japan/New Zealand initiative began to characterise the corrosion properties of a range of
engineering alloys exposed to natural volcanic environments on White Island, New Zealand in 1993 (Kurata et al,
1994, Kurata et al, 1995, Lichti et al, 1996). The results are providing indications of alloy types which might be
suitable for use in high temperature, acidic deep-seated geothermal fluids.

A second New Zealand/Japan collaborative project on “Utilisation of Deep Geothermal Resources” was

- 193-
initiated in 1996 with the aim of defining the corrosion chemistry of typical deep-seated geothermal production
fluids and to explore energy process and plant options. It is planned to siniulate aggressive environments, where
materials selection criteria are unclear, in the laboratory, for testing of corrosion resistant alloys.

6. USA

Brookhaven National Laboratory (BNL) is performing work on two topics that are applicable to deep
geothermal resources development (Kukacka, 1996). The first is to develop advanced materials systems for use in
the completion of high temperature (300-500°C), low pH geothermal wells. As part of this work they have
synthesized and laboratory tested a C02-resistant, lightweight, cementing material that meets the following
criteria: 1) carbonation rate <5% after 1 yr in brine at 300°C containing 500 ppm C02, 2) slurry density < 1.2g/cc,
3) compressive strength >5 MPa at 24 hr age, 4) bond strength to steel well casing >0.07 MPa, 5) pumpability of
approximately 4 hr at >100°C, and 6) H20 permeability < 0.1 m Darcy. The cement is a non-portland cement-
based material containing Na20, CaO, A1203, Si02, P205 and H20. Testing in a chemically harsh geothermal
environment will take place in the Summer of 1997 when the cement is used in a well completion.

A second topic under investigation is advanced materials for the control of lost circulation episodes.
Prior to pumping cement for a lost circulation treatment the bit is invariably removed from the drillstring,
requiring a round trip on the drill pipe that takes about 1 hour for each 300 m of hole depth. The bit is removed
because of the fear of plugging a bit nozzle and having the cement set up inside the drill pipe. If it could be
guaranteed, however, that the cement would not set up in the drill pipe for a significant length of time, the cement
could be pumped through the bit nozzles with less trepidation. By not removing (then replacing) the drill bit, two
hours of rig time would be saved for every 300m of hole depth. For a typical 1000 m loss-zone depth, this
amounts to 6 hours per loss zone.

Under this project, they are attempting to develop and test a cement with an encapsulated accelerator that
does not react to set the cement until the encapsulant is somehow ruptured. This could be accomplished when the
cement either passes through the bit nozzles and the encapsulant is sheared off the accelerator, or the cement flows
into a loss-zone fracture and heats to a temperature that melts the encapsulant. Rapid, controllable setting or
thickening once the cement is outside the drill pipe would significantly improve the sealing capability of the
cement.

7. Philippines

Shallow wells in the Philippines have on occasion encountered aggressive acidic fluids (Maturgo, 1996).
These wells have been too corrosive to use for production but have been sucessfully used for reinjection..
Research on the geochemistry has concentrated on developing an understanding of the origin of these fluids.
Some research on materials has been done but the wells have not been further developed for production and the
majority of the acid wells have been cemented shut (Ferrer, 1996).

CHEMISTRY OF DEEP GEOTHERMAL FLUIDS

According to theories on chemical substance transportation to deep geothermal fluid, chemical substances
could be supplied into deep geothermal fluid through the following three processes (Noda, 1992):
(1) differentiation of magmatic emanation,
(2) NaCl vaporization under high-temperature, high-pressure condition,
(3) chemical substance leaching from rock.

Actual geothermal fluids might contain chemical substances which are supplied through a combination of
these three, and the fluid characteristics are largely influenced by volcanic activities and geological environment.
From a corrosion point of view, therefore, it must be considered how much aggressive substances such as HC1, H2S,
S02, HF as well as NaCl are contained in the fluids.

It is generally considered that the discharge fluid chemistry of deep geothermal wells will be more
aggressive than conventional geothermal, however little data is available for deep wells. Many shallow wells
have produced acidic fluids which are considered to show characteristics of deeper reservoir fluids. Tables 1 and
2 show the discharge water chemistry of acidic fluids in geothermal wells which have been drilled in Japan and
Philippines, respectively. The results shown, although not for deep geothermal wells do give some indication of
the more aggressive chemistries anticipated in deep-seated geothermal developments.

- 194-
Table 1. Discharge Water Chemistry of Acid Fluids in Geothermal Wells in Japan (NEDO-P9211,1992).

Well Depth Tmax pH Composition (mg/I)

(m) (°C) Water Steam Na K Ca Mg Cl SO, B Si02 nh3 hco3 h2s Fe Al
A-2 1507 280 3.6-49 275 46.6 22.9 2.4 854-1400 759 0.1 759
A-2 945 250 3.3 5.6 956 318 90 34 18 3643 1312 7.3 496
A-2 558 3.9 383 41.4 18.3 2.3 4.9 870 422 0.6 12.8
A-2 1207 250 3.9 5.78 134 53.5 56.3 2.9 5.5 894 376 1 114
A-3 2465 330 3.5 1090 242 2.7 0.4 1880 116 1680 22.9 0.12
A-3 2818 320 3.99 4.5 757 172 196.6 0.6 1400 63.2 1490 21.2 0.99
A-3 3000 333 4.7-5.1 475 105 1.78 732 63.4 1470
B-1 850 198.7 2.4-29 20.5 26.3 449.5 658.7 38.1
B-1 1067 210.7 3.6-59 390 64 12 14.1 597.4 378.6 23.9
B-1 1200 202.7 3.1-3.9 15.8 11 502.6 447.1 52.5
B-2 1065 250 2.8-33 4.96 308 84 13.63 60.2 239.6 1308 528 307
C-1 1350 238 3.3 4 1788 503.5 408.4 137 5286 55.2 510 323 3.83
C-1 1300 238 2.6 4.4 3120 810 1460 270 9570 201 144 648
C-1 375 184 3.3 4.4 1950 439 408 48.4 5630 31 515 220 4.32
C-1 1500 261.3 3.4 4.1 1900 440 450 33 4910 19 690 150 0.53
C-1 1000 224.9 3.4 4.2 1400 360 470 34 480 19 660 110 0.22
G-1 2152 242 8.8-3.5 4 567 70.6 11.6 0.36 764 325 551 31.1 0.82
G-1 2182 243 3.4 4.2 503 56.3 15.7 1.91 612 360 452 40.4 0.97
H-1 1506 4.7 3.8 13200 3450 1320 23 3E+05 31 1070 1.6
H-1 2050 3.9 4.3 17400 4700 1650 32700 1250 120
326-
H-1 2505 360 4.7 4.2 14800 4190 1850 8 31500 36 853 25 0.27
H-1 2045 4.7 4.5 15800 4970 1780 2.7 31800 35 1180 10 0.3
H-1 1701 3.8 3.2 14900 4710 1540 17 29400 36 1210 84 0.35
H-1 2139 4.4 4.2 13800 4570 1330 12 1200 55 1210 54 0.08
1-1 1801 294.3 2.7 4.2 880 250 4.4 1180 440 1080 3
1-1 1267 240.5 2.82 4.8 818 190 8.1 2 980 364 1000 0.5 26 0.47
1-1 1198 263.8 2.4 5 765 167 17.4 4.8 7600 697 1036 39.7 0.09
N-59-
SK-6 1700 228.6 4.4-S.9 4 4500 570 98 110 255 320 25 5.1 170

- 195-
 !

Table 2. Representative Discharge Water Chemistry of Acid Fluids in Geothermal Wells (Maturgo, 1996).
Location Type Tmax Chemical Composition (mg/kg)
rc) pH Na K Ca Mg Cl S04 B Si02 nh3 hco3 h2s Fe Al
CN-2KD low Cl 250 4.83 455 46 17 8.2 206 871 638 4.25
LG-1D high S04 240 3.95 580 190 8 2.7 769 860 951 145
MG-90 305 3.11 4283 1200 115 21 7940 74 1128 77
MG-15D 280 3.66 3080 747 60 12 5663 136 1000 31
AP-7D 320 2.08 840 130 33 24 2058 347 871 469
PIN-2D high Cl 330 2.26 2850 516 69 223 4474 2491 1233 780
PIN-30 high S04 330 2.55 17400 3540 2202 133 37760 500 1660 525
KN-2D (CI>Na+K) 300 4.25 5780 1103 64 2 9625 597 978 9
KN-3 320 4.85 5573 1554 163 0.51 10741 192 1145 0.87
BL-1D 310 4.91 1660 384 8 0.15 2922 410 1018
PN-22D 295 3.75 3020 680 24 3.28 5316 258 1148
KN-1D high Cl 300 2.4 3786 865 10 10 6638 1125 1136 121
CN-2D high SC4 240 3.79 2910 275 7 9 4272 1635 592 189
LB-10 (Na+K>CI) 279 3.48 4527 643 37 119 7517 1089 1105 145
LB-30 264 3.46 3975 520 7 23 6713 975 837 7
LB-50 254 3.04 3738 523 2 183 5877 2036 863 233
PIN-1 264 4.1 6070 608 98 162 10104 1309 555 86

N80 J55

25Cr

2.25Cr/J55

12Cr*.
£ 200
C276

0.001
0.001

Corrosion Rate / mm-y"1 (Autoclave test)

Figure 1. Schematic temperature - pH diagram Figure 2. Comparison of corrosion rates in the

showing regions of acceptable performance for flowing two-phase fluid tests with the static
materials exposed in static autoclaves (Sanada et autoclave tests Test conditions: temperature of
al., 1995). about 100°C, pH values of 2 and 3, flow velocity in
the field test of 70 to 100 m/s (Sanada et al., 1995).

-196-
CORROSION OF ENGINEERING ALLOYS IN AGGRESSIVE FLUIDS

Reviews on materials performance in a range of geothermal fluids, which aimed to provide some
guidelines for selecting materials, have been published (DeBerry et al, 1978, Ellis et al., 1981). Corrosion of
engineering materials has been experienced on pipelines, well casing, drilling tools and well logging tools in
conventional geothermal systems. These were due to fluids containing C02, H2S and other gases as well as H\
Cl and other corrosive sulphur species.

Deep geothermal resource developments might be expected to be more corrosive because of higher
temperatures and higher concentrations of corrosive substances transported through the above mentioned three
processes (Noda, 1992). Conventional carbon and low-alloy steels and stainless steels, which have been used in
shallow geothermal developments in many cases, must be assessed for their corrosion resistance before they are
used in the deep-seated well fluids. Other alloys having greater corrosion resistance might be required in
applications where corrosion rates of the conventional materials are high.

Engineering alloys have been examined under acidic (HC1) conditions in laboratory tests and field tests.
Table 3 shows an example of the alloys tested in acidic fluids (Sanada, 1995). Figure 1 is a schematic diagram
derived from the test results. This figure gives guidelines for selection of alloys at high temperatures in acidic
fluids at static conditions. Figure 2 shows the relation between results of the field tests conducted at velocities 70
to 100 m/s and results of the static autoclave tests. This figure summarises corrosion data used for selection of
materials in high velocity acidic fluids.

Table 3. Metals and alloys tested for resistance to corrosion in acidic fluids (Sanada et a., 1995).

Material Type UNS Number Normal Composition

Carbon and Low Alloy Steels
SS400 --- Carbon steel, tensile strength 400MPa
Coden — Atmospheric corrosion resisting steel
N80 --- API standard
L80 —- API standard
Martensitic Stainless Steel
13Cr S41000 Yield strength 560MPa
Ferritic Stainless Steel
23Cr-6AI — 23Cr-6AI
Austenitic Stainless Steels
SUS304 S30400 Standard alloy, 18Cr-8Ni
SUS316 S31600 Standard alloy, 18Cr-10Ni-2.5Mo
Duplex Stainless Steels
22Cr-5Ni S31803 22Cr-5Ni-3.0Mo-0.15N
5Cr-7Ni S32750 25Cr-7Ni-3.5Mo-0.10N
25Cr-7Ni-N S32750 25Cr-7Ni-3.5Mo-0.20N
High Alloy Stainless Steels and Nickel Alloys
SS 2562 NO8904 19.5Cr-25Ni-4.5Mo-1,5Cu
1925hMo N08926 21,5Cr-25Ni-6Mo-1 Cu
Alloy 625 N06625 21 5Cr-61 Ni-9Mo-2.5Fe-3.7(Nb + Ta)
Alloy 690 N06690 30Cr-60Ni-9.5Fe-1 (Nb + Ta)
Alloy 800 N08800 21 Cr-32.5Ni-46Fe-0.04C
Alloy 825 N08825 21.5Cr-42Ni-3Mo-30Fe-2.2Cu-0.9Ti
Alloy 59 NO6059 23Cr-59Ni-16Mo-1 Fe
Alloy 45TM — 27Cr-47NI-2.7SI-0.08N-Balance Fe
C276 N10276 16Cr-55Ni-16Mo-6Fe-4W
G3 N06985 22.5Cr-43Ni-7Mo-20Fe-2Cu-Co
Alloy 903 N19903 38Ni-15Co-3Nb-1 4Ti-0.7AI-0.01 C
Cobalt Alloy
S816 — 20Cr-20Ni-47Co-4Mo-4W-4(Nb + Ta)
Aluminum Alloys
Aluminum A91025 A-1050, 99.5AI
Al alloy A95052 A-5052, 97AI-2.5Mg-0.2Cr
Titanium Alloys
Ti grade 1 R50250 Ti(a)
Ti grade R56400 TI-6AI-4V

-197
YEARLY PLAN FOR THE LEA RESEARCH COLLABORATION PROGRAM

The IEA research collaboration program on deep geothermal developments is planned to start in March
1997 (Uchica and Kimbara, 1996). The research program, which has been proposed by Japan and will be
undertaken by NEDO, will be divided into three subtasks. The subtask C is relating to material evaluation
research work. The aim is to develop guidelines for materials selection for deep-seated geothermal resources.

A four year program of activities is proposed in the subtask C, see Figure 3. The first activity is to gather
information on past, present and planned experiences, tests and research on materials in deep and aggressive
geothermal systems, both published and unpublished. The second is to establish a group for exchanging
experience on materials and chemistries. After that the obtained information will be summarized in a data book.

The third planned activity is to perform corrosion tests of materials in field trials and laboratory tests as are
required to help in the materials selection process. The corrosion tests may include for example simulations of
two-phase acidic flow or pressure vessel testing of materials in acidic fluids. Once the corrosion chemistry is defined
it may also be possible to use existing data from other industries, for example flue gas desulfurisation plant used on
energy boilers (Lichti and Mcllhone, 1995). Data from tests in natural volcanic features will be used as a starting
point for developing the materials guidelines (Saito et al., 1994, Kurata et al.,1995, Lichti et al., 1996).

All the information will be summarized in a report, which will provide a summary of existing data on fluid
chemistry and performance of materials in deep geothermal developments and related environments. It will
present guidelines for economic selection of materials for energy development processes and plant for corrosive
deep geothermal environments.

Participation in the subtask C is encouraged for all geothermal developers concerned with acid well fluids.
Currently participation has been agreed by Japan and New Zealand who are working together on two projects.

Figure 3. Yearly Plan of the Subtask C in the IEA Deep Geothermal Resources Task.

1st (1997) 2nd (1998) 3rd (1999) 4th (2000)

1. Geochemistry Data Base (Chem stry of fluids in geothermal environmei its)

2. Materials and Their Failure
3. Corrosion Model
for high-temperature
for two-phase flow
4. Materials Slection
Data Base (Geothermal materials and their failures)
|
Corrosion Models
Guidelines for f/laterials Selection

5. Summary
Report ____ ___ Int'l Journal
6. Other
Int'l Meeting NEDO Sympo GRC Workshop WGC2000
(Japan) (USA) (NZ) ( ) (Japan)

CONCLUSIONS

Discharge water and steam chemistries of deep-seated geothermal production wells are expected to contain
significant concentrations of aggressive species C02, H2S and HC1 for example and may be of high salinity (high
Cl) and low pH (high S04). These corrosion chemistries are demonstrated for example by the chemistries seen in
some deeper wells in Japan and in shallow wells in the Philippines. The corrosion properties of these fluids have
not been fully defined and there is a need to collect and evaluate materials results and experience relevant to the
selection of materials for deep-seated geothermal developments.

The IEA Deep Geothermal Resources Task Subtask C Materials Evaluation Program was proposed to
encourage information exchange and collaborative research activities. A four year program of activities has been
outlined to progress this area of research. Further participation is welcomed.

198
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors wish to thank NEDO for encouraging and supporting the collaborative activities being
undertaken in Subtask C and all those who have responded with interest to our requests for information on materials
research in deep-geothermal systems. The authors acknowledge the financial support of the AIST, MITI, Japan and
the New Zealand Foundation for Research Science and Technology in the preparation of this paper.

REFERENCES

DeBerry, D.W., Ellis, P.F. and Thomas, C.C., 1978, Material selection guidelines for geothermal power systems,
Report for the US DOE, Washington, USA.
Ellis, P.F. and Conver, J.F., 1981, Materials selection guidelines for geothermal energy utilization systems, Report
for the US DOE, Washington, USA.
Ferrer, H., 1996, private communication.
Giovanni, R. and Giovanni, G., 1995, Fluid inclusion data from the Carboli 11 well, Larderello geothermal field,
Italy, World Geothermal Congress, Florence, Italy, 1087-1091.
Ikeuchi, K., Komatsu, R, Doi, N., Sakagawa, Y., Sasaki, M., Kamenosono, H. and Uchida, t., 1996, Bottom of
hydrothermal convection found by temperature measurements above 500°C and fluid inclusion study of
WD-1 in Kakkonda Geothermal field, Japan, GRC Trans. 20, 609-616.
Kukacka, L., 1996, private communication.
Kurata, Y., Sanada, N., Nanjo, H., Ikeuchi, J. and Lichti, K. A., 1994, Field testing of materials at White Island,
Extended abstracts of workshop on deep-seated and magma-ambient geothermal systems 1994, Tsukuba,
Japan, 167-170.
Kurata, Y., Sanada, N., Nanjo, H., Ikeuchi, J. and Lichti, K. A., 1995, Material damage in a volcanic environment,
World Geothermal Congress, Florence, Italy, 2409-2414.
Lichti, K.A., Gilman, N.A., Sanada, N,, Kurata, Y., Nanjo, H., Ikeuchi, J. and Christenson, B.W., 1996, Corrosion
chemistry of some volcanic environments, Proc 18th New Zealand Geothermal Workshop, Auckland, New
Zealand, 21-28.
Lichti, K. A. and Mcllhone, P. G. H., 1994, Materials for volcanic environments, Where will the data come from,
Proc 16th New Zealand Geothermal workshop, Auckland, New Zealand, 35-40.
Maturgo, O.O., 1996, Chemical characteristics of acid fluids in some PNOC geothermal wells, 17th PNOC-Energy
Development Corporation Geothermal Conference, Manila, Philippines, 111-117.
NEDO-P-9211 (NEDO Report), 1992, Survey of the state of art of dealing with acidic brine, edited by NEDO.
Noda, T., 1992, Chemical characteristics of deep geothermal fluid, Present status and future trends of geothermal
energy related materials in Japan, edited by the Geothermal Research Association of Japan, 34-43 (in
Japanese).
Puente, H. G., 1996, private communication.
Saito, M., Takano, Y., Saito, S. and Kondo, T., 1994, Field testing of materials at Kuju-Iwoyama solfatara,
Extended abstracts of workshop on deep-seated and magma-ambient geothermal systems 1994, Tsukuba,
Japan, 189-199.
Saito, S., 1994, Deep and high temperature geothermal well drilling technologies in Kakkonda, Japan, Extended
abstracts of workshop on deep-seated and magma-ambient geothermal systems 1994, Tsukuba, Japan,
101-110.
Saito, S., Sakuma, S. and Uchida, T., 1996, The experience of drilling into 500°C formation in NEDO WD-1A
well, Kakkonda, Japan, Proc. 8th Int’l Sympo on the Observation of the continental Crust Through
Drilling, Tsukuba, Japan, 52-57.
Sanada, N., Kurata, Y., Nanjo, H. and Ikeuchi, J., 1995, Material damage in high velocity acidic fluids, GRC Trans.
19, 359-363.
Sasada, M., Miyazaki, S. and Saito, S., 1993, NEDO’s deep-seated geothermal resources survey at the Kakkonda
system, northeast Japan., GRC Trans. 17, 181-185.
Sasada, M., Sawaki, T., Muraoka, H., 1996, The highest bore hole temperature of 449°C determined by melting of
pure metal tellurium at the Kakkonda geothermal system, Japan, Proc. 8th Int’l Sympo on the Observation
of the continental Crust Through Drilling, Tsukuba, Japan, 417-719.
Sudarman, S., 1996, private communication.
Uchida, T and Kimbara, K., 1996, IEA Task 4: Deep Geothermal Resources, GRC Trans. 20, 269-270.
Yagi, M., Yasukawa, K., Muraoka, H. and Miyazaki, S., 1994, Deep-seated geothermal resources survey, Extended
abstracts of workshop on deep-seated and magma-ambient geothermal systems 1994, Tsukuba, Japan, 1-6.
Yagi, M., Muraoka, H., Doi, N. and Miyazaki, S., 1995, NEDO “deep-seated geothermal resources survey”
overview, GRC Trans. 19, 377-382.

- 199-
 SCOPE OF MODELING OF DEEP GEOTHERMAL SYSTEMS
IN AN IEA CO-OPERATIVE PROGRAMME

Hirofumi MURAOKA*, Hiroshi SHIGENO*, Tsuneo ISHIDO*

and Toshihiro UCHIDA**

* Geological Survey of Japan

** New Energy and Industrial Technology Development Organization

ABSTRACT

The large demands to exploitation of deep geothermal resources are recognized not only in Japan but
also in several geothermal countries in the world, because the expansion of exploitation to deeper reservoirs
would promise a greater resource base. The initiation of the IEA Task, Deep Geothermal Resources, is
timely for this worldwide demands. There still remain technological and economic risks to utilize the deep
geothermal resources and therefore it is worthy to forward this frontier collecting worldwide wisdom and
experience. Modeling of deep geothermal systems has only recently come to be enabled when many
drillholes have penetrated young plutonic bodes, that is, consolidated magma chambers as a core of
geothermal systems. Modeling of magma-wall rock interactions could be one of important subjects for the
better understanding of deep heat sources, deep reservoirs and deep fluids in the IEA Task, Deep Geothermal
Resources.

I INTRODUCTION

Current effort to establish a co-operative programme on geothermal energy research and technology
under the IEA/OECD framework would provide us an opportunity to exchange worldwide aspects and
experience on the field of geothermal research and development. It could be particularly timely for the field
of deep geothermal resources, because recent exploitation of geothermal energy is trendng toward deeper
reservoirs in many countries such as Italy, United States, New Zealand, Mexico, Philippine, Japan and others.
Exploitation of deep geothermal resources has still technological and economical risks at this moment such
as difficulty of exploration, high cost of drilling, low probability to hit reservoirs and difficulty of high
pressure-temperature drilling. However, if we could clear these obstacles, then we would obtain a large
resource base, probably two or three times larger than one estimated previously at shallow depths. An
approach to deep geothermal resources is at a frontier to the future magmatic energy development and the effort
of research and development could be better to be promoted by an international co-operative basis collecting
various case studies from the world.
As the authors are concerned with the modeling of deep geothermal systems in the Subtask A,
Exploration Technology and Reservoir Engineering, this paper describes current trends of deep geothermal
resources including the NEDO Deep Geothermal Resources Survey (DGRS) program and proposes subjects
to be solved in the modeling of deep geothermal systems in the Subtask.

TRENDS TOWARD DEEP GEOTHERMAL SYSTEMS

Exploitation of deep geothermal resources is strongly anticipated in Japan. In the last decade, installed
geothermal power capacity in Japan has been rapidly increased up to 529 MWe by the end of November, 1996
(Japan Geothermal Energy Association, 1996). At the same time, location problems for further
exploitation have come to be severe, partly because more than 60 % of geothermal prospective areas in Japan
are situated within the area of national parks and partly because other geothermal prospective areas in Japan

- 200-
 Drilling year
1950 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95
0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 i 1 1 1'
X ?
w ♦ XX *

<5
<D
500
V
♦
X
4 V
♦♦ '
J* Vm
B CD 3*
07 J
H T +
+ x
v+

:
E - V ♦ A*
,> -W
c 1,000 4
♦ —i
r^ &
8 -
V xx
T V
' ft,>
r:-
H .

| 1,500 -------------* ▼ A* <

▲

F
3b
'C - • Mori
A &
"O AOiuma * ' + -
▲Sumikawa b
o 2,000 ♦Matsu kawa
to
_c
-
oKakkonda 1
•Kakkonda II ## o W
' l :
Q.
sllenotai •: ■
® 2,500
xOnikobe
BYanaizunishiama
#1------ | m '
IB
vOtake ■ B
- THachobaru ■ #
■Takinoue
3,000 S8ST ■
OFushime t'
♦Hohi-NEDO
l 1 l 1 i i 1 l l l l ' ' ' ' ■ » 1 1 » 1 1 1 1 ' 1 1 1 » ■ » « i ' i I-
3,500

Fig. 1. Depths of geothermal drillings year by year in Japan. The data of killings shown are those
performed by the private sector except for the five NEDO's drillings in the Hohi area. Drilling year indicates
the incipient time of drilling operation. The diagram was reproduced from Saito (1993).

are often situated in the developed hot spring resort conglomerates. The location problems seem the largest
obstacle to forward a future geothermal exploitation in Japan. Avoiding the location problems, one practical
way to forward a future geothermal exploitation is to make the existing geothermal power stations expanded
to deeper reservoirs. Actually the drilling depth of Japanese geothermal wells tends to increase year by year
indicating the existing large demand to deeper exploitations (Fig. 1). For response to this demand, NEDO
has designed a master plan of the DGRS program in 1992 (Sasada et ai., 1993).
Turning our attention to the world, attempts of drillings to deep geothermal resources are found here and
there (Table 1). In Italy, the deepest geothermal drilling has attained a depth of 6,280 m at the Monte Amiata
geothermal field and the highest borehole temperature is 450 °C at 4,000 m at the same field (Bertini etal.,
1995). In the Unite States, a drilling for hot dry rock at the Fenton Hill experimental site has reached 4,660
m and 320 °C. At The Geysers geothermal field, some drilling has reached 3,870 m and other drilling reached

Table 1. Records of deep and high temperature geothermal drillings.

Country Records of drilling depth Records of borehole temperature

Italy Monte Amiata 6,280 m Monte Amiata 450 "Cat4,000 m

United States Fenton Hill 4,660 m The Geysers 342 “Cat3,300 m
New Zealand Ohaaki 3,500 m
Mexico Cerro Prieto 4,000 m Cerro Prieto 388 “Cat4,000 m
Philippine Mak-Ban 3,160 m
Indonesia Dieng 2,700 m

Japan Kakkonda WD-1A 3,729 m Kakkonda WD-1A 500 “Cat3,729 m

- 201-
342 °C at a depth of 3,300 m. In New Zealand, three drillings of 3,500 m class have been carried out at the
Ohaaki geothermal field. In Mexico, three drillings of 4,000 m class have been carried out at Cerro Prieto
geothermal field (Le-Bert, 1990) and some of them was more than 388 °C. In addition, a drilling of 6,000
m class is scheduled in 1997 (Oral communication with Dr. Victor Arellano, 1996). In Philippine, a
drilling has been done to a depth of 3,160 at the Mak-Ban geothermal field.
Although ‘deep geothermal resources’ are tentatively defined as prevailing at a depth of 3,000 m in the
Task, they might not necessarily be defined by an absolute depth in the viewpoint from geothermal geology.
Geothermal heat sources of high temperature hydrothermal systems have long been ascribed to high level
magma chambers and their consolidated equivalents, because most high temperature hydrothermal systems
occur in the vicinity of composite volcanoes that may mark long-lived magma chambers at shallow depths.
In the last two decades, many geothermal drillholes have penetrated young intrusions in, and beneath
hydrothermal reservoirs (Lovelock et al., 1982; Yock, 1982; Takeno and Noda, 1987; Thompson, 1989;
Gunderson, 1989; Stemfeld, 1989; Doi et al., 1990; Reyes, 1990; Macda, 1991; Browne et al., 1992;
Kiryukhin, 1993; Katoetal., 1993; Kato and Sato, 1995; Hulen and Nielson, 1996; Muraoka, 1993). They
seem to demonstrate an empirical idea on a possible role of high-level magma chambers as being essential
geothermal heat sources. These drillholes that reach geothermal heat sources might also been categorized
into those of deep geothermal drillholes in terms of geothermal geology, regardless to an absolute scale and
depth.

IMPLICATION FROM THE NEDO DEEP GEOTHERMAL PROGRAM

As a core part of the NEDO DGRS program, a deep geothermal exploration well, named WD-1A, was
drilled into the depth of 3,729 m in the Kakkonda geothermal field, Northeast Japan, from January 1994 to
July 1995 using efficient borehole cooling techniques such as the top-drive system and three mud coolers.
The results have been reported by numerous papers (e.g. Muraoka et al., 1995; Yasukawa et al., 1995; Yagi
et al., 1995; Saito et al., 1995; Ikeuchi et al., 1996; Kasai et al., 1996; Uchidaet al., 1996). The well
penetrated a shallow permeable hydrothermal convection zone at depths from 981 to 2,137 m, a
deeperward-impermeable contact metamorphic aureole at depths from 1,610 (biotite isograd) to 2860 m and
then a neo-granodorite pluton dated 0.19 Ma in an average of hornblende K-Ar ages, named the Kakkonda
Granite (Kanisawa et al., 1994), from 2,860 to 3,729m. Unfortunately, the deep reservoir expected at the
top of the Kakkonda Granite from the previous drilling experience at other portions of the Kakkonda Granite
(Kato and Sato, 1995) was not encountered However, the recovered temperature with a depth of the well
indicates a boiling point-controlled profile up to 400 °C by the depth of 3,100 m and a conduction-controlled
profile with a very high gradient up to 500 °C by the bottomhole of 3,729 m (Fig. 2; Fig. 3). The
bottomhole temperature 500 °C may be the highest temperature record as that from geothermal wells in the
world, excepting the very shallow experimental drilling into the Kilauea Iki lava lake (Hardee etal., 1981).
The results are summarized as follows:

(1) WD-1A may be the first well that encountered not only the temperature higher than that of the boiling
point curve but also the subsolidus temperature of the granitic magma system as has been theoretically
modeled by Fournier (1987). This would provide the first logical evidence that the neo-granitic pluton found
beneath geothermal fields could be actually a cooling magmatic heat source to the geothermal system.

(2) WD-1A may be the first well that completely penetrated the ductile-brittle boundary that is known to range
in temperature from 350 °C to 450 °C on quartz-dominant rocks (Fournier, 1987; Nielson, 1995). An
inflection point of the temperature profile of WD-lAthat lies at the depth of 3,100m and at the temperature
of 400 °C may mark the ductile-brittle boundary in expectation.

(3) Those relations of the well WD-1A demonstrate that the temperature constrains the ductile-brittle

-202-
 Temperature (t)

Fig. 2. Representative temperature logs of WD Fig. 3. Simplified recovery temperature profile

-1A by conventional logging tools, temperature of WD-1A projected to the diagram for system
melting tablets, minimum homogenization NaCl-HzO by Fournier (1987).
temperature of fluid inclusions and estimated
formation temperature by the Homer method
(Uchidaet al., 1996).

boundary to the depth of 3,100 m, the ductile-brittle boundary constrains the deepermost of fracture
distribution to the depth of 3,100 m and then the fracture distribution constrains the deepermost of
hydrothermal convection to the depth of 3,100 m.

(4) WD-1A has experienced gentle ejection of uncondensible gas such as C02 and H2S below 3,350 m and the
borehole fluid sampling by reverse circulation has obtained metal-rich brine containing 39 wt % total
dissolved solids at a depth of 3,708 m. Although the brine must have been affected by the mixing with
circulated river waters and intraborehole flush, this indicates that there exists a two-phase zone of brine and
uncondensible gas as intracrystalline fluids below the hydrothermal convection system.

(5) The observation of core samples and FMI logs of WD-1A detected a zone of very high concentration of low
angular fractures in the contact metamorphic aureole of the Kakkonda Granite at depths from 1,850 to 2860
m (very contact). The present permeability of the zone is not necessarily high but the fracture zone could be
generated by concentration of regional stress into a very thin brittle crust layer above the Kakkonda Granite
and possible water weakening die to the dehydration front of the contact-metamorphic reactions such as a
cordierite forming reaction.

SUBJECTS TO BE SOLVED

- 203-
 Water weakening fracture zone

Dehydration front
AiAii
TTTTT
Metamorphic reaction front
(ex. Ms+Chl+Qtz=Crd+Bt+H20 at 400 °C at low P)

Plastic zone (low peameabilty

and fluid inhibitor)
iiiAA
TTTTT Thermal diffusion

Solidfied crust

Melted magma
Plastic zone
Solidified crust

Fig. 4. A model of fracturing in the dehydration front of contact metamorphism.

The DGRS program provided us fruitful information on the deep and high-temperature geothermal
systems. However, we need more comparative studies with other examples from the world. Those are as
follows:

(1) What does it control the deeper limits of hydrothermal convection?

For the importance in geothermal development and resource estimation, this subject has been discussed
by many researchers (e.g. Founier, 1987; Nielson, 1994). WD-1A of the DGRS program indicates that the
deeper limits of hydrothermal convection is the ductile-brittle boundary, that is, a formation temperature of
400 °C. It gives us a simple criterion to predict deeper limits of hydrothermal convection, but we need more
data for generalization.

(2) Are there any categories of hydrothermal reservoirs deeper than the ductile-brittle boundary?
Most of hydrothermal reservoirs are known to be composed of fractures so that they are inevitably
subject to the ductile-brittle transition. However, geology told us that some type of ore deposits are found
in druse like pegmatite ore deposits. Hydrothermal reservoirs derived from limestone seem also different
from the fracture type.

(3) How does it cause the plutonic-rim reservoirs?

As seen in the Kakkonda Granite, a brittle crust layer at the roof of the shallow magma chamber must
be very thin so that regional stress must be exclusively concentrated to the thin roof layer promoting
fracturing. Dehydration reactions of contact metamorphism also play a role of water weakening at the roof
of magma chamber promoting fracturing as shown in Fig. 4. Hanson (1992) pointed out that pore pressure
increased in the process of metamorphic dehydration reaction. In WD-1A, the aureole has extremely high
concentration of fractures, nevertheless, the aureole also forms a relatively impermeable zone at present.
This paradox may be explained by a sweep process as shown in Fig. 4 that the fracturing once occurs in front
of dehydration reaction but this will soon be erased by the plastic zone coming from its behind. Moreover,
contraction associated with the magma consolidation will tend to form space at the top of the magma
chamber.

— 204 —
 Time after 104 years p 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
emplacement t------ 1------- r T-------1---------1--------- 1------------1
1200-c
1000-c
Temperature Solidus
of magma 500 C

Crystallization
of magma
0%2

Thermal diffusion
to aureole
Biotlte Isograd attains at center, r=3km & r=4km
Dehydration from
contact aureole

Devolatilization
from magma

Fig. 5. A model of the chronological sequences of the various events on the magma-wall rock interactions.

(4) What is the role of a critical point or condensation-point curve?

Most of geothermal drillholes that have penetrated young intrusions indicate that the contact
metamorphism has preceded hydrothermal alteration (Muraoka, 1993), even though the aureole was the place
to interact with volatiles liberated from the magma chamber. A possible idea to explain this may be a
supercritical behavior with no boiling or condensation below some depth at a given salinity (Founier, 1987).

(5) How does the contact metamorphism play a role in the succeeding hydrothermal convection?
As seen in the Kakkonda Granite, contact metamorphism does not go back far from the present thermal
regime and may be related to the present hydrothermal regime in various ways. One of them is that the
aureole forms a relatively impermeable zone, nevertheless, the aureole also has extremely high concentration
of fractures. Contact metamorphic aureoles can be also used as indicators to predict the depth of the top of
plutonic bodies (Muraoka and Matsubayashi, 1994; Kato and Sato, 1995).

(6) How is a general evolution drawn from melted magma stage to hydrothermal convection stage?
Interactive studies of petrology of drill core samples and theoretical modeling would provide us a
general evolution of the magma-hydrothermal systems. Fig. 5 shows an example of a model of
chronological sequence of various events on the magma-wall rock interactions (Muraoka, 1996).

REFERENCES

Bertini, G., Cappetti, G., Dini, I. and Lovari, F. (1995) Deep drilling results and updating of geothermal
knowledge on the Monte Amiata area. Proc. World Geothermal Congress '95, Florence, Italy,
1283-1286.
Browne, P.R.L., Graham, I.J., Parker, R.J. and Wood, C.P. (1992) Subsurface andesite lavas and plutonic
rocks in the Rotokawaand Ngatamariki geothermal systems, TaupoVolcanic Zone, New Zealand. J.
Volcanol. Geotherm. Res. 5 1, 199-215.
Fournier, R.O. (1987) Conceptual models of brine evolution in magmatic-hydrothermal systems. U.S.

205-
 Geol. Surv. Prof. Paper 13 5 0, 1487-1506.
Gunderson, R.P. (1989) Distribution of oxygen isotopes and non-condensible gas in steam at The Geysers.
Geothermal Resources Council Trans. 13, 449-454.
Hanson, R.B. (1992) Effect of fluid production on fluid flow during regional and contact metamorphism. J.
metamorphic Geol. 10, 87-97.
Hardee, H.C., Dunn, J.C., Hills, R.G. and Ward, R.W. (1981) Probing the melt zone of Kilauealki lava lake,
Kilauea Volcano, Hawaii. Geophys. Res. Lett. 8, 1211-1214.
Hulen, J.B. and Nielson, D.L. (1996) The Geysers Pel site. Geothermal Resources Council Trans. 2 0,
295-306.
Ikeuchi, K., Komatsu, R., Doi, N., Sakagawa, Y., Sasaki, M., Kamenosono, H. and Uchida, T. (1996)
Bottom of hydrothermal convection found by temperature measurements above 500 °C and fluid
inclusion study of WD-1 in Kakkonda geothermal field, Japan. Geothermal Resources Council
Trans. 20, 609-616.
Japan Geothermal Energy Association (1996) Annual Report on Geothermal Energy Development in Japan
-1996-. 12p.
Kanisawa S., Doi, N., Kato, O. and Ishikawa, K. (1994) Quaternary Kakkonda Granite underlying the
Kakkonda geothermal field, Northeast Japan. J. Min. Petr. Econ. Geol. 8 9, 390-407**.
Kasai K., Sakagawa, Y., Miyazaki, S., Sasaki, M. and Uchida, T. (19961 Supersaline brine obtained from
Quaternary Kakkonda Granite by the NEDO's deep geothermal well WD-1 A in the Kakkonda
geothermal field, Japan. Geothermal Resources Council Trans. 2 0, 623-629.
Kato, O., Doi, N. and Muramatsu, Y. (1993) Neo-granitic pluton and geothermal reservoir at the Kakkonda
geothermal field, Iwate Prefecture, Japan. Jour. Geotherm. Res. Soc. Japan 15, 41-57**.
Kato, O. and Sato, K. (1995) Development of deep-seated geothermal reservoir bringing the Quaternary
granite into focus in the Kakkonda geothermal field, Northeast Japan. Resource Geology 45, 131-
144**.
Kiryukhin, A.V. (1993) High temperature fluid flow in the Dachny field of the Mutnovsky hydrothermal
system, Russia. Geothermics 2 2, 49-64.
Le-Bert, G.H. (1990) Status of geothermal resources in Mexico. Geothermal Resources Council Trans. 14,
195-202.
Lovelock, B.G., Cope, D M. and Balstar A.J. (1982) A hydrothermal model of the Tongonan geothermal
field. Poc. Pacific Geotherm. Conf, Auckland, 259-264.
Maeda, T. (1991) Deep geothermal system and granitic rocks in Sumikawa geothermal field. In Extended
Abstract Geothermal Symposium of Deep Geothermal Systems with Special Reference to Neo Felsic
Intrusive Bodies, Tsukuba, 32-37.
Muraoka, H. (1993) A picture of future geothermal resources from the viewpoint of magma. Jour. Japan
Geotherm. Energy Assoc. 30, 100-126*.
Muraoka, H. (1996) Introduction to modeling of magam-wall rock interactions. Tectonics and
Metamorphism (The Hara Volume), Shobun Co., Ltd., (in press)**.
Muraoka, H. and Matsubayashi, O. (1994) Estimate of magma chamber size from contact metamorphic
aureoles. Mem. Geol. Soc. Japan 43, 73-86**.
Muraoka H., Yagi, M., Yasukawa, K., Hisatani, K., Doi, N. and Miyazaki, S. (1995) NEDO “Deep-Seated
Geothermal Resources Survey”: A link of igneous, metamorphic and hydrothermal processes. Proc.
World Geothermal Congress '95, Florence, Italy, 1509-1514.
Nielson, D.L. (1994) Depth limits of fluid circulation in geothermal systems. In Extended Abstracts of
Workshop on Deep-Seated and Magma-Ambient geothermal systems 1994, Tsukuba, 93-99.
Reyes, A.G. (1990) Petrology of Philippine geothermal systems and the application of alteration mineralogy
to their assessment. J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res. 4 3, 279-309.
Saito, S. (1993) A trend of geothermal drillings in Japan. Jour. Geotherm. Res. Soc. Japan 15, 104-110*.
Saito, S., Sakuma, S., Yagi, M. and Muraoka, H. (1995) Trajectory correction experiment at 2,600 m depth
in well WD-1 A, Kakkonda, Japan -TDS as a cooling device while RIH-. Geothermal Resources

-206-
 Council Trans. 19, 347-353.
Sasada, M., Miyazaki, S. and Saito, S. (1993) NEDO's Deep-Seated Geothermal Resources Survey at the
Kakkonda system, northeast Japan. Geotherm. Resources Council Trans. 17, 181-185.
Stemfeld, J.N. (1989) Lithologic influences on fracture permeability and the distribution of steam in the
Northwest Geysers Steam Field, Sonoma County, California. Geothermal Resources Council Trans.
13, 473-479.
Takeno, N. andNoda, T. (1987) Alteration of the core samples from the geothermal exploration wells in the
Sengan geothermal area, northeast Japan. Rept. Geol. Surv. Japan 266, 223-249**.
Thompson, R.C. (1989) Structural stratigraphy and intrusive rocks at The Geysers geothermal
field. Geotherm. Res. Council Trans. 13, 481-485.
Uchida, T., Akaku, K., Sasaki, M„ Kamenosono, H., Doi, N. and Miyazaki, S. (1996) Recent progress of
NEDO's "Deep-Seated Geothermal Resources Survey" project. Geotherm. Res.
Yagi, M., Muraoka, H., Doi, N. and Miyazaki, S. (1995) NEDO "Deep-Seated Geothermal Resources
Survey" overview. Geotherm. Res. Council Trans. 19, 377-382.
Yock, D. (1982) Hydrothermal alteration in 410 and 506-D, Tongonan geothermal field. Proc. Pacific
Geotherm. Conf., Auckland, 439-443.

* In Japanese.
**In Japanese with English abstract.

-207-
 RESERVOIR ENGINEERING APPROACH TO DEEP GEOTHERMAL SYSTEMS

Tsuneo Ishido and Yusaku Yano

Geothermal Research Department, Geological Survey of Japan

1-1-3 Higashi, Tsukuba 305, Japan

ABSTRACT

For characterization of deep-seated geothermal reservoirs, pressure transient/interference

testing is also a basic tool. In the Sumikawa geothermal field, NEDO carried out production
tests of well SN-7D and successfully measured the pressure transient response, which allows us
to estimate the volume and permeability of a deep reservoir discovered around intrusive
granodiorite rocks. In the Kakkonda field, NEDO’s exploratory well WD-1 encountered very
high temperatures near the upper surface of intrusive granite body. In anticipation of pressure
transient tests to be carried out in the near future, we started numerical simulation studies to
predict pressure transient response in a deep reservoir under sub and super-critical conditions.

INTRODUCTION

In geothermal reservoir engineering, pressure-transient testing is a fundamental tool to establish

reservoir properties on a macroscopic (reservoir-wide) scale. If an individual well is discharged
and the flowing downhole pressure within the well is monitored as a function of time,
conclusions can be drawn concerning the transmissivity of the reservoir in the vicinity of the
well (i.e., permeability-thickness product) and the relationship between the overall reservoir
storativity (i.e., porosity-compressibility-thickness product) and the well skin factor. Even
more valuable is interference testing, in which the pressure influence from the discharge of a
well is measured in one or more nearby shut-in observation wells. Such pressure records
reflect the spatially-integrated properties of the reservoir in the region between the discharging
well and the observation well(s), and thus provide direct information regarding average
reservoir properties on a large scale which are unobtainable by any other technique.

Well SN-7D (a 2,486 m depth exploratory well drilled by NEDO in the Sumikawa field) is one
of the best producers we have ever had in Japan; total (water plus steam) flow rates up to 500
tons/hour were recorded during various discharge tests carried out between 1988 and 1991.
NEDO successfully performed drawdown/buildup tests of well SN-7D. The volume and
permeability of the deep reservoir discovered around intrusive granodiorite rocks were
estimated from the buildup data.

Well WD-1 drilled by NEDO in the Kakkonda field encountered a very high temperature: about
500 °C at 3,727 m depth (Uchida et al., 1996). Temperatures are higher than 350 °C at about
3,000 m depth near the contact between intrusive granite body and shallower pre-tertiary
formations, where substantial permeability is expected. These temperatures are much higher
than observed in the deep feed zones of well SN-7D (250 to 310 °C). If the salinity of the
deep fluid is not so high, super critical conditions may exist in the vicinity of the well. In

-208-
anticipation of real field data to be acquired in the near future, we carried out numerical
simulations to predict pressure transients of deep reservoirs at sub- and super-critical
conditions.

BUILDUP DATA OF SN-7D

Downhole pressures were monitored using a downhole capillary tube gauge in three separate
discharge tests of well SN-7D (two in 1988 and one in 1989). The pressure buildup data
obtained after the first 1988 test are shown in Figure 1 (Ishido et aL, 1992), a multi-rate Homer
plot in which buildup pressures are plotted against "reduced time":

reduced time = Z.=1N(qj/qN)log[(tN+1 - t.)/(tN+1 -1.,)]

The permeability-thickness product is about 37 darcy-meters based upon the slope of the
Homer plot for early times (prior to -10 hours of shutin time, or -1.2 "reduced time).

At later times, the effects of boundaries appear to make themselves manifest. Another
straight-line segment (of greater slope) may be perceived between -20 and -50 hours of shutin,
and a third segment (of even greater slope) appears to prevail after -50 hours. The solid
curve shown in Figure 1 was computed from a mathematical model which assumes the
following properties:

4>(rock porosity)=0.02
(i(fluid viscosity)=10'4 Pa-s
Ct(total compressibility)=1.5xl0'9 Pa
p(in-situ fluid density)=800 kg/m^
k(permeability)=74 md
h(formation thickness)=500 meters
Pi(initial pressure)=14.89 MPa
SN-7D
14.85- Buildup
Li (distance to the first impermeable 14.84-
boundary) =990 meters 14.83-
^(distance to the second impermeable
boundary) =1650 meters
14.80-
The radius of investigation corresponding
1.2
to the producing interval (9 days) is: Reduced time

Ri = -8.7 kilometers = 8.8 L, = 5.3 La

Fig. 1. Comparison of measured and computed
which implies that the test was of sufficient (solid curve) pressure buildup histories after
duration to unambiguously identify these first 1988 SN-7D discharge test,
boundaries.

It appears that the volume of the deep permeable zone within the granodiorite formation tapped

-209-
by well SN-7D is at least a few cubic kilometers. During the SN-7D discharge tests, five other
wells were equipped with downhole pressure gauges. No signal attributable to the discharge
of SN- 7D was observed in any of these wells; this implies that the deep reservoir penetrated by
well SN-7D is probably isolated from the shallower reservoir in the "altered andesites".

HYPOTHETICAL WELL PENETRATING DEEP RESERVOIR AT SUPER CRITICAL

CONDITIONS

For our numerical simulation study, we used the “STAR” general-purpose geothermal reservoir
simulator (Pritchett, 1995), incorporating the “H0TH20” equation of state package for
simulation of high pressure and temperature conditions. H0TH20 treats pure water for
pressures to one kilobar (100 MPa) and temperature to 800 °C The critical point is defined
as 374.15 °C and 22.12 MPa in the H0TH20 package.

Near the critical point, the physical properties of water tend to change drastically with small
changes in temperature and/or pressure, and some properties become singular at the critical
point. Theoretically, as the critical point is approached, the constant pressure specific heat,
coefficient of volume expansion, compressibility, and thermal conductivity become infinite (e.g.
Dunn and Hardee, 1981; Ingebritsen and Hayba, 1994).

Pressure transient response

A simple one-dimensional reservoir

configuration was used for our numerical
study, as illustrated in Figure 2; pertinent
parameter values are listed in Table 1.
We consider a horizontal single-layer
homogeneous porous-medium reservoir
containing a single fully-penetrating
production well which may be regarded
as a line-sink. The outer radius is
sufficient that the system may be Fig. 2 Numerical simulation model.
considered infinite in lateral extent.
Both upper and lower boundaries are
impermeable and insulated.
Table 1. Model parameters used for the numerical
In Figure 3, three cases (A, B and C) of simulation of pressure transient tests of deep reservoirs.
pressure drawdown in the wellblock are Reservoir geometry
shown. For these three cases, the same Horizontal layer: Thickness = 100 m
Numerical blocks: r(l) = 0.1 m, Ar(i+1) = Ar(i) x 1.3
production rate (15.7 kg/sec), production r(max) = r(40) = 12,039 m
interval duration (278 hours), and initial
pressure (30 MPa) were used, and only Well block k = 10"10m2, $ = 0.99
the initial temperature distribution was Reservoir blocks: k = 10"14m2, $ = 0.05
varied. In all cases, a skin zone of high
Common rock parameters:
permeability (1 darcy) was used (blocks rock grain density = 2.7 g/cm3
2-5; to 0.9 meters) to avoid generation of rock grain heat capacity = 1000 joules/kg-K)
a two-phase zone. Case A used a rock grain thermal conductivity = 2.5 W/m-K

210-
 homogeneous initial temperature
distribution of 300 °C. In Case B, the
initial temperature is heterogeneous and
equal to 300 °C for radii out to 82 meters
(out to block 21) and 400 °C beyond that
distance. In Case C, the initial
temperature is equal to 400 °C
everywhere. Comparing the three
drawdown histories in Figure 3, it is
evident that Cases A and C have similar
slopes, although their absolute pressures
are different. Also, the earlier part of
the Case B drawdown is the same as that
of Case A, whereas at late times Case B
approaches Case C.

The slope m on the semi-log plot of

pressure drawdown is
m = 2.303 MvMttkh
where M is mass flow rate, v is the Fig. 3 Simulated pressure drawdowns with
kinematic viscosity, and k and h are the different initial temperature distributions.
reservoir permeability and thickness
respectively. All three cases in Figure 3
have the same M and kh. At 30 MPa, the
kinematic viscosity of water at 300 °C is 1.24 x 10'7 m2/sec, and that at 400 °C is 1.23 x 10"7
m2/sec (see Figure 4). Therefore, a similar slope (m) is obtained for Cases A and C. The
difference of the absolute values of pressure for both cases arises from the difference in water
compressibility at 30 MPa pressure. The compressibility of water at 400 °C (Case C) is much
greater than at 300 °C (Case A) (see Figure 5), which results in less pressure decrease for Case
C.

The reservoir temperature distribution does not change significantly during the production test
in Case B. At early times in this case fluid is being withdrawn from storage at small radii (300
°C), whereas at later times fluid is withdrawn from the hotter (400 °C ) outer zone. This
causes the shift in the curve for Case B shown in Figure 3.

—4-Z5MPa / Cf\
g-
Kinematic viscosity of water /
25- Compressibility of water ;
(at 30 MPa, except for points wbece pressures are shown) / (at 30 MPa, except for points where pressures are shown) i
7
i
6-
Fig. 5 / 9#
Fig. 4 /
2» 5-
/
xitrw/s
/ 4- !

tro1/h
3 •■fi-nuri
1.5
2 *Z7.5*Pl

T------ — *25~35MP i
1 /' -*-35HPi
A„——^
„ 0.
r ro zoo 250 300 350 m 400 450 500
T CO
In Figure 6, Homer plots of build-up
pressure transients for the three cases are
shown. Build-up was simulated for 556
hours of shut-in time. Homer-times of
100 and 10 correspond to 2.8 hours and
30.9 hours of shut-in time, respectively.
Buildup response is independent of
compressibility for cases of homogeneous
fluid properties, so kinematic viscosity
is the only parameter which
differentiates the transient buildup
response between Cases A and C at late
times (small Homer times). However,
in Case B, fluid properties (particularly
compressibility) are heterogeneous.
Even though there is little difference
(Time (hours) 1 / (Time (heir's) sli
between viscosities at 300 °C and 400 °C,
the difference of compressibilities makes
Fig. 6 Homer plots of the simulated buildup
the behavior of Case B significantly
pressure transients.
different from that of Cases A and C.

The existence of a super-critical zone brings about the complicated pressure behavior as
described above. However, if a two-phase zone is created in the neighborhood of a
production well as a result of fluid withdrawal, the non-linear behavior will be largely enhanced.
It is probably impossible to distinguish the "super-critical behavior" in the pressure history of
the production well itself. In such cases, to detect it in the pressure response, it is required to
use observation well(s) remaining in the single-phase part of the reservoir.

Production behavior

Production behavior of hypothetical deep wells were investigated, using basically the same
reservoir model as in the previous section. Here, we relaxed the restrictions necessary for
maintaining the reservoir single-phase throughout; larger production rates and lower initial
pressures were used, and no high-permeability skin zone was assumed. Well-head conditions
were calculated using the "WELBOR" simulator (Pritchett, 1985). The depth of the feedpoint
is 3,000 meters, and casing inner diameter is 35 and 25 cm for upper and lower 1,500 m interval
respectively.

The calculated results are shown in Figure 7. The permeability-thickness product is 1 darcy-
meter and reservoir initial pressure is 25 MPa. Production rate is fixed as 50 kg/s during 30
years of 375 °C case and first 10 days of 400 °C case. In the 400 °C case, feedpoint condition
is switched to fixed pressure (5 MPa) after 10 days.

As seen in Figure 7, the wellhead flowing enthalpy rapidly increases during the first 10 days in
400 °C case. Starting from the initial super critical condition (400 °C and 25 MPa), the
reservoir fluid changes to superheated steam with relatively small pressure decrease (about 5
MPa) under the heat supply from rock matrix. Since the kinematic viscosity of superheated

-212-
 flow rate
wellhead flowing entha1
h e e d f f o tr in f e n th a lp y Unbounded Ree
Initial Temperature
Unbounded Reservoir
Initial Temperature

a. 10- wellhead flovjint enthalpy

Pressure
-0—0
O# We I I

day month year year year year year year year year

Fig. 7 Long-term production behavior for a hypothetical deep well

steam is quite large, the pressure gradient needs to be large in the vicinity of the well to sustain
the fixed flow rate, resulting in large decline in the feedpoint pressure (and wellhead pressure).
As time goes on, the reservoir temperature substantially decreases in the vicinity of the well
(about 270 °C in the wellblock after 2 years of production time). However, the heat transfer
from rock matrix to fluid is taking place mainly in the outer and large region where the pressure
decreases from 25 to about 20 MPa. Thus the fluid entering into the well continues to have
high enthalpy after 2 years. The liquid phase appears in the next block to the wellblock after
about 2.3 years. This seems to be a "pathological situation" for the numerical simulation; it is
difficult to perform further calculation with reasonable computer time.

In the 375 °C case, the neighborhood of the well evolves into a two-phase zone. However,
the vapor saturation of the fluid entering the well does not exceed 0.5 (mass fraction of liquid
phase is close to one), so the flowing enthalpy does not increase largely even in the early times
of production.

REFERENCES

Dunn. J. C., and Hardee, H. C. (1981): Superconvecting geothermal zones. J. Volcanol.

Geotherm. Res., 11, p.189-201.

Ingebritsen S. E„ and Hayba, D O. (1994): Fluid flow and heat transport near the critical point
of H2O. Geophys. Res. Lett., 21, p.2199-2202.

Ishido, T., Kikuchi, T„ Yano, Y., Miyazaki, Y., Nakao, S., and Hatakeyama, K. (1992):
Analysis of pressure transient data from the Sumikawa geothermal field, in Proc. 17th
Workshop Geothermal Reservoir Engineering, Stanford Univ., p. 181-186.

Pritchett, J.W. (1985): WELBOR: A computer program for calculating flow in a producing
geothermal well, SSS-R-72383, S-Cubed, La Jolla.

-213-
Pritchett, J.W. (1995): STAR: A geothermal reservoir simulation system, in Proc. World
Geothermal Congress 1995, p.2959-2960.

Uchida, T., Akaku, K„ Sasaki, M., Kamenosono, H., Doi, N., and Miyazaki, S. (1996): Recent
progress of NEDO’s “Deep-Seated Geothermal Resources Survey” project. Geotherm, Resour.
Council Trans., 20, p.643-648.

214-
 DEEP GEOTHERMAL RESOURCES SURVEY PROJECT
IN THE KAKKONDA GEOTHERMAL FIELD

Toshihiro UCHIDA*, Kohei AKAKU*, Hiroyuki KAMENOSONO*, Munetake SASAKI*1,

Norio YANAGISAWA*, Shin-ichi MIYAZAKI** and Nobuo DOI**

* New Energy and Industrial Technology Development Organization (NEDO)

*' NEDO, currently Geological Survey of Japan
** Japan Metals and Chemicals Co. Ltd (JMC).

ABSTRACT

The New Energy and Industrial Technology Development Organization (NEDO) has been conducting
a research project named "Deep-Seated Geothermal Resources Survey" since 1992 in order to establish a
desirable direction for development of deep geothermal resources which exist beneath the already-
developed shallow reservoirs. A deep drillhole, WD-1, has been drilled in the Kakkonda geothermal field in
northern Japan. WD-1 reached a depth of 3,729 m in July 1995 by applying the latest drilling techniques
such as top-drive drilling system, enabling the collection of highly valuable information for understanding
the characteristics of deep geothermal system.
Quaternary granite, considered to be a possible heat source, was encountered at depths of over 2,860
m. The borehole was drilled into the granite for a length of 870 m to determine the thermal structure and
deep fracture systems. Although we did not encounter major lost-circulations during drilling in the granite,
we confirmed a temperature greater than 500 °C at the bottom of the hole. The recovered temperature
profile suggests a drastic change from hydrothermally convective zone to thermally conductive zone at a
depth of approximately 3,100 m. This implies the existence of the bottom of hydrothermal convection
system at this depth. Borehole fluid sampling was carried out for geochemical investigation after the
temperature recovery measurement, and extremely saline hydrothermal fluids were collected near the
bottom of WD-1.
Side-track drilling of WD-1 was started from a depth of 2,200 m in September 1996, targeting
productive fractures expected near the boundary of the granite in a depth range from 2,800 to 3,000 m. We
successfully encountered large lost-circulation at some depths, and the side-track drilling was terminated at
a depth of 2,963 m in January 1997. The well is now in a process of various loggings, and we expect a
production test in early summer 1997.

INTRODUCTION
Younger
Kakkonda
Kakkonda Granite
The utilization of deep geothermal
resources is an important subject for
Honshu
maintaining and increasing power
generating capacity of already-developed Pacific

geothermal fields. NEDO has been

WD-1 iMatxuzawa Dacite
conducting a research project named ft (Surface)
Bottom of Wp-l
"Deep-Seated Geothermal Resources T.D. 3729m Matsuzawu Intrusion
m) /
Survey" since 1992 under the New
(>Ider____
Sunshine Project of the Ministry of Kakkonda Granite
'ower Plant I.
International Trade and Industry (MITI). —Power plant lie
The research project aims to investigate
ITorigoenotaki Dacite
the characteristics of deep geothermal ^(Surface)
systems and evaluate the possibility of
utilizing deep geothermal fluids which Younger
500 1000m Kakkonda Granite
exist beneath the exploited shallow
reservoirs (Uchida et al., 1996). In this
project, NEDO has been drilling a 4,000 m
Fig. 1. Location of the Kakkonda geothermal field, the
class well, WD-1, in the Kakkonda
trace of WD-1 a, and contours of the top of the
geothermal field, northern Honshu Island,
Kakkonda granitic pluton at depths in meters below
where a liquid-dominated geothermal
sea level (reproducedfrom Doi et al., 1995).
system has been utilized for power

-215
generation of 80 MWe (Fig. 1).
Three factors essential for understanding geothermal resources, namely, heat supply, fracture systems
which form reservoirs, and hydrothermal fluid circulation, have been investigated to establish a geothermal
model including deep and shallow structures. The project has four major objectives; to delineate deep
geothermal systems including shallow ones; to develop new exploration tools for deep reservoir; to
evaluate and systematize drilling technologies for deep geothermal drilling; and to examine materials
applicable to produce deep hydrothermal fluids using corrosion and erosion tests. The final goal of the
project is to establish recommended technological guidelines for development of deep geothermal
resources in order to reduce risk of exploitation and to put deep geothermal energy into practical use.
Drilling of WD-1 has been carried out in two stages. The first one is to drill a main well, WD-la,
which reached a depth of 3,729 m in July 1995. The second stage is to drill a side-track well, WD-lb, from
a depth of 2,200 m to 3,000 m. The field operation of the second one was started in September 1996 and is
still going on. In this report, we will mainly describe the results obtained from the first stage of the work.

DRILLING PROCEDURE OF WD-la

A drilling chart of the well WD-la is shown in Fig. 2 along with the events which occurred during the
drilling. The top-drive drilling system (TDS) and a mud cooling system were applied at depths greater than
1,500 m in order to cool the borehole effectively and reduce the risk for stuck of drill-strings.
A large amount of lost-circulations occurred at a depth range between 1,600 m and 2,150 m, where a
shallow reservoir exists. A lost-circulation drilling was applied until a depth of 2,550 m, and PTS logging
was then carried out to identify depths of the lost-circulations. Two-stage cementing was successfully
performed to set a 9 5/8" liner-hanger casing to the depth of 2,550 m.
WD-la hit a granitic formation at a depth of 2,860 m, however, we did not encounter large lost
circulation which we had expected near the boundary of the granite. The drilling was further continued to
investigate the inner structure of the granite, and reached a depth of 3,729 m in July 1995 with an 8 1/2"
hole. At depths greater than 3,642 m, the circulating mud with high H2S content started to return to the
surface. A closed injection system was adopted so that the mud would not be directly exposed to the
atmosphere. However, drilling operation was consequently terminated because of safety concerns when
WD-la reached a depth of 3,729 m. After various loggings and borehole fluid sampling were carried out
for a couple of months, WD-la was plugged back to a depth of 2,400 m to prevent ejection of H2S gas.
Top-drive drilling coupled with mud cooling system has the advantage of lowering the temperature of
boreholes very efficiently. By circulating mud water during the lowering of drill-strings, increase of the
temperature in borehole can be minimized, and it sometimes makes the life of bits 10 times longer than a
case when top-drive drilling is not applied. We have confirmed these merits of the TDS through the drilling
of very high temperature formation. Also, we applied trajectory correction runs using a downhole motor
(DHM) and a measurement-while-drilling (MWD) tool under high temperature environment. This was
enabled by the use of the top drive system.

WD-1 SPUDDED 6 JAN 94 WD-1 RESPUDDED 15 JAN 95

DRILLING CASING
DIAMETER SPECIFICATION
26"
100m
18 5/8"
600m

13 3/8"
1,500m

9 5/8"
2,550m

3,729m

Fig. 2. Drilling chart of WD-la.

- 216-
GEOLOGY AND ALTERATION
u >'12 *12 dacitie tuft \ZJ/
Three oriented cores and ten non- - «4ulli sllt! black shale ' *2
oriented cores were collected at various *12 *12 dacitie luff LL

depths down to 3,729 m, and cuttings were Z VkZW muddy lull H

sampled every 5 m. A simplified geology of - l
< andesite, shale ^
WD-la is shown in Fig. 3. Major geological
units observed from the surface are; o o fine tuff 1
500-
Tertiary formations (Yamatsuda, Takinoue- AAA
andesite .—1 s
*12 *12
onsen, Kunimitoge and Obonai Formations) dacitie luff 1
*12 *12
composed of andesite/dacite lapilli tuffs, daritir mtl
1
tuffaceous sandstone and black shale; pre- black shale
Tertiary formations composed of andesitic
n fine tuff, dacitie tuff I
tuffs, shale and sandstone; and a 1,000-
5
Quaternary granite (Kakkonda Granite).
- *12 *12 dacitie luff v
The depth of the boundary between WAW/ andesitic lull
Tertiary and Pre-Tertiary formations in \z \z line lull ti
silicious shale, line tuff
WD-la is 2,660 m. The Quaternary granite AMA andesitic tuff breccia
was encountered at a depth of 2,860 m. The AAA andesitic lapilli lull
Tertiary formations have undergone 1,500- ^andesite, tult breccias
intensive hydrothermal alteration, while the AA AAA andesitic luff breccia
1.610 m
AAA andesitic lapilli tuff s
Pre-Tertiary formations have weak biotite
AZAA
alteration. Several metamorphic minerals &AAA4
i
were observed in Tertiary and Pre-Tertiary
I AAAA andesitic tuff breccia

formations. The first appearance of these &AAA4 d

minerals such as biotite, cordierite, 2,000- WAWA andesitic tuff
tine tult. silicious shale 2.020 m
anthophyllite and clinopyroxene, which ■— silicious shale ) f cordierite
were found at depths of 1,610 m, 2,020 m, 2,140 m

2,140 m and 2,860 m, respectively, was andesitic tult.silicious tut! anthophyllite

&A W7 andesitic tutl
helpful in predicting the depth of the granite. old intrusive andesite-
aaA A S*4j
Kakkonda Granite is divided into 4AAAA andesitic tuff breccia
U-
three types, from shallow to deep: biotite- WAWA
2,500- A\\A\\ andesitic tuff
WAWA 1
homblende granodiorite, biotite-homblende
andesitic tuff.silicious tuTl 6
tonalite and clinopyroxene-bearing biotite- WAWA andesitic lull/ s|atc—\
homblende tonalite. The first two are WAWA andesitic tufl_------------->. 6 |
^Silicious rocK
M
examined to have undergone sandy slate
—sandstone, sandy state- 2,860 m
metamorphism, based on the fact that + + + andalusile
reciystallized biotite as pseudomorph of + + 1 K-feldspar
3,000- + + + biotite bornblende
mafic minerals were observed. The deepest 1 spinel
+ + granodiorite
+ + +
one is fresh petrographically and has not + + y |

undergone either metamorphism or 4—

! E

hydrothermal alteration. Therefore, its 4- 4-

4— biotite hornblende it
intrusion is considered to be a recent one. 4— 4— tonalite
4-
The K-Ar ages of common hornblende, 4- 4- 53
3,500-
4-
biotite and potash-feldspar separated from 4~ 4- Clinopyroxene-heari ng
the granite ranges from 0.34 to 0.05 Ma, 4—
■v hornblende biotite I
from 0.48 to 0.02 Ma, and from 0.16 to tonalite

0.01 Ma, respectively (Kanisawa et al., 3,800

1994; NEDO, 1997). Here, we have to
notice that several samples used for dating
were collected at depths where formation
temperature exceeds closure temperatures
of the minerals.
*1: detritus, *2: Yamatsuda F„
*3: Obonai F„ *4: Old Intrusion
Fig. 3. Simplified geologic column of WD-la and the
first disappearance depths of metamorphic
minerals during the drilling.

FRACTURE ANALYSIS BY LOGGING DATA

Loggings applied in WD-la are as follows: temperature logging, normal resistivity logging,
*Formation Micro Imager (FMI), *Dual Latero-Log, * Dipole Shear-Sonic Imager, *Litho Density Logging,

-217-
and natural gamma-ray logging (*trade-mark of Schlumberger). Because of the rapid recovery of the
temperature in WD-la, which was due to no lost-circulation, and because of the caving which occurred
around a depth of 2,650 m, these loggings were performed only up to a depth of 2,650 m with the
exception of temperature and normal resistivity loggings, which were run to the bottom of the well.
Fracture analyses of the FMI logging data revealed that low dip angle fractures are dominant at
depths greater than 1,500 m. However, a number of NE-trending fractures with high angle dipping to SE
were observed at depths between 2,570 and 2,650 m. At depths less than 1,500 m, where the shallow
reservoir exists, both high dip fractures of an E-W strike and low dip fractures were observed. Drilling
induced fractures observed in the FMI charts are oriented towards E-W to ENE-WSW directions at a depth
interval from 1,505m to 2,650m. This indicates that the stress field, compression approximately in E-W
direction, does not change from the surface to the depth of 2,650 m.

TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENTS

Temperature recovery measurements were carried out more than twenty times using a PTS tool, a
Kuster tool, and temperature melting tablets composed of metal-based compounds. Several results are
shown in Fig. 4 with minimum homogenization temperature of fluid inclusions obtained from cores and
cuttings. A temperature profile at a long standing time of Well-18 drilled near WD-1 is also shown. Notice
that water circulation was continued up to a depth of 2,500 m during the temperature recovery
measurements in order to cool down the borehole and prevent ejection of H2S gas.
A recovered temperature of 500
°C, after a standing time of 159 hours,
Temperature (°C) was obtained at the bottom of WD-la,
100 200 300 400 600 based on judging whether the tablets
I ------- r~ were melted or not melted. To verify
No Date Standing Time Tool
Jul. 18. 1995 6h35 PTS this observation, a laboratory
2 Jui. 18, 1995 llh45 PTS
3 Jul. 19. 1995 28h45 PTS
simulation experiment was later
4 Jul. 19. 1995 33h30 PTS performed by putting the same types
5 Jul. 20, 1995 52h45 PTS
6 Jui. 21, 1995 82h20 Kuster
of temperature tablets in a condition
7 Jul. 22, 1995 107h Kuster of 500 °C. The same results of
8 Jul. 23, 1995 129h Tablet
9 Jul. 24, 1995 159h Tablet melting and non-melting were
1,000 -2 10 Feb.14, 1996 167d PTS obtained, and the temperature of 500
°C was confirmed. This is the highest
temperature recorded in a geothermal
well in the world.
The temperature estimated by
Q_
0) the Homer method was 488 °C at a
Q depth of 3,400 m and 501 °C at a
2,000
depth of 3,500 m. The temperature
profile estimated by the Homer
method bends at a depth of
approximately 3,200 m. If a
temperature profile of Well-18 is
extrapolated to the depths greater
than 2,000 m, it intersects the
3,000
estimated temperature profile of WD-
Minimum la at a depth of about 3,100 m and
Homogenization
Temperature of does not reach the temperature of 500
’ Liquid Inclusion °C at the depth of 3,700 m. This
a Polyphase Inclusion
indicates the existence of a
a Gaseous Inclusion
3,800 temperature inflection point at a
greater than 414 C melted non-melted depth of approximately 3,100 m
where the recovered temperature
Fig. 4. Several results of temperature recovery measurements
profile drastically changes from
and estimated formation temperature by the Homer
hydrothermally convective to
method. Minimum homogenization temperatures offluid
thermally conductive. It suggests that
inclusions from cores and cuttings, and a temperature of
the Kakkonda Quaternary granite
Well-18, near WD-1, are also shown.
underlying the reservoirs maintain

218-
temperatures above 500 °C and work as a possible heat source of the Kakkonda geothermal system. In
addition, we may conclude that there exists a bottom of the hydrothermal convection and meteoric water
hardly penetrates under this depth.

CHEMISTRY OF BOREHOLE FLUIDS

We did not encounter any significant fractures during the drilling deeper than 2,500 m. In order to
obtain information on deep hyrdothermal fluid, borehole fluids near the bottom of the hole were sampled
after the temperature recovery measurements (Kasai at al., 1996). Before the sampling, the borehole fluid
was totally replaced by river water. The fluid was then allowed to interact with the granite for 196 hours
including the period of the temperature recovery process. Borehole fluids were collected by normal
circulation in the depth range from 2,500 m to 3,589 m, while the fluid collection in the depth range from
3,589 m to 3,708 m was performed by reverse circulation, using the drill-strings like a straw, to avoid
contamination during the sampling.
The fluids collected near the bottom of WD-la
were extremely high in Cl content to the degree that
halite precipitated during the sampling. The estimated
salinity of the fluids is approximately 39 wt.%, as a sum
of the liquid and solid phases. They were also high in
concentration of heavy metals, e g. 3,400 ppm for zinc
and 1,200 ppm for lead. If the pore fluid trapped inside
the granite had high salinity, the high salinity of the
borehole fluids may be simply attributed to permeation
of pore fluid of the granite into the borehole. There is
another factor with which the borehole fluids became
highly saline. It is the two-phase separation of the fluid
in high temperature environment. That is, the fluid in
the borehole was separated into low-salinity vapor and
high salinity liquid, and the dense saline liquid settled at
the bottom. Although the quantitative estimate of the
concentration is not available, we may conclude that
pore fluid in the granite is abundant both in saline and Power Plant
Depth (m)
metallic minerals. Halite-bearing polyphase inclusions 0 WD-1
with maximum salinity up to 46 wt.% NaCl were

tailis
observed in quartz sampled from cores and cuttings
collected depths over 2,800 m. 500
Analyses of tritium and d D- d O compositions
of the collected fluids and the river water suggest that
mixing of the river water and isotopically heavier fluid
occurred. It indicates that magmatic fluids may be
trapped in fine pores and fractures inside the granite.
Discharge of C02 and H2S gases from the drilling
2,000 -350"C1
mud was detected by the mud logging during the
drilling at depths greater than 3,350 m and 3,642 m,
respectively. Each gas was also detected by laser raman 2,500
spectrometry in fluid inclusions in quartz sampled from
cores and cuttings collected at depths over 3,350 m
(Ikeuchi et al., 1996). Old
Kakkonda Young Kakkonda Granite
MICROEARTHQUAKE MONITORING 3,500 Granite

500 1,000m
Microearthquake activities, mainly associated 4,000 T.D. 3,729 m I I
with fluid circulation and pressure perturbation within
Fig. 5. Distribution of microearthquake
the reservoirs, have been monitored by ten seismometer
hypocenters obtained during a year of
stations since January 1995. Observed microearthquake
1995; a plan view (top) and a cross
events are analyzed using computer software named
section (bottom) along the line shown
"MEPAS", which was developed by NEDO as a
in the top figure.
microearthquake analysis system for geothermal

-219-
exploration (Miyazaki et al., 1993). The estimated velocity structure used for calculation of hypocenter
location is one-dimensional (1-D) layered model which was obtained by 1-D inversion of microearthquake
data themselves.
The hypocenters form some swarms of NNE-SSW trending along with the major NW-SE trending in
this field on a plan view (Fig. 5). On the cross section along the NW-SE direction, we can recognize that
the swarms have different depth levels and they are located at depths less than 2,200 m, dominantly in the
shallow reservoirs. Microearthquakes were not observed around the top of the granite, and the boundary of
this disappearance of the hypocenters coincides with a temperature contour of approximately 350 °C. One
of the possible reasons why detectable microearthquakes rarely occur in the deep region is ductility of
rocks in high temperature environment, however, we need further investigation to figure out reliable
reasons.

SYNTHETIC FLUID INCLUSION LOGGING

A synthetic fluid inclusion logging system has been used experimentally as a temperature logging tool
for high-temperature condition over 350 °C, where conventional logging tools are not applicable (Sasada et
al., 1996). Gold capsules containing artificially cracked quartz crystals soaked in a silica-saturated alkaline
solution were placed in containers, and the containers were hung inside the well, WD-la. Experiments
were carried out at several depths less than 2,500 m under temperatures of up to 350 °C. Fluid inclusions
were synthesized in one day under temperatures above 250 °C by using alkaline solution. Homogenization
temperatures of the fluid inclusions at each depth were almost coincident with temperature profiles
obtained by a conventional logging tool.

ELECTROMAGNETIC SURVEYS

Natural source magnetotelluric method (MT) and controlled-source magnetotelluric method (CSMT)
were applied in the Kakkonda field, and subsequent two-dimensional (2-D) inversions were performed.
The 2-D resistivity models show the shape of the granite as high resistivity zone. Also, there is another
large resistive body in the northwestern side of the field, where WD-la was targeted and failed to
encounter productive fractures.
New tools for borehole electromagnetic surveys, such as multi-frequency and multi-spacing induction
logging (MAIL) and frequency-domain surface-to-borehole electromagnetic measurement, are under
development in order to obtain detailed structure of the vicinity of WD-la This information will be jointly
used with the surface magnetotelluric data to improve the reliability of the resistivity model.

GEOTHERMAL MODEL

Summarizing geological, geophysical and geochemical data obtained from the project during fiscal
years from 1992 to 1996, the original geothermal model was revised to reflect the location and condition of
deep geothermal reservoirs associated with deep and hot granitic intrusions (Fig. 6). Similar intrusions have
been discovered in many other geothermal fields, e.g. felsite intrusions in the Geysers (Gunderson, 1992).
The extent of Kakkonda Granite in a plan view is more than 2.0 km x 2.5 km (Doi et al., 1990). The
granite has a high temperature and is a possible heat source of the field. The temperature gradient at the
depth of over 3,100 m within the granite is approximately 30 °C per 100 m. It is almost ten times as much
as the gradient in the depth range from 1,500 m to 3,100 m where a convection system has been developed.
The origin of the brine sampled from the granite is considered to be a magmatic residual fluid which came
out at the last stage of the magma cooling. Contact metamorphic minerals, such as biotite and cordierite,
were observed above the granite. The first appearance of the metamorphic minerals is useful in predicting
the depth of the granite during deep drilling.

SIDE-TRACK DRILLING AND FUTURE PLANS

Since WD-la did not hit productive fractures which we originally expected in the vicinity of the
granite, the next step of the project was to drill a side-track well, WD-lb, aiming at a productive fracture
near the granite. The side-track drilling was started from a depth of 2,200 m in September 1996. The
trajectory of the drilling was decided by examining the data obtained in this project and provided by JMC.
WD-lb was deviated southward so that it would cross NE-SW and E-W trending high-dip fractures with
higher probability and it would reach a zone beneath a micro-earthquake swarm.

-220-
 NW ■< SE LEGEND
1,000 -i
WD-1
Lm „iwi : lower limit of laumontite occurrence

Wa v-v^t-lower limit of wairakite occurrence

Ah ; upper limit of anhydrite occurrence

Bi .............. biotile isograd

Cor ...... cordierite isograd

240 C
: mature waters

260 C; : partially immature waters

' 'Wa
: heat transfer

_____—— : formation boundary

-1,000- >— C02 and H2S gas discharged zone

V bottom of geothermal convection

366 C. Ya : Yamatsuda Formation

Ta : Takinoue-Onsen Formation

Ku-U : Kunimitoge Forma!ion(upper)

2,000
- -
2,860 m Ku-M : Kunimitoge Foimation(middle)

Ku-L : Kunimitoge Formation(lower)

4000. 1,000 m P : Pre-Tertiary Sediments

450 0
TD : Torigoenotaki dacite
500 0
G (y) : relatively young Quaternary-granitic rock
-3,000 - 3,729m/
G""AWD-1 G (o) : relatively old Quaternary-granitic rock

Fig. 6. A geothermal model on the geologic section associated with the Quaternary
granitic intrusion in the Kakkonda geothermalfield.

Formation temperature at the depth of 2,200 m is approximately 350 °C. It is very difficult to use
DHM and MWD tools in this kind of high temperature environment. By overcoming several difficulties,
we successfully directed WD-lb to the planned trajectory. Total lost circulation occurred at a depth of
approximately 2,500 m, however, the drilling was continued with lost-circulation drilling. Finally, the
drilling was terminated at a depth of 2,963 m in January, 1997, because of a safety reason against a danger
that the drill stem was stuck. Various loggings and other well completion works are now being carried out.
A production test of WD-lb, pressure monitoring, experiments of material corrosion, and other associated
researches, such as reservoir simulation and resource evaluation, are planned in 1997 and 1998.

CONCLUSIONS

The drilling of WD-1 a to a depth of 3,729 m through high-temperature formations yielded much
valuable knowledge about deep geothermal systems associated with young and deep intrusions; for
example, the thermal structure of the Quaternary granite, the chemistry of fluid within the granite, the
distribution of metamorphic minerals, and the fracture systems of shallow and deep reservoirs. The top
drive drilling technology supported us to drill into very high-temperature formation of greater than 500 °C.
The side-tracked well, WD-lb, recently hit large fractures successfully in the vicinity of the granite. A
production test and subsequent reservoir simulation are planned in summer 1997.
However, the characteristics of deep geothermal systems are complicated, and not easy for us to
analyze and understand. The distance from the bottom of the deviated well, WD-lb, to the original well,
WD-1 a, is less than 200 m. One hit large fractures and the other didn't. We have recognized that we should
consider the following subjects for development of deep geothermal reservoirs.

■ Low permeability in general in the basement and granitic formations

• Generation of fractures in the vicinity and within granitic intrusions
• Ductility in high-temperature environment
• Disappearance of microearthquakes in deep high-temperature reservoirs
" Process of hydrothermal circulation of supersaline fluid in deep reservoirs
• Existence of acid fluid in deep reservoirs
• Emission of H2S and C02 gases from granitic rocks

- 221-
• Difficulty of exploration for deep reservoirs from the surface in deciding a drilling target

In spite of many successful results reached in this project, achievement of the main purpose of the
project, i.e., to establish deep geothermal models and technological guidelines for development, is not an
easy task. In addition, the test field of this project has been limited to one geothermal field. Therefore,
exchange of research and exploration data of deep geothermal resources, on an international basis, is
essential to improve our understanding of the deep resources and to promote further exploitation of deep
geothermal energy.

REFERENCES

Doi, N., Kato, O., and Muramatsu, Y. (1990): Neo-granitic pluton and geothermal reservoir at the
Kakkonda geothermal field, Iwate Prefecture, Japan, ,/. Geotherm. Res. Soc. Japan, IS, 41-57 (in
Japanese with English abstract).
Gunderson, R.P. (1992): Distribution of oxygen isotopes and noncondensible gas in steam at the Geysers,
Monograph on The Geysers Geothermal Field, Geotherm. Resour. Council, Special Report, 17, 113-
138.
Ikeuchi, K., Komatsu, R., Doi, N., Sakagawa, Y., Sasaki, M., Kamenosono, H., and Uchida, T. (1996):
Bottom of hydrothermal convection found by temperature measurements above 500 °C and fluid
inclusion study of WD-1 in Kakkonda geothermal field, Japan, Geotherm. Resour. Council Trans., 20,
609-616.
Kanisawa, S., Doi, N., Kato, O., and Ishikawa, K. (1994): Quaternary Kakkonda granite underlying the
Kakkonda geothermal field, Northeast Japan, J. Min. Petr. Econ. Geol., 89, 390-407 (in Japanese with
English abstract).
Kasai, K., Sakagawa, Y., Miyazaki, S., Sasaki, M., and Uchida, T. (1996): Supersaline brine obtained from
Quaternary Kakkonda granite by the NEDO's deep geothermal well WD-1 a in the Kakkonda
geothermal field, Japan, Geotherm. Resour. Council Trans., 20, 623-630.
Kato, O., Doi, N., Akazawa, T., Sakagawa, Y., Yagi, M., and Muraoka, H. (1995): Characteristics of
fractures based on FMI logs and cores in well WD-1 in the Kakkonda geothermal field, Japan,
Geotherm. Resour. Council Trans., 19, 317-322.
Miyazaki, S., Kondo, T., Hanano, M., Nagao, S., and Sasada, M. (1993): Development of micro-
earthquake analysis system for geothermal reservoir exploration, Geotherm. Resour. Council Trans.,
17, 135-139.
NEDO (1997): Report on the Deep-Seated Geothermal Resources Survey. FY 1995 (in Japanese, in press).
Sasada, M., Sawaki, T., Tsukimura, K., Sasaki, M., Yagi, M., Uchida, T., Hyodo, M., and Okabe, T.
(1996): Synthetic fluid inclusion logging for deep geothermal system - 1995 downhole experiments in
WD-1 a at Kakkonda, Japan, Geotherm. Resour. Council Trans., 20,
Uchida, T., Akaku, K., Sasaki, M., Kamenosono, H., Doi, N., and Miyazaki, S. (1996): Recent progress of
NEDO’s “Deep-Seated Geothermal Resources Survey” project. Geotherm. Resour. Council Trans., 20,
643-648.

-222-
 A SCIENTIFIC CONCEPT APPLIED TO THE POSSIBILITY OF FINDING
GEOTHERMAL PROSPECTS IN KALIMANTAN/BORNEO MAINLAND

Vincent T. BADJA

Indonesia State Electricity (PT. PLN PERSERO)

ABSTRACT

Based on existing information Indonesia archipelago is fortunate to be potentially rich in geotehrmal

resources except Kalimantan Mainland does not seem be promising of geothermal area but surprises are not
possible.

Under the ASEAN Utility/Authority Cooperation on Geothermal Energy Development since 1982,
studies been made on the possibility to developed geothermal as an alternative energy resources in the member
countries including Sabah in Malaysia and Kalimantan Indonesia. Analysis been made based on the existence
of structure, lithology, volcanology, mineral association etc.

Correlation ben made with the others developed geothermal countries such as Philippines, PNG, USA,
Iceland, Japan, Italy and CHINA.

Die paper try to pinpoint die possibility to find same geothermal spot either in Kalimantan or Borneo
(Sabah) and recommend that follow up action survey, exploration to be made on finding geothermal potential
area in Kalimantan/Boroeo mainland.

The scientific concept applied here be directed to the indication of pretertiary deep granles
(neogranite?) Found in Kalimantan and young volcanic manifestation in Borneo (Sabah).

The paper open for discussion both International as well as National geothermal forums such as IGA,
GRC, CEPSI, NEDO, ASEAN, as wells as INAGA.

-223-
INTRODUCTION

' the Cretaceus - Lower Tertiary rocks

composed of granite and andesite. Dacitic lava and pyroclatics are exposed mainly in several areas besides
sediments of shale, mudstone tuff and conglomerate.

Generally there are 2 group geothermal prospects:

1. Young volcanic activities as in Borneo (Sabah)

2. Geothermal related to Pre Tertiary (NeoGranite) in Kalimantan and extended to Southern part of
Sumatera.

The volcanic lavas, where exposed are well jointed and commanly hydrothermally altered.
Hydrothermal alteration is well exposed in the summit area of several® younger mountain in Sabah and
Kalimantan. Hot Spring are the only surface manifestation of remnart thermal activity.

There is sufficient existence of a geothermal resources in Sabah and Kalimantan However more
detailed investigations have to be carried out. In order to have a clear pictures of the geothermal prospects.
Correlation studies been made between Kalimantan/Borneo with the existing geothermal prospects in PNG,
USA, JAPAN, CHINA and ITALY.

Some structural evidences shows that geothermal potential in Kalimantan-Bomeo is the extension of
Philippines geothermal mountain range.

Geothermal evidences in Kalimantan related to intrusion of plutonic granite mass and possible
association in with epithermal gold, cooper and mercury known since 1850 by Ducth Chinese and Italiyan.
To meet the rapidly in creasing demand for electricity in these areas facing the year 2020 (globalization),
APEC, or AFTA exploration for geothermal prospects should be extended in Kalimantan/Bomeo mainland.

THE GEOLOGICAL OUTLINE OF KALIMANTAN/BORNEO

With relation to geothermal prospects, the geology of Kalimantan/Borneo be Divided into 3 areas :

1. West and Central Kalimantan

2. North East Kalimantan
3. North Borneo (Sabah)

Volcanic activities in these region started from End of Palawan to End of Neograne
1. West and Central Kalimantan

224
 The youngest formation of these areas is acapping of volcanic rocks in the apoliagan and Nilean hais
mountain within 30 km wide and 125 km long the volcanic complexs lies unconformably on the basement of
Tertiary sediment.

The age of the volcanic complex is Plio Pliocese with the composition of basic intermediary the calc
alcaline (besalt and andesite) more geothermal prospects be found in these areas.

2. North East Kalimantan

The aced volcanism is much younger (Pliocese) about the some age of the volcanic activity of the
Sempuma Peninsula in Sabah (Borneo) and the Southern Part of Dent Peninsula of Sabah beloging to a belt
of young Tertiary to quartemary volcanism these area covered young volcanic of Sulu as in Tanjung Seloma
of Tarakan.

3, North Borneo (Sabah)

Belongs to the sphere of on fluence of the Philippines die Kinabalu Range night be as the Southern end
of the Palawan Ridge (West Condileras of the luzon are) and Dent Peninsula links up with the Pangutarang
Islands and Zamboangan Peninsula (East Condilleras of the Luzon the Meanwhile the Sulu Basin, along the
Northern of the Dent Peninsula, WNW-ESE trending major faults are found on which mud volcanoes are
situated.

These is the most prospects geothermal are recorded in Borneo. Generally the geology of the areas
included in the : Pre Quaternary history of the Sunda Shelf Area. The pregranitc formation of the areas are
Crystalline schets, Fuasic igneores Rocks of granites and thorites. Laritic antiision in West Kalimantan
(Chinese Districst) have contact metamorphisically altered Umestimes of jurassie age.

The zone extered to Tim granit belt Porphiric Biolite Granite of Bangka Belitung, Singkep and
Sourthem most zone of Karimunjawa and Lampung Destrict in South Sumatera where we found geotehrmal
manifestation as in Rajabasa Suoh Seldncau and Ratal. The Mountain system composed of Natuna zone,
Inambas Zone, Karimata Zone, Jin Belt and Karimunjawa Zone.

BASIC CONCEPT RELATION BETWEEN GEOTHERMAL AND ORE DEPOSITS

1. Most of the metallic minerals mined in the world such as copper, gold, silver, lead, zinc, mercury
associated with magmas found deep within the toots of extent volcanoes.

2. Rising magma does not always reach the surface to erupt, slowly cool and harden beneath the volcano
to form variety of crystalline rocks called : PLUNTONIC OR GRANITIC ROCKS.

- 225-
 Ore deposits conunondy form around foe magma bodies that feed volcanoes because there are a ready
supply of heat, which consecutively moves and circulation ore bearing fluids.

The metals, originally scattered in trace amounts in magma or surrounding solid rocks, become
concentrated by circulating hot fluids and can be redeposited under favourable temperature and
pressure conditions to form rich minerals veins,

The active volcanic vents along the spreading ocean ridges creates ideal environments for the
circulation of fluid riches in minerals and for ore bearing deposit. Water as hot as 380% gushes out
of geothermal springs along the spreading zone heated during circulation by contact with the hot
volcanic rocks. Deep heated sea hot spring contain abundance of dark coiosed mineral ecaied,
BLACK SMOKERS: Iron, copper, nickel of foe dark coloured.

GEOTHERMAL INDICATIONS

Kalimantan means River of Diamond : Rich in Precious metals such as : gold, diamond, silver, and
abundant of natural resources.

Geothermal resources in Katimantan/Bomeo mainland shows by 11 foe existence of young Volcanoes.

Elongation of high peak volcanoes with NE - SW direction from Sabah, Sarawak until west Kalimantan and
East .Kalimantan. Such as : Gn. Kinabalu (1995 m) and Trus Medi (2649 m) in Sabah and Gn. Mulu (2571 m)
in Sarawak. West Kalimantan such as Gn. Kerihun, (1980 m), Gn. Mentuang Karimun (1767 m) and Gn. Raya
(2278 m) and East Kalimantan with Gn. Murudi (1980 m) and Gn. Liong Pram (2240 m). Volcanic fire works
happened about 4,5 million years ago and folding shifsed of Kalimantan and Borneo. Kinabalu in Sabah mean
Api-api (fires) sho us: Volcanic activity. Geological expedition in these areas bescan ; since 1851 by Chinese
and Dutch.2) Neo Granites in Kalimantan especially West and Central Kalimantan geothermal prospects related
to Neogranites (Pre Tertiaary Granites) see Attachment II.

West Kalimantan near Mandor, Menpawah, Mantrado and Bengkayang geothermal prospect in
association with epithermal gold, copper and mercury known since Hindu epochs (4 to 13 century) and
followed by Chinese (1760) and Dufo (1850) expeditions.

Central Kalimantan known as schwaner Belt, Near Kapuas & Barito and Kutai Berau shows by
Intrussion of piutoitic, rocks : of granite mass such as aplite granite Zone Volcanic rocks appears in the area
known as Matau Complex. The finding of budge gold bearing mineral in Busang area possibly be related to
neo volcanic activities.

-226-
 STRUCTURAL EVIDENCES:
Structural geology related to the geothermal prospects be grouped In to: two groups

A. MEGA SCALES :

1. Extension of West and East Cordilleras mountain Range from Philippines as indicated by
Palawan archipelago (west) and Mindanao (East). Tectonic structure control along with the
volcanic activity.

2. Appearance of Mountain Range along Kalimantan and Borneo (Sabah) such as :

■ Kinabalu (Mount Api-api)

■ S ehwaner
■ Muller
■ Raya

3. Volcanic rocks : Granit, Dacit

4. Mineral Association: Copper, (Poring), Mercury, (Lumor) Gold (Busang)
5. Methamorphic Rocks : as Chert, Splite.

B. MICRO SCALES

1. Appearance Hot Spring, Fuoiarola, Sinter Deposit (Andrasy, Baiun, J. Jepun)

2. Yout>g Volvcanic Cones : Magdalena, Maria, Lucia
3. VolcanicRocks: Granodiarite
4. Low Resistivity Anomsly 25 Q m in Tawao
5. Mineralization: Calcitization, argilization, andchlorization

C. ZONE OF THE EASTERN CORDILLERAS (See Attachment IH)

Extends from the Bondoc Peninsula of Luzon, Burias, Ticao, Eastern of Masbate, Northeast
of Leyte then curves South/Soutward to Camotes Island, Bahol and Zamboanga. Then connected to
Sulu archipelago with the Darval area of North Borneo, Tawao and Sampoma.

The Sulu archipelago consists of two parallel ridges; one stretchning from Zamboanga to
Peninsula North of Darval Bay carrying the coral reef island of the Panyutarang group; the other
extending from the Sibugsy Peninsula via Basilan, Jolo, Tawitawi to the Peninsula South of Davel.
Bay, these is a young volcanic belt extending to Tawao, Samporna Peninsula composed of granodiorit
and geothermal manifestation.

227-
 D. ZONE OF THE WESTERN CORDILLERAS

Passes via Lubang Island and the Mindoro to the Calamian Islands, Cuy Islands, Palawan and
Balabac. The trend of the Palawan block has a NNE-SSW direction. These trend consists of extinct
volcanic of Plio-Pleistocene age, as the continuation of volcanic Miravales Chain. A younger
submarine volcanoes is found between Cagayan Sulu and the Cagay areas Island and the Sulu trough
until Kinabalu range consist of basalt and andesites and hot spring.

CORRELATION BASED ON GEOSCIENTJFIC EVIDENCES

Correlation based on scientific evidences such as geothermal system and neo-granite, be made between
Indonesia, Malaysia, China, Italy, USA, JAPAN especially on : Manifestation, geological stages, petrology,
geological structure and volcanic activity. Attachment IV

CONCLUSION

1. Neo-granite geothermal concept or Deep Seated Geothermal Concept reservoirs are closely related
with intrusive bodies with shows the characteristics of both vapor dominated and liquid dominated
geothermal systems. These prospects possibly be found in Kalimantan.

2. Neo-granite or Deep Seated Geothermal Concept can be applied to old volcanic areas such as :
Lardarello, Italy, The Geyser USA, Kakkonda Japan, Tongonan Palimpinon Philippine and
Tengchong (China) some of where those prospects has been succes fully in generated electricity since
early 1970.

3. Neo-granite Geothermal Concept are composite intrusion batholiths ranging from granite,
granodiorite, diorite with sub surface distribution from shallow to deep. This concept can be applied
for Kalimantan and Borneo mainland geothermal concept.

4. Neo-granite Geothermal Concept of Kalimantan mainland play important role as a potential heat
source and be expected as a comercial potential geothermal reservoir.

5. For the future of AJFTA or APEC and in relation to ASEAN cooperation on Electricity Transmission
system, development of Kalimantan and Borneo geothermal system is a huge suplementory to the
development of others energy resources (hydro, coal, or oil and gas) in Indonesia/Sabah.

6. Besides Kalimantan the concept can be applied for the future geothermal potential finding in Irian Jaya
and Papua New Guinea (PNG), Lesser Sunda Island mainland (Nusatenggara) as well as Moluccas
archipelagos.

-228-
7, The Sabah geothermal area in underline, by volcanic rocks ranging from besalt to anderit and dacete
volcanic activity started from early to miocene late quaternary (extrussion on of Besalt).

REFERENCES:

1. P.S. Lira : Geology and Geothermal Potential of the Tawao Area, Jawatan Kaji Bumi,
Sabah, Malaysia, ammud report 1987.

2, V,T. Radja ect : Geology, Energy and Development of Indonesia’s geothermal Prospects,
Symposium of tectonic framework and energy resources of the Western
margin of thePasific Basin, Kualalumpur, Nov 29 - Dec 2,1992.

3. IGA World Geothermal Congress, Florence, Italy, May 1995

4. V.T. Radja : Geothermal prospects in Kalimantan

GRC Portland, OREGON, USA, Oct 4-9,1996

5. V.T. Radja : Geothermal Pospects in Kalimantan, Borneo Mainland, INAGA, annual

meeting, November 1996.

- 229-
 Attachment

*****

Structural map of Borneo

 Attachment II

CO
CO

SKETCH MAP OF INDONESIA SHOWING THE DISTRIBUTION OF GRANITIC ROCKS AND

GEOTHERMAL PROSPECT RELATED TO HOT DRY ROCK (HDR) GEOTHERMAL CONCEPT

J
 Attachment III

Structural sketcfamap of the Philippines

-232-
 Attachment IV

GEOTHERMAL CORRELATION BASED ON GESCIENT1FIC SITE EVIDENCES

GEOTHERMAL
i INDICATION INDONESIA MALAYSIA CHINA ITALY

Lhcatlml Tompaso, North Andrassy, Tawae Hot Lake, Tengchong Lardarello

Sulawesi 3x20 MW Sabah Yunnan Province Monlamlala
HeHncI, Iambi

ii Proposed tlnll 5*20 MW S-iSMW S-50MW 20 - 50 MW

i'. Manlteslatlotl Hoi Spring Hot Pools Hot Spring Silled deposition
Silted tieposllloh Sinter deposit Silted deposition Hot spring
!i; Etiological Stages
Volcanic Docks Metdhtorphifc Docks Melantorphlc Docks Metamorphlc Docks

-fri titUctUM tectonic Structure bdenllon of Sulawesi Tectonic and Tectonic and
tatill i KemaAmuratig StilU’PhlllppIrtes Structure Intrusion intrusion

ti, ttittidrtlfc Atllvliy Active Volcanoes Volcanic cones/litls Volcanic Foot tit Mount Volcanic
Sopulan, LtiKON Magdalena, Maria, itici Himalaya fextenilort Extent loti ol Mt Etna.
Worldocf, klnsbalu Vesuvius

i* fcldlUs Development Sine© lost tinder fcxplotallort Under Exploration Developed Since t!)20
today DhttcC preparation
fitr tui lire tic-utopmeht

DtdlilthMAL Pntxkcr cormtiArioM titrWmj innoNtstA. Malaysia, china, ttAtv with siMiuti PitojECT indication
TECHNICAL SESSION 2
 EFFECTS OF DEVELOPMENT ON GEOTHERMAL SYSTEMS DEDUCED FROM GRAVITY

AND THERMAL MEASUREMENTS:JAPANESE CASE STUDIES

Sachio EHARA, Yasuhiro FUJIMITSU, Jun NISHIJIMA and Akira 0N0

Laboratory of Geothermics,Faculty of Engineering, Kyushu University

ABSTRACT

Repeated gravity measurements have been conducted at four geo­

thermal fields (Hatchobaru, Takigami, Yamakawa and Oguni) and one erupting

volcano (Kuju volcano) in Kyushu in order to monitor the underground

geothermal fluid flow system. Characteristic common features of gravity

changes were detected both in geothermal fields and in erupting volcano.

Gravity decreased rapidly just after the commencement of production of

geothermal fluid or phreatic eruption and then decreased gradually. Such

a pattern of gravity change shows that the underground fluid flow is

reaching to a new equilibrium state. Repeated thermal measurements were

started recently in geothermal fields, although they have been conducted

at Kuju volcano after the October 1995 eruption. Simultaneous measure­

ments of thermal activity and gravity give more effective information

about the changes in the geothermal system.

INTRODUCTION

In order to understand the effects of development on geothermal

systems, we have been conducting gravity and thermal measurements in

geothermal fields in Kyushu such as Hatchobaru, Takigami, Oguni and

Yamakawa. Recently, we are also conducting very frequent gravity and

thermal measurements at Kuju volcano in central Kyushu which began to

erupt in October, 1995, in order to monitor the volcanic activity. Its

eruptive activity is essentially phreatic at present. We are also con­

ducting repeated gravity surveys in non-geothermal fields to monitor

ground water flow. It is very useful to compare the observational

results in geothermal fields, volcanoes and non-geothermal fields in

order to clarify the changes in underground water flow systems in

geothermal fields.

-235
GRAVITY AND THERMAL MEASUREMENTS IN GEOTHERMAL FIELDS OF KYUSHU

There are so many geothermal fields in Kyushu as shown in Fig.1.

Now, we are conducting repeated thermal and gravity measurements in

Hatchobaru, Takigami, Oguni and Yamakawa geothermal fields. At present we

are concentrating on gravity measurements to monitor underground fluid

flow. Thermal measurements with a new infrared apparatus were started

recently. In some geothermal fields, there are thermal data such as

shallow ground temperatures and heat discharge rates obtained before

developments.

Takigami

Oguni

Hatchobaru

Kuju volcano

Yamakawa

Fig. 1 Geothermal fields in Kyushu.

Present status of development in four geothermal fields are shown

in Table 1 (JGEA, 1996). Hatchobaru, Takigami and Yamakawa were completed

and Oguni will be completed in the near future. We are repeating gravity

surveys in an interval of one to three months depending on their circum­

stances.

Table 1 Geothermal Power Plants in Kyushu(Study area).

Name of Power Plant Rated Output Status

Hatchobaru I 55MW completed in June 1977

II 55MW completed in June 1990

Takigami 25MW completed in Nov. 1996

Yamakawa 30MW completed in March 1995

Oguni 20MW will be completed in 2000

 One of the most important findings is the effect of shallow ground-

water to gravity changes in most geothermal fields , which means that it

is necessary to estimate the effect of shallow ground water changes in

order to detect changes in deep geothermal fluid flow by the repeated

gravity measurements. Shallow groundwater level has a contact correlaton

with rainfall. Then, by using the railfall data of several months before

the measurement, we can estimate the effect of shallow groundwater on

gravity. Therefore, we can know the change in gravity originated in

rainfall before the measurement. As an example, gravity changes in the

Takimami field are shown in Fig. 2, which show the changes outside and

inside the production zone. The observed gravity changes outside the

production zone are very similar to predicted gravity changes. On the

other hand, the observed gravity changes in the production zone differ

from the predicted changes after the commencement of thermal water pro-

duction(middle of 1996). The observed gravity values are much lower than

the predicted ones. Such rapid gravity decrease in the production zone

is considered to be originated in production of geothermal fluids. How­

ever, the decreasing rate of gravity is becoming smaller and smaller

after the commencement of fluid production. This means that underground

water flow is reaching to a new equilibrium state, that is, a new geo­

thermal system is forming.

0.15
t T5
0.10
J,
« 0.05
a ^-e-5 s
■a 0.00 96
► • *
£ -0.05
2 -0.10
M
l 1 .-
-0.15
1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996

year year

-Inside the production zone- -Outside the production zone-

Fig. 2 Gravity changes inside and outside the production zone of Takigami

field. • :observed gravity O:predicted gravity.

237-
-
 In Hatchobaru field, we also detected gravity changes in rein­

jection and production zones. Fig. 3 shows examples of gravity changes in

the reinjection and production zones. In the reinjection zone, the

gravity increased rapidly just after the commencement of reinjection

(middle of 1990) and then decreased gradually. After the commencement

of production, the gravity began to decrease rapidly in the production

zone. In this period, about 110MW of electricity, which is the installed

capacity, was produced. About three years later, gravity changes came to

change little. In this period, about 90 MW of electricity was produced.

This means also that a new equilibrium state of underground water flow

is forming. And it may be reasonable to consider that the most suitable

production rate from the present production zone is about 90MW.

H-24 0.10 H-23

a. o.io «

S 0.05 B 0.05
« o.oo y o.oo
gs -0.05 13 -0.05
0.10
- >. -0.10

& 0.15 "E -0.15

M -0.20

1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996
year year

Fig. 3 Gravity changes in the reinjection(Left) and production(Right)

zones of Hatchobaru field.

In Oguni field, we are repeating gravity measurements in an interval

of about four months before development. We detected a relation between

the gravity changes and shallow ground water flow. Such data obtained

before the development will be useful after the development.

Recently,we started repeated gravity measurements in Yamakawa field.

From only three times of measurements in an interval of about three

months, we detected gravity increases and decreases in the reinjection

zone. This field is near the coast. This case may show a different type

of gravity change by development. We have a plan to continue gravity

measurements in an interval of three months in the future.

In Hatchobaru field, we have shown that geothermal activities near

the Power Station did not change before and after the development of

Hatchobaru I plant( Yuhara et al.,1988 ). Repeated thermal measurements

238
with a new infrared apparatus were started recently. Geothermal manifes­

tations are surface reflection of the undeground geothermal fluid flow

system. Therefore, simultaneous measurements of thermal activity and

gravity will give more effective information about the geothermal system.

GRAVITY AND THERMAL MEASUREMENTS IN KUJU VOLCANO,CENTRAL KYUSHU

Kuju volcano began to erupt in October,1995(Ehara, 1995). The second

ash eruptions occurred in December,1995. After that, no eruptions oc­

curred until now (January, 1997). However, active crater activities still

continue.

We started repeated thermal and gravity measurements around new

craters just after the first eruption.As a result,we detected remarkable

changes in thermal feature and gravity(Figs. 4 and 5). Very high level of

heat discharge rate over 2000MWt have continued during two months after

the first eruption. In this period, gravity around new craters decreased

rapidly. After that, the heat discharge rate from new craters decreased

rapidly. Accompanying with the decrease in the heat discharge rate from

new craters, the rate of gravity decrease became smaller. Estimation of

underground mass balance (mainly by water) based on the Gauss’ s theorem

shows that the ground water recharge from the region around new craters

is increasing after the eruption and about three months after, the under­

ground water flow is gradually reaching to the equilibrium state. At

6000 F

OT-NT-N«<)^U)«OSOOO>OrNT"
10(0(0(0(0(0(0(0(0
U)U)U)0)0>0)0)0)0)0)0)0)(0(0(00)
o> o> o> m a> a>
Date

Fig. 4 Changes in heat discharge rates from new craters and existing

fumarolic areas in Kuju volcano after the 1995 eruption. •:from

the new crater d(the most active new crater), A:from the all new

craters and existing fumarolic areas.

-239-
gravity value (mgal)
KBM2
8 0.05

H 0.00

i/)i^if)veveve>e>eve>ovevese>6vs
__ . __ _ ^ _i ^ —. —« _Z _T 7 ?

©^M^fSf^^>i/)s,©t»«.oe®\©

Fig. 5 Changes in gravity at two stations of Kuju volcano.

Left:distant from new craters, Right:near new craters.

present, most of scientists consider that the 1995 eruption of Kuju vol­

cano is essentially phreatic, although some small magmatic intrusion may

exist beneath the new crater zone. The 1995 eruptive activity is analo­

gous to thermal fluid production in the geothermal field. The phreatic

eruption may be compared to the thermal fluid production without re­

injection. The frequently repeated thermal and gravity measurements in

Kuju volcano after the eruption will give new insights to monitoring of

the underground fluid flow in geothermal fields.

CONCLUSION

Repeated thermal and gravity measurements in geothermal fields and

erupting volcanoes are very promising methods to monitor the under­

ground fluid flow. From the pattern of gravity changes, we can infer the

formation of new equilibrium state of the underground fluid flow system.

If we can obtain a new equilibrium state of underground flow after the

development in a field, we can continue production of thermal fluids

harmonizing with the environment. In this case,geothermal energy is sus­

tainable energy. However, we may not obtain a new equilibrium state of

underground fluid flow somewhere. In this case, we must cut down the pro­

duction of thermal fluids to utilize geothermal energy for a long time.

240-
REFERENCES

Ehara,S. (1995). 1995 Eruption of Kuju volcano, central Kyushu,Japan, Bull.

Volcanol. Soc.Japan, Vol. 40,425-427(in Japanese).

Japan Geothrmal Energy Association(1996). Annual Report on Geothermal

Energy Development in Japan-1996-, 1-91(in Japanese).

Yuhara, K. , Ehara, S., Kuboguchi,M. and Fujimitsu, Y.(1988). Proceedings of

Int. Symp. on Geothermal Energy,1988, Kumamoto and Beppu,565-566.

- 241-
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS DURING GEOTHERMAL DEVELOPMENT:
SOME EXAMPLES FROM CENTRAL AMERICA

Sue GOFF and Fraser GOFF

Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, NM 87545 USA

ABSTRACT

The impacts of geothermal development projects are usually positive. However, without
appropriate monitoring plans and mitigation actions firmly incorporated into the project
planning process, there exists the potential for significant negative environmental impacts. We
present five examples from Central America of environmental impacts associated with
geothermal development activities. These brief case studies describe landslide hazards, waste
brine disposal, hydrothermal explosions, and air quality issues Improved Environmental
Impact Assessments are needed to assist the developing nations of the region to judiciously
address the environmental consequences associated with geothermal development.

INTRODUCTION

Geothermal power is a relatively benign source of energy compared to many other energy
alternatives. There are, however, certain negative impacts that geothermal development can
have if appropriate mitigation actions and monitoring efforts are not established. Many
countries with excellent geothermal potential do not have laws, strong governmental agencies,
financial resources, or trained personnel that can evaluate and regulate environmental issues,
although guidelines are available (OLADE, 1993). As examples, we describe five abbreviated
case studies of environmental impacts from geothermal fields or power plants in Central
America. Two of the examples discussed resulted in loss of life. The three other cases
presented are capable of negatively affecting the health and safety of the public.

It is worth noting that up to now, geothermal production impacts on natural phenomena such
as reduced flow or temperature of hot springs, are not important issues in most Central
American countries. This is because ambient temperatures are high and because no large,
influential industry depends on hot spring waters for resort or medicinal use. However, along
with the resurgence of economic growth and social progress in the region, there is an
increasing awareness and interest by the general public in the restoration of natural resources,
and the improvement of the environment.

CATASTROPHIC LANDSLIDE AT ZUNIL I FIELD, GUATEMALA

On January 5, 1991, at 2230 hrs local time, a catastrophic landslide occurred in the Zunil I
geothermal field in western Guatemala. The area characterized by high relief and steep terrain,
is located on the flanks of Cerro Quemado Volcano. Active faults permeate the geothermal
field, which is well known for its abundant fumaroles and hydrothermally altered volcanic
rocks. The slide engulfed an area that contained active fumaroles as well as the access road and
drill pad for the production well ZCQ-4, one of six production wells already existing in the
field (Fig. 1). At one time, the fumarole area (“la calera” or “lime-like”) was the site of
mercury prospecting (Flynn et al., 1991).

The landslide was multi-lobate in form and was nearly 800 m long, varying from 200 to
300 m in width. Thickness was estimated at three to ten meters. Twenty-three people who
lived and farmed on the slopes below la calera were buried alive by this landslide.

Initial reports by the Associated Press and local newspapers attributed the slide to an explosion
at geothermal well ZCQ-4, which was heavily damaged and buried by the slide. Statements
issued by the Guatemalan government agency responsible for the Zunil geothermal project

-242-
(INDE) and spokesmen for the geothermal industry refuted early press reports and blamed the
cause of the landslide on natural causes.

Guatemala u

Fig. 1: Map of Zunil geothermal region, Guatemala showing major volcanoes and tectonic
features; ZFZ=Zunil fault zone; S=Santiaguito Volcano; G=Cerro Galapago. Numbers by small circles
are geothermal production wells ZCQ-1 to ZCQ-6. Elevations at volcano summits are in meters. Ball
and bar on downthrown side of ZFZ. Landslide headwall occurs just west of well ZCQ-4 and ZFZ. Slide
traveled SE toward the Rio Samala (from Flynn et al., 1991).

Soon after the slide, the Guatemalan electric utility (INDE) conducted an investigation to
determine the cause of the slide, to evaluate the damaged well, and to provide security measures
for workers and residents in the Zunil geothermal field (INDE, 1991). INDE reported that the
landslide was an unfortunate catastrophe caused by natural events. This evaluation was
supported by several other published and unpublished reports (Barberi et al., 1991; Cordon y
Merida, 1991a, 1991b; Schafer and Williams, 1991).

Although relatively heavy vegetation and colluvium masks much of the bedrock, the landslide
exposed a major trace of the Zunil fault zone (ZFZ, Figs. 1 and 2) on either side of the
headwall area. The fault juxtaposes weathered to slightly altered andesite/dacite flow and flow
breccia on the NW (upthrown side) against severely altered and brecciated volcanic rocks on the
SE. The main fault plane is sharply defined by gouge, breccia, open cracks, and color
contrast. Weak fumarolic emissions, smelling of H2S and visible from steam, discharge from
open cracks along isolated locations on die main fault trace. Alteration consists mainly of
kaolinite with minor Fe-oxides, silica minerals, and various sulfates formed by oxidation of
acidic gases rising from the underlying geotiiermal system (reservoir temperature <300°C) and
by oxidation of disseminated pyrite in die host rocks. Oxidation of sulfur forms natural
sulfuric acid.

The landslide displayed a classic circular failure mode and had an estimated volume of
800,000 m3 (Flynn et al., 1991). The slide consisted of one main lobe of white- to green-
colored, highly fluidized volcanic breccia tiiat moved downslope rapidly as a mudflow. Two to
four smaller subsidiary lobes, less fluidized than the first, followed the initial lobe. These
landslide lobes damaged and buried the well ZCQ-4. A small crater roughly 15 m in diameter

-243-
soon developed a few meters downslope of the well. The crater apparently formed when debris
that had buried the damaged well were forcibly ejected by a mixture bf hot water and steam that
escaped from the well. As the crater formed, a radial blanket of fine-grained mud up to several
centimeters thick was deposited around the crater. It is likely that a post-slide blast was
interpreted as an exploding geothermal well by some of the early observers.

A previous map portrayed the geology of the geothermal production area as a zone of down-
faulted bedrock blocks SE of the ZFZ (Cordon y Merida, 1988). However, as early as 1989,
the Geothermal Advisory Panel to INDE realized that the geothermal area was a potential zone
of nested slide blocks with several coalescing arcuate headwall scarps and recommended that
INDE re-evaluate the geology of the area with landslide hazards in mind. After, the slide
occurred, the Zunil I geothermal field was re-evaluated by geoscientists experienced with
landslide geology and it was found that large landslide masses occurred throughout the area,
hiding bedrock and covering fault traces. The new hazard map was used to reassess placement
of roads, well pads, and a future power plant. Within a year of the landslide failure, INDE
successfully uncovered ZCQ-4 and rebuilt the wellhead so that it again became one of the
production wells of the field. Fig. 2 is a photograph taken in January 1991 of the Zunil I
landslide.

Fig. 2: Photo looking west at the catastrophic landslide that killed 23 people on January 5, 1991
at the Zunil I geothermal field, Guatemala. The area is heavily cultivated from terraced fields.
Because of its fluidized character, many local inhabitants mistakenly thought the slide was a white
lava flow. Note steam near headwall of slide from damaged well ZCQ-4.

- 244-
SLIDE COMPLEX, BERLIN GEOTHERMAL FIELD, EL SALVADOR

El Salvador is a small country with impressive geothermal resources (Fig. 3). One of the
most noticeable characteristics of the Berlin geothermal field is the steep topography and
presence of a large landslide complex. Local zones of fumarolic activity and hydrothermal
alteration occur in the complex. Several areas within the complex displaying past or present
creep were shown to the authors during a visit in 1994. Of major concern, the most
productive well in the field at that time (TR-2) was located at the base of an obvious headwall
scarp near the top of the slide complex (Fig. 4). The ground surrounding the TR-2 was riddled
with cracks (which grouting could not stabilize), the paved road just above the headwall scarp
displayed arcuate subsidence cracks, and the casing of the well was leaking steam due to
damage caused by creeping ground. Access roads, project headquarters, and the small binary
power plant of the field were all located in the slide complex several hundred meters below
Tp ~

LOCAUZACION DE LOS RECURSOS GEOTERMtCOS

EN EL SALVADOR

PLANTA GEOTERMICA CHALATENANGO

AHUACHAPAN
4, SANTA ANA

CAMPO GEOTERMICO
COATEPEQUE CABANAS

CAMPO GEOTERMICO
AHUACHAPAN SAN VINCENTE

CAMPO GEOTERMICO
CHIPILAPA
PLANTA GEOTERMICA
SONSONAT BERLIN

LA PAZ
CANALETA f USULUTAN

Este mapa ha sido preparado por la Secretana Permanente de OLADE.

Las denominaeiones utilizadas y los limitas indicados no implican, de parte de OLADE,
ningun jutoo sobre ei estado legal de cualquler territorio nl el respaldo o aceptacidn
de dchos limites.
Fig. 3: Map of El Salvador showing locations of Berlin and Ahuachapan geothermal fields and the
path of the “canaleta” from Ahuachapan to the ocean. (From OLADE, 1993)

The Zunil Icatastrophe shows tliat it is not immediately obvious where and when slope
failures will occur. A recommendation was given to the El Savadorian Electric Utility (CEL)
that summarized the parallels between Zunil and Berlin and suggested that CEL implement
work to monitor the slides, re-evaluate the landslide hazard with respect to infrastructure, and
to possibly abandon well TR-2 after redrilling of a replacement well(s) from stable ground
(Goff, 1994).

245-
 Fig. 4: Photo of well TR-2 showing grouted slope, Berlin geothermal field, El Salvador. The
grout did not prevent continued ground cracking and other “creep” phenomena in the landslide
encompassing the well.

THE CANALETA, AHUACHAPAN GEOTHERMAL FIELD, EL SALVADOR

The AhuachapSn geothermal field is one of the world’s first liquid-dominated geothermal
reservoirs to produce electric power and is a geothermal success story of the 1960’s and
1970’s. Because initial efforts to drill and manage reinjection wells were unsuccessful, an
82-km-long canal (“canaleta”) was constructed to remove geothermal brine from the power
plant and dump it in the ocean. The canal traverses many kilometers of rugged terrain along
its journey to the ocean and has been used since 1978. It generally carries 0.35 m3/s of waste
brine. When examined in summer 1994, no waste brine was reaching the ocean because of
major leaks along the canal. The largest leak occurred only 2 to 3 km from the Ahuachapan
power plant (Fig. 5) and allowed geothermal brine to cascade down a steep slope into the Rio
San Rafael, which drains into the Rio Paz (the local boarder between Guatemala and El
Salvador). Analysis of tlxe fluid cascading into the Rio San Rafael (45°C) showed that it far
exceeded U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) limits for As, B, and Cl ( about 9,
110, and 7620 ppm, respectively). For example, As levels in the waste brine were about 175
times higher than EPA limits and the waste would need to be diluted with about 225,000
tons/hr of essentially pure water to bring concentration levels down to EPA limits (Goff,
1994).

Since local residents wash their clothes and domestic animals drink in the Rio San Rafael, the
leaking canaleta is a rather toxic example of an environmental hazard. In addition, the canal is
so long that it is impossible to patrol; thus, many sections of the canal roof have been
removed by nearby inhabitants to construct buildings. Animals and people have fallen into
the hot waste brine and have died by drowning or from bums. Future drilling and wise use of
reinjection wells is the only solution that will permanently remove this hazard from the local
scene.

— 246 —
 Fig. 5: Photo of waste geothermal fluid leaking from the canaleta near Ahuachapan geothermal
field, summer 1994. This fluid contained 9 ppm As as well as high concentrations of other
constituents.

PHREATIC EXPLOSIONS IN THE AHUACHAPAN AREA

Hydrothermal (phreatic) explosions are relatively common phenomena in and near fumarole
areas of high-temperature geothermal systems. At 0300 hrs on October 13, 1990, a tragic
hydrothermal explosion occurred at the fumarole area named Agua Shuca which killed 25
people who lived in a small village near the margin of the boiling mud pools (Bruno et al.,
1992). The site (Fig. 6) is located on the SW side of the Ahuachapan geothermal field. A
similar explosion had occurred at Agua Shuca probably in 1868 and at an earlier but unknown
time at La Labor fumarole in the NW part of the geothermal field. The latter explosion is
inferred by the presence of a 200-m-diameter crater that is 20 to 25 m deep. The Agua Shuca
eruption of 1990 enlarged the pre-existing 25-m-diameter crater to one that was over 40 m in
diameter and over 5 m deep. The volume of ejected material was 1600 m3. People in the
surrounding houses died or suffered injuries in their sleep from a “violent rainfall of boiling
water, mud, altered soil, and rocks . . .’’(Bruno et al., 1992).

Although several explanations for the explosion are evaluated by Bruno et al. (1992), no firm
conclusions were reached. All inhabitants were removed from the immediate margins of the
fumarole areas and the existing buildings were destroyed. A monitoring program that
incorporates chemical, temperature, heat flow, shallow seismic, and survey measurements of
the fumarole areas might forecast future explosions.

- 247-
 Fig. 6: Photo of the Agua Shuca explosion crater, Ahuachapan area. The explosion of this
feature about four years earlier killed and injured many people who lived on its edge. In the
summer of 1994, the crater was a muddy, boiling cauldron.

AIR QUALITY AT THE AHUACHAPAN POWER PLANT

Evaluation of noncondensible gas data from the Ahuachapdn geothermal field shows that H2S
is the only gas constituent in recovery operations that seriously impacts air quality (Dennis et
al., 1990). During a tour of the Ahuachapan site on June 28, 1994, the odor of H2S was
strong both inside and outside the power plant. At that time, a small ejector pipe discharged
noncondensable gases 1 to 2 m above the roof of the power plant and roughly 15 m above
ground level (Fig. 7). The power plant has a small chemistry laboratory used to monitor
water quality in different areas of plant operations, but in 1994 there was no in-house
capability to measure gas compositions nor was there on-site portable H2S measuring
equipment.

An evaluation of the H2S problem at the power plant by EEC (1994) used fluid production and
composition data and a meteorological code to calculate probable air quality without heed to
real air quality measurements. Among other conclusions, EEC stated that in the worst case
situation, H2S concentrations in air will exceed “strict” American air quality limits but will
never exceed Italian limits. The U.S. Occupational Safety and Health (OSHA) ceiling level
for H2S is 14 mg/m3 but an ambient air quality standard of 0.042 mg/m3 is used in California
(Goff, 1994).

Because H2S in an insidious poisonous gas, a credible accident scenario should be developed
for the power plant. Several kinds of reliable monitoring equipment are available that have
reasonable cost (<$10,000 depending on type of device). When appropriate data are collected, a
suitable abatement scheme can be planned. Occupational health standards of H2S levels in air
vary from country to country but to prevent adverse health problems, levels should be low
enough to protect the very young, the very old, and the infirm.
 Fig. 7: Stack at Ahuachapan power plant emitting non-condensable gases including lethal H2S,
summer 1994.

RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSIONS

For the most part, the impacts of geothermal development projects are positive. There are
however, certain negative impacts that these undertakings could have if there are not
appropriate mitigation actions and monitoring plans in place. The developing nations of
Central America need to be equiped to address environmental issues in a systematic manner.
This will require significant improvement to the Environmental Impact Assessments (EIAs)
prepared as part of development project packages. Analytic, not encyclopedic EIAs must be the
norm. The purpose of the EIA should not be to generate paperwork, but to foster excellent
response. The process should be intended to help public officials make decisions that are based
on an understanding of environmental consequences and take proper actions. Often the EIA is
carried out fairly late in the project planning and the EIA process mostly ends after the decision
to proceed with the project has been taken. The EIA process can only be effective if there is
regular monitoring during project implementation and operation so that appropriate
environmental impacts can be identified and measured. The EIAs need to concentrate on
impacts most closely associated with energy sector development. Air quality, water resources
and quality, geologic factors, and socioeconomic issues will consistently be the most
important factors. In addition, the positive impacts that energy development projects could
have on ecological issues should also be stressed. This could include a reforestation,
revegetation program, for example. Not necessarily costly, such a plan will add to the overall
improvement of environmental quality in the region. And, with the increasing awareness and
interest by the general public in environmental issues, meaningful public participation should
also be a part of a geothermal development program.

-249-
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We wish to acknowledge the U.S. Department of Energy, Division of Geothermal Energy

(A1 Jelacic and Marshall Reed). Many thanks to the people and institutions of Guatemala and
El Salvador who made this work possible. Final manuscript preparation was completed by
Pat Powers of the Los Alamos National Laboratory’s Energy Technology Programs Office.

REFERENCES

Barberi, F., Duprat, A., and Ligori, P.E., 1991, Informe de la mis ion tecnica sobre el
deslizamiento de 5 de enero de 1991 en Zunil (Quetzaltenango, Guatemala), 12-15 de
enero de 1991: Inter-Amer. Development Bank, Unpub. Consult. Rept.

Bruno, C.A.E., Burgos, J.A., and Ayala, M.S., 1992, Agua Shuca hydrothermal
eruption: Geotherm. Resourc. Counc. Bull., Dec., 1992, p. 361-369.

Cordon y Merida Ings., 1988, Geothermal power plant, Zunil I, Quetzaltenango; Mision de
Enfoque Report: INDE, Unpub. Consult. Rept., 112 p.

Cordon y Merida Ings., 1991a, Planta geotermoelectrica de 15 MW, Proyecto Zunil I,

Quetzaltenango; the integrated test program final report: INDE, Unpub. Consult.
Rept., 29 p.

Cordon y Merida Ings., 1991b, Planta geotermoelectrica de 15 MW, Proyecto Zunil I,

Quetzaltenango; January 12-13, 1991 inspection and assessment of landslide
geothermal well ZCQ-4: INDE, Unpub. Consult. Rept., 14 p.

Dennis, B„ Goff, F„ Van Eeckout, E„ and Hanold, R., 1990, Results of investigations at
the Ahuachap&n geothermal field, El Salvador, Part I: Well logging and brine
geochemistry: Los Alamos National Laboratory Report LA-11779-MS, 68 p.

ELC, Electroconsult, 1994, Factibilidad del programa inegral de estabilizacion para el

campo geotermico de Ahuachapan: Infoime de Factibilidad AHU-2-ELC-R-12124
(R01).

Flynn, T., Goff, F., Van Eeckout, E., Goff, S., Ballinger, J., and Suyama, J., 1991,
Catastrophic landslide at Zunil I geothermal field, Guatemala, January 5, 1991:
Geotherm. Resourc. Counc. Trans., v. 15, p. 425-431.

Goff, S„ 1994, Environmental analysis of the El Salvador energy sector development

program (ES-0088): Inter-Amer. Development Bank, Unpub. Consult. Rept., 64 p.
w/Appendices.

OLADE, 1993, Guia para la evaluation de impacto ambiental de explotaciones geotermicas

con fines energeticos: Quito, Ecuador, 161 p.

Schaefer, S.J., and Williams, S.N., 1991, Landslide hazards - an example from Zunil,
Guatemala: Geotimes, v. 36, p. 20-22.
 PRECURSORY CHANGES TO NATURAL THERMAL FEATURES
DURING TESTING OF THE WAIRAKEI AND BROADLANDS-OHAAKI FIELDS

T M Hunt and R B Glover

Wairakei Research Centre

Institute of Geological & Nuclear Sciences

Exploitation of geothermal fields in New Zealand has led to moderate to severe, but localised, effects
on natural thermal features, such as geysers and hot springs. These effects have been caused
primarily by decreases in reservoir pressure associated with mass withdrawal and net mass loss.

Small, but now clearly identifiable, precursors for some of these effects were observed during pre-
production testing at Wairakei and Broadlands fields, but their significance was not recognised at that
time. Precursors of changes to natural thermal features were: decline in flow rate from springs,
decline in chloride content and temperature of emerging fluids, and an increase in the eruption period
of geysers.

INTRODUCTION

In the last decade, concern has mounted about the environmental impacts resulting from the
development of energy resources and all new power generation proposals are now subject to intense
environmental scrutiny. Geothermal is generally regarded as a benign energy source; particularly
when compared to nuclear, coal and oil. However, experience shows that there can be environmental
problems associated with its exploitation. These problems are becoming of increasing concern, and
to an extent which may be limiting developments. A recent example of this concern has been the
rejection of a Resource Consent application for test drilling of the Reporoa Field (at time of writing,
an appeal is being made to the Environment Court). A major reason for this rejection was that no
guarantee could be given there would not be any effects on natural features within the field, or on the
features in neighbouring Waiotapu Field which are a major tourist attraction.

History shows that hiding or ignoring such problems can be counterproductive to development of an
industry because it may lead to a loss of confidence in that industry by the public, regulatory, and
financial sectors. If our aim is to further the use of geothermal energy, then possible environmental
effects should be clearly identified, and countermeasures devised and adopted to avoid or minimise
their impact. Techniques have already been developed to avoid or minimize most of the impacts
associated with drilling operations and gas discharges during production (Brown, 1995).

However, in the public perception, the effects on natural physical features, such as geysers and hot
springs, are of major concern. One step in addressing this concern is to establish whether such effects
have any precursory signs (changes) during discharge testing of exploration wells in the early stages
of development. This may allow developments to proceed, at least through a testing stage, after
which rational and informed decisions could be made as to whether, and how, full-scale development
could be done with minimum impact on such features.

Questions about precursors that need answers are:

• what are they?

• what is their magnitude?
• how soon can they be identified?
• do they occur everywhere in the field?
• do they always occur?
• in what order do they occur?
• how much testing is needed?
• are any reversible?
We also need to know what does not change; i.e. what are not good precursory indicators.
-251-
Answers to all these questions are beyond the scope of this paper. Here we present historical
observations made during discharge testing of the Wairakei and Broadlands (Ohaaki) fields to show
what changes occurred, and their magnitude. Surprisingly, there has been little previous
documentation of the changes which have occurred in these fields. The only significant published
papers have been Glover (1977), who describes mainly the chemical changes at Wairakei, and
Thompson (1957) who records physical changes (up to 1955). The flow rate, chemistry and
temperature data presented here have been taken from the files of the Institute of Geological and
Nuclear Sciences (inherited from the former DSIR) and of Downer Energy Services Ltd (formerly
Ministry of Works).

FIELD DEVELOPMENT HISTORIES

At Wairakei, exploratory drilling began in 1950 and 69 prospecting holes had been drilled and test
discharged by December 1958. During this "Test Discharge Period", mass withdrawal increased to
about 20 Mt/yr. The Wairakei Power Station (original installed capacity 192 MWe) was
progressively commissioned from November 1958 to October 1964, during which time the annual
mass withdrawal rose from about 20 to 75 Mt/yr, after which it declined and has remained at about
45 Mt/yr since 1975. The time since November 1958 is referred to as the "Production Period". All
the fluid withdrawn has been discharged into the nearby Waikato River or into the atmosphere (except
for about 5 Mt reinjected during tests).

At Broadlands, drilling began in 1965, and by 1971, 25 deep wells had been drilled. From the
middle of 1967 until the start of 1972, test discharges were conducted during which time the annual
mass withdrawal increased to about 10 Mt/yr. During this "Test Discharge Period" all the fluid
withdrawn was discharged into the Waikato River or the atmosphere; there was no reinjection. In
the following 16 years, a further 18 holes were drilled but no extensive testing was done; the average
mass discharge was only 1.5 Mt/yr and did not exceed 3.5 Mt/yr. This time is known as the
"Recovery Period". Commissioning of the Ohaaki Power Station (116 MWe installed capacity) began
in August 1988 and was completed in November 1989. Mass withdrawal rose to 16.2 Mt in 1990,
and has remained at similar values since then. Since commissioning, most of the waste fluid has been
reinjected (mainly around the periphery of the production areas) and net mass loss has been about 6
Mt/yr.
Broadlands

-to —

data from ECNZ (1990),

Hunt (1995), and
Clotworthy et al (1995)

70 75
YEAR

Figure 1: Changes in deep liquid pressures at Wairakei and Broadlands fields.

PRESSURE CHANGES

Prior to development, the reservoirs were liquid-dominated with fluid generally at or near boiling
point for depth. At Wairakei, a 2-phase zone existed in the upper part of the reservoir (Grant and
Horne, 1980). Over-lying each reservoir is a zone of cold ground-water, locally heated by fluids
escaping upwards to supply natural thermal features at the surface.

-252-
At Wairakei, the withdrawal during the Test Discharge Period resulted in deep-liquid pressures
decreasing by about 3 bar (0.3 MPa). However, this value must be treated with caution because some
of the data were not obtained by direct down-hole measurements but calculated from well head
pressures in wells standing shut and full of water (Grant and Horne, 1980). During the early stages
of production (1960s), large pressure decreases extended across most of the field leading to the
expansion (both vertical and horizontal) of the 2-phase zone, followed by the formation of a vapour-
dominated region in the upper part of this zone. By the mid-1970s deep-liquid pressures had settled
at about 25 bar (2.5 MPa) below pre-production values (Fig. 1).

At Broadlands, deep-liquid pressures decreased by about 15 bar during the Test Discharge Period,
but recovered by about 10 bar in the Recovery Period before decreasing again after production began
(Fig. 1). Considering the test periods at each field, the pressure changes at Broadlands were much
greater (15 bar) than at Wairakei (3 bar), despite the mass withdrawal rates at Broadlands being
smaller than at Wairakei (10, 20 Mt/yr, respectively).

ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS

No environmental effects were foreseen during the planning and initial development of Wairakei
Power Scheme. At that time (early 1950s) the environment was not such an important consideration
(relative to the demand for energy) and Environmental Impact Reports were not required. Indeed,
the technology for measuring many environmental parameters was still in its infancy. Furthermore,
the conceptual models prevalent at that time for geothermal systems, were that the fluid obtained from
the bores was of deep, magmatic origin, and not closely related to surface or near-surface geothermal
fluids (Wilson, 1976). It was envisaged that any fluid withdrawn from the upper part of the reservoir
would be rapidly replaced by hot fluid from deeper in the reservoir, and that the natural features
would be unaffected (Wilson, 1976). Most of the natural features were in Geyser Valley, about 0.5 -
1 km distant from the production wells, so it was thought that mass withdrawal from depths of less
than 0.5 km would not affect the features. Despite reports of diminishing thermal activity and other
environmental changes in the mid-1950s, it was not clear at that time whether the changes were a
result of the test discharges or merely natural variations. However, while the Wairakei Power Station
was being commissioned it became apparent that severe environmental effects were happening, but
by that time it was too late to modify the development programme.

Information obtained from Wairakei during the 1960s and 1970s led to a better understanding of the
relationship between surface features and the geothermal reservoir. It is now recognised that the
thermal features were fed by fluids escaping from the upper part of the reservoir, along faults or
fissures. Withdrawal of fluid from the upper part of the reservoir, through production bores, and
concomitant pressure decrease led to a decrease (with time) in the amount of this fluid feeding the
features (Glover, 1977; Allis, 1981).

During the planning stages of the Ohaaki Power Scheme, it was recognised that environmental effects
might occur, and an Environmental Impact Report was prepared. In this report (NZED, 1977) the
effects of chemical and gas discharges, noise, and thermal pollution on the climate, natural
waterways, flora and fauna, were assessed and steps taken to mitigate the effects. The possible effects
of exploitation on natural thermal features were not mentioned in the Impact Report, despite a fall in
water level in the Ohaaki Pool during the Test Discharge Period and the changes which were known
to have occurred at Wairakei.

DECLINE OF NATURAL THERMAL FEATURES

Prior to development, Wairakei was a major tourist attraction noted for a wide variety of natural
thermal features which included geysers, fumaroles, hot springs, hot pools, and sinter slopes (Herbert,
1921; Wilson, 1976). Most of these features were located in two adjacent valleys: Geyser Valley
(Wairakei Stream) and Waiora Valley (Kiriohinekei Stream). Exploratory drilling began in the
Waiora Valley, and it was here that most production wells were located; no wells have been drilled
in the Geyser Valley. Names and numbers for the features follow that of Thompson (1957).
- 253-
Regular measurements of flow rate, chloride content and temperature at selected thermal features
began in November 1952, soon after exploratory drilling and well discharges had begun. Initially,
the effects of mass withdrawal on the natural features were thought at that time to be caused by
natural climatic variations. This was, in part, because the data showed that although some features
changed during the testing period, others did not show any change. For many people, the rapid
decline of the thermal features in Geyser Valley after commissioning came as a surprise.

Prior to exploitation the Broadlands Field had few natural thermal features (cf. Wairakei); the largest
and most significant feature being the Ohaaki Pool, a boiling pool with a surface area of about 850
m2. This pool has cultural significance for the local Maori people, and is noted for its beautiful
fretted sinter lip and surrounding sinter apron. Prior to test drilling the pool generally overflowed.
During the Test Discharge Period the flow rate decreased until it ceased overflowing, and then the
water level fell. At the start of the Recovery Period the water level in the pool rose, but it did not
begin to overflow again until 1981. Overflow stopped and the level in the pool again fell when
production began in 1988, and it is now kept full and overflowing by the addition of bore water.

PRECURSORY CHANGES

Measurements made during the Test Discharge and early part of the Production Periods, at both
Wairakei and Broadlands fields, show that the main precursors of the decline in natural thermal
features were:

Decrease in flow rate from springs and pools

Measurements show that there were large decreases in the flow rate from many springs and pools in
Geyser Valley at Wairakei during the Test Discharge Period. Examples are shown in Figure 2. At
Waitangi Pool (SP55) in Nov. 1953 the outflow rate was about 1.2 1/s, which decreased to about 0.2
1/s in late 1957. Another example is Spring 29: in Nov. 1952 this discharged periodically, but in
October 1953 the periodicity ceased, and the rate of discharge steadily declined until April 1954 when
the discharge ceased (Thompson, 1957). The water level then decreased until it was 1.5 m below the
edge, at which point measurements could no longer be made (Fig. 2). These changes occurred as a
result of pressure drop of less than 3 bar (0.3 MPa) in the reservoir beneath the main production
borefield.

Prior to exploitation the Ohaaki Pool generally overflowed with a flow rate of about 9 1/s (Lloyd,
1957). During the Test Discharge Period at Broadlands, the outflow rate from the Pool decreased
when nearby wells were discharged, recovered when the discharges stopped, and decreased again
when the bores were reopened (Fig. 3). This effect was also noticed during small discharge tests in
1976, during the Recovery Period (Grant, 1982). During the Recovery Period, the water level slowly
rose (except for brief periods during short test discharges) in conjunction with the rise in deep liquid
pressures (Fig. 4). However, the pool did not begin intermittently overflowing until October 1981,
due mainly to injection of separated water from BR22 (Fig. 4).

Decrease in chloride content of springs

Prior to exploitation, fluids in the upper part of the Wairakei reservoir had a chloride content of about
47.5 mM/1 (1680 ppm, 265°C, enthalpy 1160 kJ/kg; Brown etal, 1988) which, after adiabatic steam
loss, would have a content of about 70.9 mM/1 (2506 ppm, 99°C) at the surface. Most fluids
emerging from natural features at Wairakei had a chloride content of about 45 -50 mM/1, indicating
some dilution by warm (150°C) near-surface groundwaters containing about 8.5 mM/1 (300 ppm)
chloride (Brown et al., 1988). As the deep-liquid pressures declined, so too did the chloride content
of emerging waters, indicating increased dilution of the upflowing geothermal fluids by groundwater.
Many springs in Geyser Valley showed rapid decreases in chloride content during the Test Discharge
and early part of the Production Periods (Fig. 5). The largest (measured) decreases in the Test
Discharge Period were at Springs 18 and 38 (Dragon’s Mouth Geyser), where the chloride content
-254-
 1.5
SP 18 WAITANGI POOL
. (SP 55)
to
\ 1.0 $ g c
■Cl 8 .2
■ w o3
"O
i 2
£L

V■
0.0 — ---------
T---------------- 1----------- -—I---------------1
1 1
50 55 60 65
YEAR

«
a 1.0 > 1.5
SP 29 SP 113
1 °-5
\
Pool
overflowing E 1.0

0.5
o> ii
C
! Pool
g 0.0 1 2 overflowing
u. Woter level (Z o.o 1
'g'-O.S
%■*
Ol
A-0.5 -
vI Water level
■

Pro<
«
£ —1.0 ■ I
■
2 CL
UJ
1.0 -
-

1
I
-1.5 —i
□
-1.5 1m
i i—,----------
i i 1
50 55 60 65 50 55 60 65
YEAR YEAR
Figure 2: Changes in flow rate and water level of hot springs and pools at Wairakei. Note the
rapid changes with time during testing.

1957 r 500
value
OHAAKI POOL
- 400
I
c
- 300
Pool
overflowing - 200
Water Level
- 100

Figure 3: Changes in flow rate and water level (solid dots) of the Ohaaki Pool and output from
nearby bores (line), at Broadlands. Note the decrease in flow rate when nearby bores
were open and discharging, and the increase when these bores were shut. Scatter in
data is caused by atmospheric pressure variations.
255-
-
 3
8
c
30
Pressure m

- -10
o

—10 ■ 8
- -15 &
Recovery

Figure 4: Changes in water level in Ohaaki Pool

50 -i 50
■ SP 18 DRAGONS MOUTH
^ 40 H GEYSER (SR 38)

Production E
O 30 w 30
% UJ Production
UJ Q
o
E 20 ■ g 20
O
N ^ 10 H
■ _■
Testing Testing
i i 1 o —r— —i

50 55 60 65 70 50 55 60 65 70
YEAR YEAR
50 -i1 * . 50 -i
■# ■
- ^40 H
X z
CHAMPAGNE « ^30
•30 -- CAULDRON . UJ
UJ
9
(SP 97) % Q DANCING ROCK
or - ■ g 20 -) GEYSER (SR 190)
■
3X ■■
o 10 H
Testing Production Testing Production

1 —i------- 1--------1
50 55 60 65 70 50 55 60 65 70
YEAR YEAR
Figure 5: Changes in chloride content of hot springs at Wairakei. Note that some springs
responded quickly to the test discharges, but for others the changes did not occur
until after production began.

256-
-
declined from about 50 mM/1 in 1951 to about 20 mM/1 in 1957 (Fig. 5); i.e. a decrease of more than
50%. In general, the highest (topographically) springs showed the earliest change. Springs which
were at lower elevations, and had larger flow rates, had the smallest change during the Test Discharge
Period; for example in Champagne Cauldron (Tuhuatahia; Spring 97) the chloride decreased by only
about 20% during the Test Discharge Period (Fig. 5). However, during the early 1960s the chloride
content decreased from about 40 mM/1 to about 15 mM/1 in 3 years.

At Broadlands, there was little change in chloride content of the Ohaaki Pool during the Test
Discharge Period (Fig. 6): in its natural state, before testing, it was 29.4 - 32.0 mM/1 (av. 8 samples
= 30.6 ± 0.9), and during testing it was 29.1 -29.7 mM/1 (av. 7 samples = 29.4 ± 0.3). Such data
led Hochstein and Henrys (1988) to the conclusion that there was a large subsurface outflow from the
pool. Chloride values also remained near constant during the first half of the Recovery Period.
However, between October 1979 and May 1980 the chloride content increased to about 34.7 mg/kg,
due to variations in the amount of bore water and separated fluid being discharged into the pool to
maintain its water level and temperature (Glover et al. 1996).

B
60 —
x"-- X Natural State ! | Recovery j
&
! f ! ! ■
*3) 50 — ! % i
| £
Start of fluid i
fc j discharge | #

111 40- 1 j into pool , !

Q ! i 1 " |
1 ■ ft ™B | b"
tr 1
9
*
30-i i- ■ ■
i
o 1 j 1
1 | 1
l | 1
II111 | 1 I 1T1 | 1 II 1 1 | T nu|

50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95
YEAR

Figure 6: Chloride concentrations in Ohaaki Pool. Note these were near constant until bore
fluid was discharged into the pool.

Figure 7: Changes in eruption period (T/To) of geysers in Geyser Valley at Wairakei during
the Test Discharge Period, (a) Great Wairakei Geyser (data from Grant et al, 1985);
(b) Bridal Veil Geyser (data from Thompson, 1957). Periods are normalised to To
= 12.5 hr for Great Wairakei, and 39 min. for Bridal Veil. Broken line shows
monthly running total of rainfall in previous 12 months.
- 257-
Increase in eruption period of geysers

Little quantitative data are available about the decline of the geysers at Wairakei. It is known that
the eruption period (time between start of successive eruptions) of two geysers increased during the
Test Discharge Period, before geysering ceased. The eruption period of Bridal Veil Geyser (Spring
199) increased from about 38 min. in Nov. 1952, to about 55 min. in Dec. 1953, to about 65 min.
in Dec. 1954 (Fig. 7). Another example is the Great Wairakei Geyser (Spring 59): during the Test
Discharge Period the eruption period increased from about 12 to more than 30 hrs, before the feature
stopped geysering in 1954 (Fig. 7). Comparison of the eruption period data with rainfall
measurements (Fig. 7) shows that the increases in period were not caused by a decrease in rainfall.
Similarly, the reductions in flow rate from springs could not have been caused by changes in rainfall.

Decrease in temperature of springs and pools

Some hot springs and pools at Wairakei showed temperature declines of up to 30°C during the Test
Discharge Period: these included SP18 and SP178 (Fig. 8). However, the temperatures of some other
features in Geyser Valley showed little change: these included Rainbow Pool (SP197) and Ocean
Geyser (SP198) (Fig. 8). These features maintained temperatures near boiling, while flow rates
decreased significantly, because the upflowing geothermal fluids were diluted by warm (> 100°C)
groundwater.

At Broadlands, there are fewer data. Prior to testing, the temperature of the Ohaaki Pool varied by
up to 25°, but it is clear that during the initial part of the Test Discharge Period (when the overflow
rate decreased) that temperatures fell to about 65°C, although they subsequently recovered (Fig. 9).
During the Recovery Period, temperatures in the pool fluctuated in response to small test discharges
from nearby wells.

Data from both fields suggests that the absence of temperature changes in a single hot spring or pool
may not be a reliable indication that there will be no future environmental impact.

CONCLUSIONS

• Moderate to severe impacts on natural thermal features occurred at Wairakei and Broadlands
fields, caused primarily by exploitation-induced pressure decreases in the upper parts of the
reservoirs.

• The extent and severity of the impacts were dependent on local conditions.

• Small, but now clearly identifiable, precursors occurred during pre-production testing, but
their significance was not recognised at that time.

• The most significant precursory signals of future impacts were:

(i) decline in flow rate from natural features - in some cases the flow stopped within 2
years;

(ii) decline in chloride content of spring waters - decreases of up to 60% occurred

during testing;

(iii) increase in the eruption period of geysers - in two cases, these doubled over a 2-yr
interval;

(iv) decline in temperature of emerging fluids - some decreased by up to 20°C over a

5-yr period.

-258
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We thank Environment Waikato and Downer Energy Services Limited (formerly Works Geothermal)
for providing data, and H M Bibby, G B Dawson, and J T McLeod for reviewing the manuscript.
Funding was provided by the NZ Foundation for Research, Science and Technology (Geothermal
Utilisation and Environment Programme).

REFERENCES

Allis, R.G. 1981. Changes in heat flow associated with exploitation of the Wairakei Geothermal
Field, New Zealand. NZ J Geology & Geophysics, 24: 1-19.

Brown, K.L. 1995. Environmental aspects of geothermal development. WGC 1995 Pre-Congress
Course Handbook. International Geothermal Association. 145 p.

Brown, K.L., Henley, R.W., Glover, R.B., Mroczek, E.K., Plum, H. 1988. Dilution and boiling
in the Wairakei field due to exploitation 1959-1982. Proc. 10th NZ Geothermal Workshop-.
263-268.

Clotworthy, A., Lovelock, B., Carey, B. 1995. Operational history of the Ohaaki Geothermal Field,
New Zealand. Proc. World Geothermal Congress 1995: 1797-1802.

ECNZ 1990. Water right applications and impact assessment - Wairakei Geothermal Power Station.
Electricorp Production. 230 p.

Glover, R.B. 1977. Chemical and physical changes at Geyser Valley, Wairakei and their relationship
to changes in borefield performance. NZDSIR Bulletin 218: 19-26.

Glover, R.B., Hedenquist, J.W. 1989. A brief history of chemical exploration at Ohaaki-Broadlands.
Proc. 11th NZ Geothermal Workshop: 73-79.

Glover, R.B., Hunt, T.M., Severne, C M. 1996. Ohaaki Ngawha: Ohaaki Pool. Proc. 18th NZ
Geothermal Workshop: 77-84.

Grant, M.A. 1982. The interaction of the Ohaaki reservoir with surrounding fluid. DSIR
Geothermal Circular MAG 37, (unpub).

Grant, M.A., Home, R.N. 1980. The initial state and response to exploitation of the Wairakei
Geothermal Field. GRC Transactions 4: 333-336.

Grant, M.A., McGuiness, M.J., Dalziel, S B., Razali, Y., O’Sullivan, M.J. 1985. A model of
Rotorua Geothermal Field and springs. In "Rotorua Geothermal Field, Technical Report of
the Geothermal Monitoring Programme 1982-1985". NZ Ministry of Energy. 522 p.

Herbert, AS. 1921. The hot springs of New Zealand. H.K. Lewis & Co., London, 284 p.

Hochstein, M.P., Henrys, S. 1988. Assessment of total heat and mass transfer of a large hot pool
using the balance method. Proc. International Symposium on Geothermal Energy (Kumamoto
and Beppu, Japan) : 97-101.

Hunt, T.M. 1995. Microgravity measurements at Wairakei Geothermal Field, New Zealand; a
review of 30 years data (1961-1991). Proc. World Geothermal Congress 1995: 863-868.

Lloyd, E.F. 1957. Ohaki Hot Spring. DSIR Geothermal Circular EFL2, Unpub.

-259-
NZED, 1977. Environmental Impact Report for the Broadlands Geothermal Power Development.
NZ Electricity Department, 172 p.

Thompson, G.E.K. 1957. Some physical measurements in the Wairakei-Taupo areas. NZ DSIR
Bulletin 123: 81-96.

Wilson, S.H. 1976. Possible conflict between the interests of tourism and geothermal power
development. Proc. 2nd UN Symposium on Development and Use of Geothermal Resources:
2457-2466.

260
 EMISSION, DISPERSION AND REACTION OF H2S IN
STEAM FROM GEOTHERMAL FIELDS IN ICELAND

Hrefna KRISTMANN SDOTTIR*, Magnus SIGURGEIRSSON*, Hallddr

ArMANNSSON* and Hreinn HJARTARSON+

*Orkustofftun, Grensasvegur 9, 108 Reykjavik, +The Icelandic Meteorological

Institute, Bustadavegi 9, 105 Reykjavik.

ABSTRACT

Gas emissions from geothermal fields in Iceland have been studied within
the scope of a project aimed to enhance research concerning environmental aspects
of geothermal exploitation. Short time measurements of the gases have been carried
out in several high-temperature geothermal fields in Iceland. In four exploited fields
baseline values of the concentration of sulphur gases, H2S and S02 have been
obtained by long term measurements. The data reflect the depency between gas
concentration and weather conditions very strongly. Preliminary interpretation and
modeling indicate minor or very slow conversion of H2S to S02 at atmospheric
conditions.

INTRODUCTION

As a consequence of the increased emphasis on the environmental viability

of energy projects a project was started in Iceland to study the environmental
impact of geothermal exploitation. The project was initated by Orkustofnun, which
requested the cooperation of the main exploiters of high-temperature geothermal
energy in Iceland. The project entailed firstly an assessment of the present status at
the five main sites at high-temperature geothermal exploitation in Iceland and
secondly the definition of several priority projects (Kristmannsdottir and
Armannsson, 1995) to be carried out within the scope of the project.
One of the main effects on the environment of geothermal exploitation is
the emission of gases in the geothermal steam (Axtman, 1975, Armannsson and
Kristmannsdottir, 1992). The greenhouse gases C02 and CH4 are of main concern
in this respect, along with sulphur gases. The sulphur gas emitted from geothermal
plants is in the form of H2S. As this gas is toxic in high concentrations and has a
very unpleasant smell in low concentrations its presence is often of great
environmental concern. It is however, only inside poorly ventilated buildings at
plant or drill sites, that people are in any danger of being poisoned. As unpleasant
as the smell may be to people not used to it people accustomed to it may not notice
it at all. The H2S gas may however be oxidized to S02 that causes acidification of
rain which is of great concern and globally watched. If all the H2S gas was to be
quantitatively converted to S02, at least some geothermal power plants would be
considered rather polluting and the removal of H2S from steam made mandatory.
Measurements of pH and sulphate concentrations in precipitation in the vicinity of

— 261 —
the Olkaria power plant in Kenya (Mima and Ojambo, 1985) and of pH in the
neighbourhood of the Svartsengi plant (Bjamason, 1991), reaveal neither pH
changes nor SO2 addition. There is evidence that not all the H2S is converted to
SO2 and anyway not immediately. This is a matter of considerable discussion as the
sulphur chemistry is quite complicated and this question has not been the topic of
much researh sofar. Some of the H2S is apparently oxidized to sulphur and
accumulates near or within the geothermal field. The solid sulphur precipitated will
gradually react with the soil to form metal sulphates and may be beneficial rather
than harmful to the environment. In the litterature there are conflicting views about
oxidation of H2S in the atmosphere. Brown and Webster (1994) claim that
oxidation of H2S within aerosols is rather a slow process. Cox and Sandalls (1974)
claim that photo-oxidation of H2S to SO2 is a major loss process for H2S in
atmosphereic air.
Sulphur gas emissions are thus first a local pollution concern as
requirements posed by environmental authorities need to be met. Secondly there is
global pollution concern because of international conventions regarding emission of
SO2 into the atmosphere. In that respect the question about conversion of H2S to
SO2 is of major concern.
In 1991 when the environmental research program was initiated at the
National Energy Authority in cooperation with the main companies exploiting
geothermal steam in Iceland, little data was available on the concentration and
dispersion of H2S in the atmosphere within and outside the geothermal fields. Thus
one of the main tasks within the project was to measure the concentration of
sulphur gases in the atmospere within and outside the sites of geothermal power
plants.
To study the conversion of H2S to SO2 similar monitoring stations were also
established at some distance outside one of the fields to obtain concentration values
for the atmosphere. Those values are used as a basis for modeling the dispersion of
the gases in the atmospheric air. Some simple experiments are also underway to
study the physical conditions and time needed to convert H2S to SO2

EMISSION OF H2S FROM ICELANDIC GEOTHERMAL FIELDS

Exploited Unexploited Total
areas areas
A total of about 14.000 10.000
ton/year
tons of H2S is estimated to be
emitted yearly from geothermal 8.000 -

areas in Iceland (Fig. 1).

Of those about 8.000 tons are
6.000
emitted from geothermal
power plants. In Table 1 and
Fig. 2 the estimated outflow 4.000 \\| Natural
\ \ I discharge

from all the exploited areas are Discharge

from
shown. In Fig. 2 the estimated 2.000
geothermal
plants
outflow from selected non
producing fields is shown for
comparison. Figure 1. Annual discharge of H2S
from Icelandic geothermal fields.

-262-
 Table 1. H2S emission from exploited geothermal fields in Iceland

Geothermal H2S emission in tons/year

field
from fumaroles from drillholes Total
REYKJANES 5 60 65
SVARTSENGI 15 170 185
NESJAVELLIR 140 5200 5340
NAMAFJALL 470 1300 1770
KRAFLA 700 1600 2300
HVERAGERBI 140 40 180

®Theistareykir (3OT
•Krafia (2300) '
# Namafjall (1800

Kyerkfjbll

REYKJAVIK k
Svartsengi (180)JX Hengill I O
® Nesjavellir (5300)
Eldvorp m Olkelduhals (160)
Reykjanes (60)###3-\—^■^Hjterageibi (180) ®ToitajokuH High temperature
Krisuvik geothermal area
Potential high temperature
geothermal area
(300) Estimated discharge of H,S
tons/year
OS 95.07.0154 HK

Figure 2. Emission of H2S from a few Icelandic geothermal fields. The rectangular
area shows the location of the map in Fig. 5.

The Reykjanes and Svartsengi fields are brine fields with relatively low H2S
concentrations. The steam production from Reykjanes is also as yet rather small. In
Namafjall there is a low production, but high concentration of H2S in the steam. In
the Krafla field production is much higher than in Namafjall, but the H2S
concentration of the steam is considerably lower. In the Nesjavellir field there is
both high production and high H2S concentration of the steam and the main part of
the H2S emission in Iceland comes from that area.

-263-
PRELIMINARY MEASUREMENTS OF THE CONCENTRATION OF
SULPHUR GASES IN THE ATMOSPHERE

In 1993 preliminary measurements were made of the concentration of

sulphur gasses and mercury in the atmosphere within ten high-temperature
geothermal fields in Iceland, producing and non-producing (Ivarsson et al. 1993).
The aim of the study was partly to get a rough estimate of the concentration levels
of the gases and partly to compare the precision, accuracy and usefulness of several
different analytical methods. The measurements were both point measurements and
measurements based on sampling of gases over 24 hours in wetted filters and
liquids. The range in H2S concentration was found to be from <1 to >200 gg/m3
and the variation within the same area could be almost of the same order of
magnitude from one time to another. The highest concentration was as expected
found in the Nesjavellir field, about 40 times that from the Svartsengi field. The
range in S02 concenration was from <0,1 to about 18 pg/m3 also with great
variations from one time to another at the same place. As the weather in Iceland
and therefore the wind directions are quite changable the great periodic variations
observed were not unexpected. The concentration of mercury in the atmosphere
was found to be of the same order as over the oceans in the northern hemisphere
and confirmed the results obtained during a previous study by LIDAR technique
(Edner et. al, 1991).

LONG TERM MEASUREMENTS OF THE CONCENTRATION OF

SULPHUR GASES WITHIN GEOTHERMAL FIELDS

The results of the short time measurements of the concentration of sulphur gasses
in the atmosphere showed that to get reliable baselines for the concentration levels
measurements had to be carried out over several months.

SVARTSENGI

18,00

320
300
280
260
240
220 °|

™ 3
180 •■5
160 c
140 ^

120
100

60
40
20
0

Figure 3. Measurements of H2S and S02 over one month in the Svartsengi field.
Wind directions are shown to the right.

-264-
 Method testing showed that the method based on sampling on filters wetted
in KOH and AgN03 solutions was most reliable and therefore chosen for further
work. The filters were changed daily and the sampling was continued through 4-6
months in four of the producing high-temperature geothermal fields: Svartsengi,
Nesjavellir, Krafia and Namafjall.
The long term measurements were carried out over the years 1994-1996
Sigurgeirsson and Kristmannsdottir, 1995, 1996a, 1996b). The dependency of the
H2S concentration on weather is still significant in the long term measurements,
both on wind direction (Fig. 3) and precipitation (Fig. 4). As the wind is very
changable in Iceland one would not expect the dependency on wind direction to be
reflected in the mean concentration for each day. This correlation is clear on some
days, but not at all on other days. When there is heavy rain or snow H2S appears to
be almost quantitatively eliminated, probably due to dissolution in the precipitation.
No clear dependency of the S02 concentration on weather conditions is observed.
No direct correlation between the concentration of the two sulphur gases has been
found.

KRAFLA

Figure 4. Measurements of H2S and S02 over one month in the Krafia field.
Weather conditions are indicated by the numbers to the right: 1-3 are days with no
precipitation, 4 means foggy days, 5 a little rain, 6 heavy rain.

The mean concentration (Table 2) obtained for the four places are not so
different for H2S. They are slightly higher for Nesjavellir than for the others and
Svartsengi is slightly lower than Krafia and Namafjall. The mean concentration for
S02 varies more. It is lowest in Svartsengi and there the concentrations are not
very different in summer and winter. At Nesjavellir the mean concentraton is higher
than in Svartsengi, similar though during the summer, but higher during the winter.
In Krafia the values are generally higher than both in Svartsengi and Nesjavellir. In
Namafjall the values are considerably higher than in the other fields. At a diatomite
factory operating within the geothermal field there is burnt crude oil, which is
responsible for the air contamination. This may also affect the the values from
Krafia, which is 11 km from Namafjall.

- 265-
Table 2. The mean concentration of H2S and SO2 in the atmosphere within and
outside geothermal fields.

Location Mean cone, of The range of Mean cone, of The range of

H2S in pg/m3 monthly mean S02 in pg/m3 cone, of S02 in
cone, of H2S in pg/m3
pg/m3

Nesjavellir 13 9.5-15.2 1.7 1.0-2.9

Svartsengi 10 6.6-11.6 1.0 0.8-1.3
Krafla 11 9.6-12.1 2.4 2.1-2.8
Namafjall 11 10.5-11.4 5.5 2.5-8.3
Irafoss 1.0 0.4-2.0 0.1 0.1-0.2
Korpa 0.5 0.3-1.0 0.4 0.3-0.5
Reykjavik - - 1.6 0.4-2
- Not measured

MEASUREMENTS OF THE CONCENTRATION OF SULPHUR GASES

IN TWO MONITORING STATIONS OUTSIDE NESJAVELLIR

Long term measurements were carried out at two sampling points in at a

distance from the Nesjavellir field (Sigurgeirsson and Kristmannsdottir, 1996b) in
order to study the dispersion and possible conversion of H2S to S02 by time. The
sampling points, Korpa and Irafoss are shown in figure 5.

Figure 5. The location of the gas monitoring stations at Irafoss and Korpa, relative
to the Nesjavellir geothermal field. The location of this map within Iceland is shown
in Figure 2.

-266-
 The measurements were run continously for one year at those points. The
mean concentrations are shown in table 2. In the table the annual mean
concentration of SO2 (Benjaminsson, 1993) is also shown for comparation. The
concentration of H2S is higher at Irafoss than at Korpa, but the reverse is true for
SOh
Korpa is nearer to the town of Reykjavik than both Nesjavellir and irafoss
and pollution from transportation and industry would be expected to influence the
concentration of SO2. From Nesjavellir to Korpa there is shorter distance than from
Nesjavellir to Irafoss, but there are high mountains blocking the way. In spite of
longer distance, the way from Nesjavellir to irafoss would be expected to be much
less influenced by the landscape. Most of the H2S both at Korpa and irafoss is
expected to have originated from Nesjavellir. No measurements have been made of
H2S in the atmosphere in the town of Reykjavik.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

Concern about sulphur gas emissions during geothermal production is

partly due to potential local pollution and partly to global environmental
requirements regarding emission of SO2 into the atmosphere. Measurements of the
concentration of sulphur gases in air within the geothermal fields show great
temporal variation. As expected the concentration is very much related to weather,
both wind direction and precipition.
The mean concentration of H2S measured over several months is
surprisingly similar in all the production fields. In Nesjavellir where it is highest it is
still of the same magnitude as in Svartsengi whereas the amount of H2S emission is
30 times less.
The concentration of SO2 in the atmospheric air within the geothermal fields
varies more than that of H2S. The reason for this difference has been shown to be
mainly due to variable pollution from factories and transport. High concentrations
at Namafjall and probably also in Krafla are caused by pollution from the burning of
crude oil at a diatomite factory. Good background values for H2S and SO2 in the
atmospheric air in Iceland outside towns are not available, but the concentration of
SO2 is normally below 0,1 pg/m3 and that of H2S is lower than 0.3 pg/m3
(detection limit for the human nose).
The concentration of SO2 in the atmospheric air at Nesjavellir is almost the
same as within the town of Reykjavik, whereas at Korpa the concentration is about
one fourth of the Reykjavik value. As Korpa is much nearer to Reykjavik than
Nesjavellir the pollution from the town should be much more prominent there. As
no other polluting factors are found in the vicinity of Nesjavellir the excess S02 of
Nesjavellir is probably due to conversion of H2S to SO2. The SO2 concentration is
still very low compared to that of H2S and the total amount of H2S emitted from
wells and fumaroles. Similar argument applies to Svartsengi.
How much of the H2S will eventually be converted to SO2 is still somewhat
uncertain. Only a small fraction of the H2S appears to be converted to SO2 within
the fields. This is found to be true even on days with almost no wind when the
emitted gas will stay within the fields for a while. On days of abundant
precipitation H2S appears to be almost quantitatively washed out.

- 267-
 The monitoring stations at Korpa and Irafoss were established to obtain
values for use as a basis to model the dispersion of the gasses. The modelling work
is underway, but suffers because the data is not very plentiful. There are some
ambiguities in the measurements results. The SO2 concentration at Irafoss is almost
at background level, whereas the higher one at Korpa is surely to some extent due
to pollution from Reykjavik.
At present it appears that H2S is converted so slowly to SO2 that only a
fraction of it reacts within the grothermal fields. As humidity will effectively wash
out H2S from air only a fraction of the H2S dispersed away from the geothermal is
believed to end up as S02. Work is underway to quantfy this fraction. Simple
experiments to study the physical conditions and time needed to convert H2S to
SO2 are in progress. Together with results of modeling work they will probably
yield some quantitative estimate of the amount of H2S converted to SO2 on
average.

REFERENCES

Axtmann, R.C., 1975. Emission control of gas effluents from geothermal power
plants. Environmental Letters, 8, 135-146.

Armannsson, H. and Kristmannsdottir, H. 1992. Geothermal environmental impact.

Geothermics, 21, 869-880.

Benjaminsson, J., 1993. "Pollution of air in the town of Reykjavik 1993". A yearly
report from the Health Authorities in Reykjavik (in Icelandic)

Bjamason, J. O., 1991. On the pH ofprecipitation in Svartsengi. Orkustofhun Report

(in Icelandic), JOB-91/02.

Brown,K. L. and Webster, J.G., 1994. H2S oxidation in aerosols. Proceedings of

the 15th PNOC-EDC Geothermal Conference, Mahati Philippines, 37-44.

Cox, R A and Sandells F.J., 1974. The photo-oxidation of hydrogen sulphide and
dimethyl sulphide in air. Atmospheric Environment, 8, 1269-1281.

Edner, H., Paris, G. W., Suneson, A., and Swanberg, S., Bjamason, J. O.,
Kristmannsdottir, H. and Sigurdsson, K H, 1991. Lidar search for atmospheric
atomic mercury in Icelandic geothermal fields. J. Geophys. Res., 96, 2977-2986.

Ivarsson, G, Sigurgeirsson, M.A., Gunnlaugsson, E., Sigurdsson, K.H. and

Kristmannsdottir, H 1993. Measurements ofgas in atmospheric air. The concentration
of hydrogen sulphide, sulphur dioxide and mercury in high-temperature geothermal
areas. A co-operative project of Orkustofhun and Hitaveita Reykjavikur (in Icelandic).
Orkustofhun OS-93074/JHD-16, 69 p.

Jonsson, V.K., Abrahamson, D. and Shines, J. (1991). The emission of greenhouse

gases in Iceland and means of improvement (In Icelandic). In Orkuthing 91, O B
Smarason (Ed ), Stapi, Reykjavik, 237-253.

-268-
Kristmannsdottir, H. and Armannsson, H. 1995. Environmental impact of geothermal
utilization in Iceland. Proceedings of the World Geothermal Congress 1995, Florence,
Italy, 2731-2734.

Mima, E. W. and Ojambo, S. B, 1985. Possible influence of gases emitted from

Olkaria geothermalfield on the rainwater of its surroundings. Kenya Power Company
Ltd., Geothermal Project, Olkaria. Report No. GC/GEN/038.

Sigurgeirsson M. A. and Kristmannsdottir, H , 1995. "Measurements of sulphur gasses

in the atmosphere. The concentration of hydrogen sulphide and sulphur dioxide at
Svartsengi andKrafla, Orkustofiiun Report (in Icelandic) OS-95025/JHD-18B.

Sigurgeirsson M. A. and Kristmannsdottir, H, 1996 (a).'Measurements of sulphur

gasses in the atmosphere. The concentration ofhydrogen sulphide and sulphur dioxide
at Nesjavellir and in Bjamarflag". Orkustofiiun Report (in Icelandic) OS-96020/JHD-
10B.

Sigurgeirsson M. A. and Kristmannsdottir, H , 1996 (b). "Measurements of sulphur

gasses in the atmosphere. The concentration of hydrogen sulphide and sulphur dioxide
at Korpa andIrafoss". Orkustofiiun Report (in Icelandic) OS-96020/JHD-1 IB.

- 269-
 EFFECTS OF BORE CLOSURE AT ROTORUA, NEW ZEALAND
Bradley J Scott1, Ashley D Cody2

institute of Geological & Nuclear Sciences, Private Bag 2000, Taupo, NZ

2Geological Consultant, 10 McDowell Street, Rotorua, NZ

Abstract

The waning of natural surface activity, in particular the geysers and hot springs at
Whakarewarewa, in the late 1970s and early 1980s, prompted a fear that Pohutu and other
geysers would soon be lost. Geothermal and hydroelectric development has destroyed most
of New Zealand’s geysers. Public concerns led to the establishment of a government funded
monitoring programme in 1982, resulting in the government-funded enforced closure of many
Rotorua wells in 1987.

Pressures rose sharply during the bore closure programme in 1987-88 and subsequently have
continued to rise gradually. The bore closure programme reduced withdrawal by about 60%.
During the period of high geothermal fluid withdrawal the level of natural hydrothermal
activity at surface features declined by about 50% and several geysers ceased erupting. Since
the enforced closure of bores, some surface features have shown signs of recovery and
eruptions have resumed from one geyser. Other features have shown no signs of recovery.

Introduction

The Rotorua Geothermal Field of New Zealand is recognised internationally for its setting
within the Taupo Volcanic Zone (TVZ) and in particular for its local geothermal
manifestations which include the Whakarewarewa hot springs and geysers. Geysers are a
relatively rare natural phenomenon Worldwide and Pohutu is New Zealand’s largest surviving
example. The extraction of subsurface fluid (-120 Ktd"1) for geothermal power led to the
demise of geyser activity at Wairakei, while many geysers at Orakei Korako were flooded
after the construction of a hydroelectric scheme (Lloyd, 1972). Although there are over 20
geothermal fields within the TVZ, only four have been noted for their geyser activity:
Wairakei, Orakei Korako, Rotomahana and Rotorua.

Public sensitivity to the intrinsic and tourism values of New Zealand’s few remaining geysers
increased during the 1980s as geyser and hot spring features failed due to the subsurface
extraction of geothermal fluid. These concerns, along with a realisation that there was no
quantified estimate of the actual volume of fluid extracted, or adequate records of the changes
in the surface activity, led to the establishment of the Rotorua Geothermal Monitoring
Programme in 1982. This programme soon established the winter daily mass discharge from
wells was around 31 000 tonnes (td'1) and represented about 40% of the natural deep upflow
of the Rotorua system (Ministry of Energy, 1985).

- 270-
In the early 1960s and again in the mid-1970s, mass flows via wells increased as additional
wells were drilled (Allis and Lumb, 1992). During this time the level of natural hydrothermal
activity declined to reach an all time recorded low in the mid-1980s (Cody and Lumb, 1992).
In 1986 the Government initiated a bore closure programme and a charging regime for
remaining well discharges. Subsequently fluid pressure in the Rotorua system, represented by
the water level in the monitor bores, showed strong recovery. Several hot springs and some,
but not all geyser activity have shown signs of rejuvenation.

Geological-Geophysical Setting

The Rotorua system, as defined by surface activity and shallow drillholes, covers about 12
km2 and is associated with the margin of the Rotorua Caldera (Fig. 1). Thompson (1974)
described the regional geology, and Crafer (1974) commented on drillhole geology of
Rotorua. Wood (1985) developed a geological model of the Rotorua aquifers, revising it in
Wood (1992).
LAKE ROTORUA
^ Ohinemutu
The principal production aquifers are the
caldera forming Mamaku Ignimbrites and
Kuirau • .Government,
younger rhyolite domes under the city. Park ' • Y ; Gar’dens J Sulphur
\ Bay /
Poorly permeable lacustrine siltstones
interbedded with sands, gravels and tephra Commercial
cap the aquifers and form an aquitard. The District

Whakarewarewa hot springs feed from

fractured ignimbrite inside an embayment of
the caldera’s southern boundary (Wood, • G14
1992). Rotorua City rhyolite lava domes
comprise a buried N-S ridge under the city
containing mostly sub-boiling water (up to
190°C), which flows laterally through the • M16

outer fractured and permeable carapace.

. r^Roto-a-Tamaheke
Surface activity in the Kuirau-Ohinemutu
Whakarewarewa
area is related to structural controls (Kuirau geyser area
~ ' Pohutu Geyser /
Fault) along the west flank of the northern Memo
Gorge
dome.
Pohaturoa

Waipa
Geophysical and geochemical studies
'/ thermal area Valley
indicate the field has an area of 18 - 28 km2
at about 500 m depth and a natural heat flux Figure 1: Map showing distribution of wells in
of 430 ± 30 MW. About a third of its area 1985, monitor wells and main surface hot
and over half its heat and mass flux occur spring areas. The circle denotes the area in
beneath southern Lake Rotorua (Allis and which all wells were closed.
Lumb, 1992; Glover, 1992).

- 271-
Exploitation History

Many of Rotorua’s residents have taken advantage of the geothermal waters by drilling wells
to extract the hot fluids. These fluids were used for both domestic and commercial heating,
with some of the largest commercial users being Government Department offices, hospitals
and major tourist hotels (Ministry of Energy, 1985). The first geothermal wells in Rotorua
were drilled during the 1920s, with close to 750 wells having been drilled since then. Some
of these were replacement or standby wells and some wells were not replaced after casing
failures or blockages, so the actual number of wells in use reached a maximum of around 500
in 1985. At that time, the total well discharge was estimated to be 25 000 tonnes day"1 (td"1)
(290 kg s'1) during summer months, rising to 31 000 td1 (360 kg s'1) during winter months.
Only an estimated 5% of the discharge fluids were reinjected to production depths (typically
100 - 200 m). Most of the waste liquid was put into shallow soak holes (<20 m depth) and,
contravening a local by-law, into storm water drains. Approximately half the fluid extracted
was for residential use and half for commercial use. However, because many wells in the
residential sector were shared by several households, 1500 of the total 1840 geothermal users
were residential. The dominant commercial sector user in 1985 was tourist accommodation
which used 20% of the total discharge (Ministry of Energy, 1985).

The effect of the bore closure programme, when 106 wells within 1.5 km of Pohutu geyser
were cemented up (most during 1987), and a charging regime for remaining well discharges
was implemented, was a reduction of the total well discharge to about 30% of 1985 levels by
1989 (Timpany, 1990). The average summer drawoff in 1990 was estimated to be 10 280
td"1 (118 kg s"1) increasing in winter by 1040 td"1 (12 kg s"1). The commercial sector now
accounts for 68% of the total discharge, and the reinjected mass has risen to 31% of the
discharge (Timpany, 1990). The net mass withdrawal from the field in 1990 had decreased
to close to 20% of the 1985 level. By late 1992, only 141 wells were producing 9500 td"1,
with 5100 td"1 being reinjected (Grant-Taylor & O’Shaughnessy, 1992).

Rotorua Geothermal Field Pressures and Water Levels

A network of geothermal monitor (M) wells was established in 1982, with up to 24 of these
located throughout Rotorua city, typically 80 - 180 metres deep. They either stand open to
atmosphere or where under-pressure are shut in so that no discharge can occur. Since 1987,
total numbers of producing wells has fallen and total withdrawal mass has also been
dramatically reduced. By 1995 about 200 wells produced a total of ~11 500 td"1, of which ~7
000 td"1 was being reinjected, leaving a net fluid loss of ~4 500 td"1 to shallow groundwaters.
Within a few more years nearly all this net loss should stop, as reinjection is a mandatory
requirement of any water right permit renewal.

M-well responses

All M-wells showed a sudden water level or pressure rise during late 1987 of ~2m, with
continual ongoing gradual recoveries to date. M-16 is typical of wells into ignimbrite aquifers
and M-6 rhyolite aquifers (Fig. 2). The same general trends are present in all M-wells,

272
although cool waters entering the ignimbrite from the west and proximity to Lake Rotorua
at the north cause some wells to show additional short term responses.

Bore Field Management Today

The primary geothermal source aquifer is

Mamaku ignimbrite, with outflows from this
into the fractured outer layers of buried
rhyolite domes and into shallow permeable
sediments. Since forced closures of many
wells in 1986-87, remaining wells have been
progressively modified to reinject waste 0) 280-
waters (typically ~80°C) back to source
aquifers via disused or specially drilled deep
disposal wells.

All water rights to use geothermal wells are

M 16
short term (-3-5 years) and further renewal of
these permits is conditional upon deep
reinjection of all waste waters. The
intention is that within a few years time
nearly all well waste waters will be
reinjected back to source aquifers, with the
aim of maintaining fluid mass. The
Geothermal Institute (Auckland University)
Figure 2: Time series plot of the water leve
has made studies of 30 reinjection wells
in monitor wells M-6 and M-16.
using production and reinjection pairs
(called doublets); to date no adverse effects
of reinjection have been identified.

Prior to forced well closures in 1986-87, some 500 wells were in production producing up to
31 000 td"1 in winter months, falling to -25 000 td"1 in summer. Nearly all this produced water
mass was then discarded into shallow groundwaters, or illegally into surface drains.

Surface Features

Surface features are generally alkaline, high chloride - low sulphate waters typical of deep
waters found in neighbouring wells. Many of Rotorua’s geysers and flowing hot springs have
shown responses to the sudden reduction of well drawoff in 1987. Although no precise early
measurements of total natural outflow are available, estimates are that all hot springs and
geysers produced -17 500 td"1 in 1960s, -13 500 td"1 in 1986 and -20 000 td"1 in 1992. This
change in outflow of hot springs follows expected trends and is consistent with more
geothermal fluids now being available for natural spring outflows. Some areas of natural
springs showing significant recovery are mixtures of groundwaters and increased upflows of
deep geothermal fluids, but these are given less attention due to the complication of the

- 273-
groundwater availability.

Many springs and geysers have up to c.150 years of intermittent recorded information, but
only a few large springs and geysers have substantial quantitative data spanning many
decades; today geyser activity is confined to Whakarewarewa. On Geyser Flat there are seven
intimately connected and interactive geysers, such that data from any single one of these is
itself not indicative of total trends there.

At Geyser Rat, historical qualitative data presents a clear picture of significant decline in
outflows and geyser activity during 1950s - 1980s and a pronounced recovery since 1987 to
present day. The geysers are fed from the ignimbrite aquifer. These changes are briefly
summarised as follows:
Te Horu Geyser: Through historical times up until 1972, this geyser used to erupt 2-7
metres (m) high with about 100 litres per second (lps) outflows, which occurred 10-15 times
day. Since 1972 eruptions have ceased and not resumed to present day (February 1997).
Kereru Geyser. Eruptions 10 - 15 m high several times a week until 1972, from when no
eruptions are known until they resumed in January 1988. Since then these have occurred
every few days and occasionally up to seven per day have been observed in daylight hours.
Waikite Geyser. This last erupted in March 1967 and its vent remained dry and weakly
steaming until June 1996, when its previously 8.5 m deep dry vent suddenly filled with
boiling waters to within 2.5 m of overflow. It is the highest elevation of any historically
active geyser or hot spring at 315 m asl, compared with 302 m asl for Pohutu geyser and 280
m asl for Lake Rotorua. Waikite water levels remain high and boiling. It didn’t respond to
soap in January 1997.
Pohutu Geyser. Pohutu geyser erupts ~21 m high, 25 - 60 times each day, spending a total
of ~35 - 60% of any day in eruption. Its eruptions have not shown any changes conclusively
related to well closures of 1986-87. During 1950s - 1980s, Pohutu showed a pronounced shift
to more frequent but shorter duration eruptions, possibly consistent with reduced aquifer
pressures. However, it is intimately connected with six other nearby geysers and the total
mass and heat flows from Geyser Rat have not been quantified. To date it continues to have
numerous short eruptions (2-5 mins).
Wairoa Geyser. This last erupted naturally in December 1940, but was soaped into huge
eruptions (up to ~50 m high) in late 1950s on many occasions. Since then its water level fell
to >4.5 m below overflow and became acidic (low chloride - high sulphate). In early 1996
its water level rose to 3.2 m below overflow boiling powerfully; it remains so.
Okianga Geyser. During late 1970s and early 1980s no eruptions were observed.
However, since c.1992 it has been reliably erupting every 25 - 35 minutes to ~7 m high.
Papakura Geyser: This geyser stopped erupting in March 1979 after a very long period
(c. 90 yrs) during which it was known to have faltered very briefly only 3 times. It was the
cessation of Papakura’s eruptions which was directly responsible for the initiation of the
monitoring programme. This feature has not recovered.
Parekohoru Spring: In 1985-6 this spring ceased outflowing for several days each winter.
Since 1988 there have been no further cessation and boiling surges have recommenced,
similar to reports earlier this century.

274-
Outside of Whakarewarewa to the north, near the southern shores of Lake Rotorua, two large
springs fed from the rhyolite aquifer have undergone significant changes consistent with well
closures and higher water levels as measured in M-wells (Fig. 2).
Rachel Spring: This is the sole remaining boiling, flowing alkaline spring in the
Government Gardens. Prior to 1987, its last overflow and boiling episode was in 1967, but
since then until 1987 its water level had remained at 1.2 - 1.7 m below overflow (70 - 80°C).
Since late 1988 it has been continually flowing 7-12 lps, boiling and high chloride waters.
It still has brief cessation of overflow, but these last only a few days and water level has
never fallen more than 0.1 m below overflow since 1988.
Kuirau Lake: From late 1940s - 1987 this large hot spring (~5 000 m2) was only warm (~45 -
50°C), acidic, low chloride and without any overflows. Since 1988 it has been consistently
overflowing ~50 - 60 lps at ~80°C, high chloride alkaline waters.

The consistently high water levels and large overflows of Rachel Spring and Kuirau Lake are
the most visible of all spring recoveries following well closures in 1986-87. Geysers require
prolonged observation to witness eruptions and so the general public are less familiar with
geyser activity changes, although quantitative instrumental records confirm that most geysers
have shown a significant improvement in activity since well drawoff was forcibly reduced in
1986-87.

Summary

Forced closures by central Government was a matter of great animosity and resistance.
Subsequent water level recoveries measured in M-wells, resumed overflows of hot springs and
resumed eruptions from several geysers is consistent with reduced well drawoff returning
more geothermal waters to natural surface spring outlets (i.e. hot springs and geysers). Fluid
pressure beneath Rotorua has recovered about half the inferred drawdown caused by a
combination of exploitation and a long-term decrease in rainfall prior to the mid 1980s
(Bradford, 1992). Geyser activity and hot springs have subsequently been rejuvenated, with
some springs overflowing for the first time in over 30 years (Cody and Lumb, 1992).

Acknowledgements

The authors thank John McIntosh (Environment Bay of Plenty) for the use of the water level
data from M-6 and M-16 monitor wells to illustrate the recovery in the Rotorua Geothermal
Field.

References

Allis, R.G., Lumb, J.T. 1992. The Rotorua geothermal field, New Zealand: its physical
setting, hydrology and response to exploitation. Geothermics 21/1-2: 7-24.

Bradford, E. 1992. Pressure changes in Rotorua geothermal aquifers, 1982-90. Geothermics

21/1-2: 231-248.

- 275-
Cody, A.D., Lumb, J.T. 1992. Changes in thermal activity in the Rotorua geothermal field.
Geothermics 21/1-2: 215-230.

Crafer, W.M. 1974. Geology of Rotorua city geothermal area. In Geothermal resources
survey Rotorua Geothermal District. DSIR Geothermal Report No.6: 37-44.

Glover, R.B. 1992. Integrated heat and mass discharges from the Rotorua Geothermal
system. Geothermics 21/1-2: 89-96.

Grant-Taylor, D., O’Shaughnessy, B. 1992. Rotorua Geothermal Field-A review of the

field response to closure 1987-1992. BOP Regional Council, Technical Publication
No.7.

Hunt, T.M. 1992. Gravity anomalies, caldera structure, and subsurface geology in the Rotorua
area, New Zealand. Geothermics 21/1-2: 65-74.

Lloyd, E.F. 1972. Geology and hot springs of Orakeikorako. NZ Geological Survey Bulletin
72.

Ministry of Energy, 1985. The Rotorua geothermal field: A report of the Geothermal
Monitoring Programme and Task Force 1982-1985, 48pp.

Thompson, B.N. 1974. Geology of the Rotorua geothermal district. In Geothermal resources
survey Rotorua Geothermal District. DSIR Geothermal Report No.6: 10-36.

Timpany, G.C. 1990. Rotorua geothermal field well drawoff assessment report for Manager,
Resource allocation, energy and resource division, Ministry of Commerce.

Whiteford, P.C. 1992. Heat flow in the sediments of Lake Rotorua. Geothermics 21/1-2: 75-
88.

Wood, C.P. 1985. Geology of Rotorua Geothermal Field. In The Rotorua Geothermal
Field, technical report of the Geothermal Monitoring Programme 1982-1985, Ministry
of Energy: 275-293.

Wood, C.P. 1992. Geology of the Rotorua Geothermal System. Geothermics 21/1-2: 25-41.

- 276-
 Geophysical Monitoring in the Sengan (Hahimantai) thermal area, Northeaset Japan
Toshiyuki Tosha and Mituhiko Sugihara
Geological Survey of Japan

ABSTRUCT
Microearthquakes monitoring has been carried out in the Kakkonda geothermal field, which is one of the most active
geothermal field in Sengan thermal area. Comparing seismicity in the geothermal field, number of earthquakes,
especially those in the reinjection field, has decreased. The decrease of events and change of distribution of earthquake
suggests the change of characteristics of reservoir in the Kakkonda geothermal field.
Another geophysical monitoring is the precision gravity survey in the Sumikawa geothermal field, where a new
geothermal power plant began operation in 1995. The increase in gravity was detected in the reinjection field, which
was predicted by computer reservoir simulation.

INTRODUCTION

Geological Survey of Japan (GSJ) has been carrying out geophysical monitorings at two geothermal fields in the
Sengan thermal area. One is microearthquake monitoring in Kakkonda and the other is gravity monitoring in
Sumikawa. In both geothermal field repeated self-potential surveys have been also performed for several years. Some of
studies in the Sengan thermal area are reviewed in this paper.
Sengan thermal area is located between Morioka and Akita prefectures and is one of the most well known thermal area.
There are four geothermal power plants, Kakkonda, Matsukawa, Sumikawa and Onuma, and many hot springs in it.
Late Tertiary and Quaternary volcanism is dominant in the thermal area overlying Miocene and pre-Tertiary
sedimentary rocks. Geological and geophysical features on the Sengan area are studied under one of Japan’s sunshine
projects, which focused on geological and geophysical surveys over wide thermal area in Sengan and the other area.

MICROEARTHQUAKE MONITORING
The Kakkonda geothermal fields (Fig. 1) is
well investigated by Japan Metal and Chemical
Ltd. (JMC), the developers of the field, as well
as the sunshine project. Various geological,
geochemical and geophysical surveys have
been performed on the field by JMC and GSJ.
Recently a new project promoted by NEDO
(New Energy and Industrial Technology
Development Organization), deep-seated
geothermal resources, has been started and
intensive surveys have been done. The seismic
monitoring commenced in 1982 with four
seismometers by GSJ and other four
seismometers were installed in the following 6
years. The aim of the monitoring is to study
characteristics of microearthquakes in the
geothermal field and to utilise them in a Fig. 1 Map showing the location and the topography of the Kakkonda
geothermal investigation. NEDO continued geothermal field. Each topographic contour is drawn at a 50 m
microearthquake monitoring and added two interval. Location ofKakkonda and Sumikawa geothermalfield also
seismometers in the west of the geothermal shown in the right map.
field, where the investigation well WD-1
drilled to explore deep-seated geothermal resources.
Fig. 2 shows numbers of daily events in the NEDO network after Takahashi et al., (1995) during 23 December, 1994
and 20 June, 1995. Though there was period when data were under analysis at that moment, daily seismicity are less
than 10. Fig. 3 shows daily seismicity recorded by the GSJ network in 1988. A daily average of seismicity is about 10
but there are several swarms in some of which more than 100 events occurred in a day. There were 6 swarms in 1988
indicated in Fig. 3. One occurred in January and the others happened in February, May, June, August and October. The
number of earthquakes in the NEDO network decreased apparently. Lower seismicity is presented in the Matsukawa
geothermal field than that in Kakkonda. The Matsukawa geothermal field is one of the vapour-dominated geothermal
fields in Japan and located c. 5km north to Kakkonda. Hanano and Takanohashi (1993) pointed out that Matsukawa

- 277-
 100
120 •

lacked

Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Fig. 2 Daily seisicity in December, 1994 to July, 1995 afer
Month in 1988
Takahashi etal., 1995

Fig. 3 Daily seisicity in 1988 after Tosha et al. (1995)

used to be a liquid-dominated geothermal field and has

changed to a vapour-dominated one. Decrease of seismicity
might be a sign the change of characteristics of the
Kakkonda reservoirs though we need to monitor for a long
period.
There were many earthquakes occurred in the southeast area
of the geothermal field, where reinjection wells are located.
Trace of WD-1 Epicentres of swarms except in June are also plotted in the
area in 1988. Hypocentres in 1995 are shown by Uchida et al.
(1996), where are still hypocentres in the reinjection area but
the numbers of them were lower than in 1988. No
hypocentres are detected associated with the deep-seated
1,000 m

Power Plant
Depth (m)
WD-I

a Akagawa

likavia // X
J • Ohnuma P/S
* Ohnuma / /

^ Yakeyama

Young Kakkemia Granite

Granite

500 i ,000m Meters East

4,000 T.D. 3.729 m

Fig. 5 Location of Sumikawa and Ohnuma area. Each

topographic contour is drawn at a 50 m interval. Well
Fig. 4 Hypocentres in 1995, (Top)Hoizontal projection and
bases are also shown by closed circles (after Ishido et
(Bottom) cross-section after Uchida etal. (1996)
al., 1995)

-278
i
 geothermal resources in the western area, where the
trend of hypocentres toward to deep was recognized in
1988. The low seismicity in 1995 might be decrease of
earthquakes in the injection area and defferent pattern of
hypocentres might suggest the change of reservoir.

GRAVITY MONITORING

The Sumikawa geothermal field is located in the

Hachimantai zolcanic zone of the Sengan thermal area,
which is northwestward to the Kakkonda geothermal
field. Exploratoiy studies have been made at Sumikawa
-4000 since 1981 by Mitsubishi Material Coronation (MMC)
and Mitsubishi GasChemical Corporation (MGC). Fig. 5
shows the Sumikawa and the adjacent geothermal field,
the Ohnuma; the Sumikawa field lies in the western part
Contour Interval: 2 microgals of the area and regarded as centred around drilling well
. i*. /■: i >. A , , !i , : bases A, B, C, D and E shown in the figure. Sumikawa
geothermal power plant with a 50 MW generator was
constructed and began to generate electricity in 1995.
Fig. 6 Computed gravity change between 0 and 1 year. Upper right The Ohnuma geothermal plant in the east of the figure
anomaly is positive. Contour interval is 2 micro-gal ( 20 has been producing about 10 MW of electricity for
nN/kg) after Ishido et al. (1995) several years.
Gravity survey has been used as one of the geophysical
survey methods prior to large-scale development to
166GL
assess the gravity anomaly distribution in the natural
^560 state. Repeated surveys are carried out to detect and
characterize changes in the distribution in and around
the field as exploitation proceeds.
Ishido et al. (1995) used the STAR geothermal
simulator (eg. Pritchett, 1994) to perform a 30-year
forecast of the consequences of production and
injection in the Sumikawa geothermal field. They also
presented a areal map of synthetic gravity anomaly
change corresponding to the changes in the
underground conditions calculated by a postprocessor
for the STAR code. Fig. 6 shows a result of their
calculation of the gravity change after one year of field
operation. The increase in gravity due to the
reinjection of geothermal fluid is dominant in the
early stage of the operation as the fluid reinjects into
the shallow levels. They predicted that the gravity
increase of 30 micro-gal associated with the
reinjection would be possible to detect even after only
one year of operation.
The gravity change before and after the operation of
power plant is shown in Fig. 7. A square in the figure
is corresponded to the area of Figs. 4 and 5. Numbers
in the figure are the gravity change in nN/kg ( nano-
m/sec2), which is equal to 0.1 micro-gal. The gravity
increase was detected at the reinjection zone of c. 300
Fig. 7 Gravity change between 1994 and 1995. Square in thefigure i: nN/kg, which is the same amount of increase
the area in Figs 5 and 6. Cross symbols represent gravit) predected by Ishido et al. (1995). However, the
survey points. Positive anomaly of about 30 micro-gal (300 contours less than 100 nN/kg are not closed. That
nN/kg) is shown. seems to due to regional gravity overlying the gravity
change caused by reinjection. For the production zone, the numerical calculation suggests the small amount of the
decease in gravity (10 micro-gal) but no reliable contours were obtained in the survey. That is partly due to less survey
points in the mountain area.

- 279-
CONCLUDING REMARKS

Number of microearthquakes decreased in 1995 and less earthquakes occurred in the reinjetion field, comparing with
microearthquakes in 1988. The decrease of seismicity and hypocentre distribution change suggests changes of the
characteristics of reservoir. Gravity increased in the reinjection field as the same amount as the computer simulation
expected. The combination of precision gravity survey with reservoir numerical simulation is useful.

Acknowledgments

The authors wish to express their deep gratitude to Japan Metals and Chemical s Co. Ltd., Mitsubishi Materials
Corporation and their menders for providing their help for the surveys and their helpful suggestions

REFERENCE

Hanano, M. and Takanohashi, M (1993) Review of recent development of the Kakkonda deep reservoir, Japan, Proc.
18th Workshop on Geotherm. Reserv. Engineer. Stanford Univ., 18, 29-34

Ishido, T., Sugihara, M., Pritchett, J. W. and Ariki, K. (1995) Feasibility study of reservoir monitoring using repeat
precision gravity measurements at the Sumikawa geothermal field, Procedings of World Geothermal Conference
in Frorence 1995, 853-858.

Takahashi, M., Tateno, M., Kondo, T., Suzuki, L, Shigehara, S., Yagi, M., Muraoka, H., and Niitsuma, H. (1995)
Micro-earthquake monitoring and tri-axial drill-bit VSP in NEDO “Deep-seated geothermal reservoir survey” in
Kakkonda, Japan, Geotherm. Resource Coun., 19, 119-124.

Tosha, T., Sugihara, M. and Nishi, Y. (1995) Relocation of microearthquakes in the Kakkonda (Takinoue) geothermal
field, Bull. Geol. Surv. Japan, 46, 483-495.

Uchida, T., Akaku, K., Sasaki, M., Kamenosono, H., Doi., N. and Miyazaki, S. (1996) Recent progress of NEDO's
“Deep-Seated Geothermal Resources Survey” Project, Geotherm Resource Coun., 20, 643-648.

-280-
 CHANGES IN THE BEPPU HYDROTHERMAL SYSTEM (JAPAN)
DUE TO EXPLOITAION

Yuki YUS A, Shinji OHSAWA and Koichi KITAOKA

Beppu Geophysical Research Laboratory, Kyoto University

ABSTRACT

The exploitation in the Beppu hydrothermal system started in the 1880s, and by the 1920s the number of wells
increased to about 1,000. This caused the seawater to intrude into the thermal aquifer at the coast, and to draw the
piezometric pressure of the thermal aquifer down. The second flurry of exploitation was during 1960s to 1970s, by
which the number of wells ineresed to over 2,300 and the discharge increased from about 450 kg/s to about 650 kg/s.
The increase of discharge was mainly due to the increase of the chloride water discharge at highland. By this, the
subsurface flow rate of the chloride water towards the lowland has decreased and also the steam-heated shallow water
intrudes into the chloride water layer.

INTRODUCTION

Beppu on Kyushu Island is one of the largest spa resorts in Japan, and has a long history tracing back to the
8th Century at least. Its surface thermal activity varies from hot springs (boiling and subboiling) to superheated
fumaroles and steaming grounds on the volcanoes behind Beppu City. Since the Meiji Restoration in the 19th
Century, the hydrothermal exploitation at Beppu has been promoted to enhance the flow of hot water and steam.
Today there are about 2,300 wells in an area of 5 km (E-W) X 8 km (N-S), and the total flow of hot water and steam
amounts to around 50,000 tons per day.
In this paper the history of the hydrothermal exploitation of the Beppu system is described briefly, and the
changes associated with the exploitation is reviewed.

Beppu hydrothermal system

The Beppu hydrothermal system is located at the eastern end of the Beppu-Shimabara graben crossing Kyushu
Island from east to west, along which there are many Quaternary volcanoes (Fig.l). The hydrothermal activity is
developed on the eastern flanks of the Yufu-Tsurumi-Garandake volcanic center. Both Mt. Tsurumi and Mt.
Garandake have fumaroles near their summits. There are three principal types of thermal water in the Beppu
hydrothermal system; a high-temperature sodium-chloride type, a bicarbonate type, and a sulfate type. These diverse
compositions can be formed from a single parent thermal fluid.
The parent hydrothermal fluid beneath the volcanoes is inferred to be 250-300 °C and 1400-1600 mg/kg
chlorine, and it flows out towards the coast along the two major flow paths. The southern flow path (the Beppu
thermal zone) is along the Asamigawa Fault. The hydrothermal waters in this zone are formed by predominantly
dilution of the parent fluid by cold groundwater at the mountainous area. The diluted hydrothermal water reached
another fault crossing with the Asamigawa Fault uprises to boil. By this process, a steam-dominated two-phase zone
is formed, and subsequently shallow groundwater is heated by steam.
On the other hand, the northern flow path (the Kamegawa thermal zone) coincides with the Kamegawa Fault
and/or the ridge of lava. Here steam loss by boiling and subsequent mixing with steam-heated groundwater are
significant. Recently, the third (westward) flow path towards the Yufuin area has been suggested (Fig. 2; Allis and
Yusa, 1989 and Sturchio et. al, 1996).

281 —
 34°N

32 N

130°E 132 E

Fig.l Location map showing Beppu and Yufuin on northeastern Kyushu Island, Japan. Solid triangles are locations
of Quaternary volcanic centers. Dashed line encloses Beppu-Shimabara graben. (After Sturchio et.al, 1996)

250

two phase conditions

at sea level

major steam loss,

minor dilution
GAHANOAKE

KAMEGAWA
THERMAL ZONI

major dilution ,
minor steam loss
1500
MT. YUFU MT. TSURUMI
-t/BEPPU
X^Tfooo THERMAL ZONE

fASAMIGAWA
S\ FAULT

Fig.2 Major fluid flow patterns of the Beppu hydrothermal system, (after Allis and Yusa, 1989)

-282-
BRIEF HISTORY OF EXPLOITATION

The first record of the Beppu hydrothermal system appeared in a book published in the beginning of the 8th
Century. Ancient people had used natural hot springs and steams for bathing and cooking etc. over long periods.
The exploitation at the Beppu hydrothermal system by drilling started as early as 1880. During the early part of
the 20th Century, the number of drilled wells increased rapidly to reach around 1,000. Between 1925 and 1945 there
was an economic depression, and drillings were scarce. During the 1960s and 1970s after the Second World War,
many drillings by modem techniques were carried out extensively, and the number of wells reached over 2,300. The
transition of distribution of drilled wells is shown in Fig.3. Associated with the exploitation, both the mass output
and the heat output from wells increased specially after the 1960s as shown in Table 1. This increase is mainly due to
the exploitation of high-temperature fluids at the highland area (Yusa, 1985).

Fig.3 Transition of distribution of drilled wells.

Table 1 Statistics on the amounts of hydrothermal fluid extracted from wells in the Beppu hydrothermal system

1924 1949 1959-61 1973-75 1985

Number of Wells Beppu 826 674 785 1132 975
Kamegawa ? 305 535 1250 1269
Total ? 979 1320 2382 2244
Mass Output Beppu 189 218 213 266 226
(kg/s) Kamegawa ? 213 252 390 353
Total ? 431 465 656 579
Heat Output Beppu 43 48 67 119 126
(MW) Kamagawa 7 52 86 231 226
Total 7 100 153 350 352

(Data in 1924 and 1949 are for only subboiling wells.)

-283-
CHANGES IN THE HYDROTHERMAL SYSTEM

Seawater intrusion into the coastal confined aquifer (Fig.4)

A phenomena of seawater intrusion into the coastal aquifer of thermal groundwater at the Beppu thermal zone
was detected by the first geochemical survey in 1926. The intruded region was limited to be narrow within a
southeast comer of the zone. In 1950 - about 25 years later, the intruded region extended wider northwards.
Comparing the results obtained in 1963 and 1976, it seems that the intruded region extended slightly with time along
the coast (northwards). This indicates the development of drawdown of piezometric level due to withdrawal of thermal
groundwater. The retreat of the intruded region at the north side of the River Asami may be apparent because of lack
of data (Kikkawa and Kitaoka, 1977).

100 200

Beppu Bay

Fig.4 Transition of the front of seawater intrusion, (after Kikkawa and Kitaoka, 1977)

-284-
Lowering of water level and water temperature in the unconfined aquifer (Fig.5)
There was a shallow well digged by hand, about 8.5 m in deep and about 1 m in diameter, at about 1.5 km
from the coast in the Beppu thermal zone. The temperature by the first measurement in January 1925 was high up to
43.2t. It is thought that such high temperature was brought from uprising of deep confined thermal water with high
pressure.
Measurements of temperature and water level were conducted once every day until 1967, when the well lost its
water completely. The annual mean values of water level below the ground surface, temperature and precipitation are
drawn in Fig.5. The water level fluctuated around a level of about 7 m below the ground surface in clearly response to
the precipitation until the middle of 1950s. After that, the water level dropped rapidly to disappear at last in 1967
though it rised a little temporarily in 1961-63. The temperature fluctuated irregularly, but maintained a level of 30 -
40 "C until around 1950. However, it showed a slightly lowering trend, and dropped down below 30"C after 1950
though rised up higher than 301 temporarily. These phenomena indicate lowering of pressure of the deep thermal
water associated with the exploitation (Yusa, 1989).

RAINFALL

E 2000

TEMPERATURE

Fig.5 Long-term changes in water level and temperature in a shallow well with precipitaion
in the Beppu thermal zone, (after Yusa, 1989)

Decline of chloride concentration (Figs.6 and 7)

During the flurry of exploitation in the 1960s and 1970s, as mentioned before, many boiling wells were drilled
at the highland, by which a quite large amounts of Na-Cl type water has discharged. After this, a decline trend of
chloride concentration has become evident both in boiling waters at highland and subboiling waters at lowland.
Change in average concentration of Cl in the Beppu thermal zone is shown in Fig.6 with change in HCOs
concentration, which has increased on the contrary. This trend has been clearly observed at a boiling well located near
the coast (Fig.7). A similar decline of chloride concentration has been also observed at the Kamegawa thermal zone.
Since the Cl is the main anion of the deep chloride type water, the decline of Cl indicates a progress of dilution of the
deep water by shallow water (Yusa, 1984).

-285-
 Boiling Water Cl

Subboiling Water HCOa

Boiling Water HCOa

200 -

Subboiling Water Cl
I I I IT (iii i i r I I I I I I i i i it
70 75 '80 '85 '90
Year

Fig.6 Change in average concentrations of chloride (Cl) and bicarbonate (HCO?) in the Beppu thermal zone.

800 -

600 -

400 -

200 -

^—i—r—i—r

Year

Fig.7 Change in concentrations of chloride (Cl) and bicarbonate (HCOs) of a boiling water
in the Beppu thermal zone.

-286-
Change in chemical composition (Fig. 8)
The decline of Cl concentration is remarkable for the chloride-type water in the Beppu thermal zone. In place of
that, HCOs concentration increases as shown in Figs. 6 and 7. To investigate this change in detail, transitions of
chemical compositions of some boiling and subboiling waters are shown in Fig.8 using hexaplots. It is conspicuous
that chloride type waters in original lose Cl and get HC03 and/or S04. Since the latter two components, HCOa and
SO4, are the main anions of the shallow thermal water heated by steam, these changes indicate increases of mixing
ratios of shallow waters (Yusaet. al, 1989).

(a) (b)

1969
A 1985
zk 2k
1967 1978
Sk
1989

A 4 1967 1978
<1
1989

meg/1
0 20

zL Ik
1978 1985
Zk A 1970 1978
<1
1989

<k
1975
\L
1983
vk 1989

kA1973
A 1385
A

1966
<k
1985
A

Fig.8 Examples on transition of chemical composition of thermal water in the Beppu thermal zone;
(a) boiling water, (b) subboiling water, (after Yusa et. al, 1989)

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

The phenomena reviewed in this paper suggest that the exploitation developed during the long period since
1880s, specially the increased discharge from boiling wells at highland in 1960s to 1970s, has caused the pressure of
deep chloride water to drop; by which the flow rate of the chloride water towards the lowland has decreased and also
the steam-heated shallow water intrudes into the chloride water layer to lower the chloride concentration and to raise
the bicarbonate and/or sulfate concentrations. Thus some chloride type thermal waters in the Beppu hydrothermal
system have changed their water quality into the bicarbonate (and/or sulfate) type under the influence of exploitation.

- 287-
REFERENCES

Allis, R. G. and Yusa, Y. (1989) Fluid flow processes in the Beppu geothermal system, Japan: Geothermics, 19,
743-759.
Kikkawa, K. and Kitaoka, K. (1977) Sea water contamination in southern hydrothermal area of Beppu: Reports on
Oita Prefecture Hot Spring Research Society, 28, 17-25. (in Japanese)
Sturchio, N. C., Ohsawa, S., Sano, Y„ Arehart, G., Kitaoka, K. and Yusa, Y. (1996) Geochemical characteristics of
the Yufuin outflow plume, Beppu hydrothermal system, Japan: Geothermics, 25, 215-230.
Yusa, Y. (1984) Change in thermal groundwater system due to withdrawal (2) Lowering of chloride-ion concentration
and some hydrological features of the thermal groundwater system in the southern part of the Beppu
hydrothermal field, Japan: Journal of Balneological Society of Japan, 34, 92-104. (in Japanese)
Yusa, Y. (1985) Beppu Spa: Records of Beppu City, 199-207. Publication of Municipal Office of Beppu City, (in
Japanese)
Yusa, Y. (1989) Recent changes in Beppu Spa: Geothermal Energy, 14, 127-135. (in Japanese)
Yusa, Y., Kamiyama, K. and Kawano, T. (1989) Long-term change in the chemical composition of thermal
groundwater in the southern part of Beppu (2): Reports on Oita Prefecture Hot Spring Research Society, 40,
21-29. (in Japanese)

-288
 HYDROLOGIC CHANGES ASSOCIATED WITH GEOTHERMAL DEVELOPMENT
IN LONG VALLEY CALDERA, CALIFORNIA

Michael L. SOREY

U S. Geological Survey

ABSTRACT

Long Valley caldera in east-central California is the site of a 40 MW binary-electric

geothermal development utilizing water at temperatures of 170°C. Environmental impacts of this
development include declines in hot spring discharge, increases in fumarolic discharge, vegetation kills
from steam-heating, and land subsidence. A program of hydrologic monitoring to detect such
changes has been in effect since 1988 under the direction of the Long Valley Hydrologic Advisory
Committee. This committee has provided a useful forum in which monitoring data, both public and
proprietary, can be discussed and consensus reached regarding the factors responsible for observed
changes and the need for mitigation measures to minimize or prevent significant adverse impacts to
existing thermal features.

INTRODUCTION

Long Valley caldera in east-central California (Fig. 1) is an 450 km2 eliptical depression with
a history of episodic volcanic activity over the past 760,000 years, including a most recent eruptive
period about 600 years ago along the Inyo Craters Volcanic Chain. The young age of volcanic rocks
in this area, together with abundance of hot springs and steam vents, has encouraged geothermal
exploration since the early 1970's, culminating in commissioning of the first geothermal power plant
at Casa Diablo in 1985. Although exploration holes have encountered temperatures as high as
214°C in the caldera's west moat, the current development taps water at temperatures near 170°C
from a shallow (-150 m deep) reservoir in volcanic rocks on the southwestern edge of the caldera's
resurgent dome. Three binary power plants currently produce a total of about 40 MW of electricity;
plant MP-1 began operation in 1985 and plants MP-2 and PLES-1 began operation in 1991. Cooled
geothermal water from the power plants is reinjected at depths of-600 m. Total flow rate through
the plants is approximately 900 kg/s.
The Long Valley area, which includes the resort town of Mammoth Lakes and a major ski
area on Mammoth Mountain, has numerous features of geologic, hydrologic, and recreational
significance. Concerns over possible impacts of geothermal development on the areas thermal
features led to the establishment of the Long Valley Hydrologic Advisory Committee (LVHAC) in
1987, with membership drawn from regulatory agencies, geothermal developers, the local water
district, interested land owners and operators, and various environmental organizations. In 1988, the
LVHAC commissioned the U S. Geological Survey to begin a program of hydrologic monitoring in
order to detect changes in surface features and in observation wells that might be related to the
development of both the geothermal resource and the nonthermal groundwater system. In the latter
case, the Mammoth County Water District operates wells adjacent to the upper reaches of Mammoth
Creek to supply fresh water for domestic consumption.
Natural thermal-water discharge from the geothermal system occurs in springs located to the
east of Casa Diablo, around the southern side of the resurgent dome and to the east of the dome.
Concern over impacts of resource development is focused mainly on springs at the Fish Hatchery and
in Hot Creek Gorge (Fig. 1). The Fish Hatchery springs discharge water at a composite temperature
near 16°C that includes a small (-10%) thermal component. This mixture of thermal and nonthermal

-289-
spring water supports a productive fish rearing operation. Springs in Hot Creek Gorge discharge at
temperatures up to boiling (93 °C), and provide unique opportunities for bathing in creek water
heated by hot-spring inputs.

HYDROLOGIC CHANGES DETECTED

Operation of the geothermal well field at Casa Diablo has resulted in changes in both reservoir
pressure and temperature over the period 1985-1996. Production reservoir pressure changes are
delineated by downhole pressure data for production well MBP-4 (Fig. 2). The cumulative pressure
decline between 1985 and 1990 amounted to 0.06 MPa, with an additional 0.23 MPa decline between
1991 and 1993 in response to increased production and deepening of injection wells (which lessened
pressure support to the production zone). Pressure increases in the injection reservoir of
approximately the same magnitude have been observed in deeper monitor wells. The decline in
production reservoir temperature over the 1985-1993 period amounted to about 10°C, compared
with localized declines of ~80°C in the injection zone.
Accompanying these changes in production reservoir pressure, thermal spring flow in the
vicinity of Casa Diablo has ceased and been replaced by vigorous steam discharge, reflecting the
establishment of boiling conditions in the shallow thermal groundwater system. Colton Spring,
located 2 km east of the well field ceased flowing in mid-1991. At di stances of about 5 km to the east
of the well field, declines in water level in the Hot Bubbling Pool (HBP) and in the adjacent
observation well CW-3 of -2 m correlate well with the pressure record in well MBP-4.
Measurements also indicate that the component of thermal water in the Fish Hatchery springs
declined -30% after 1990. Temperatures in the hatchery springs have remained relatively constant,
however, as a consequence of drought-related declines in nonthermal spring flow and possibly to
effects of groundwater pumpage in the Mammoth Basin.
In Hot Creek Gorge (-10 km east of Casa Diablo), where total thermal-spring discharge is
calculated from measurements of the increase in chemical flux in the creek, no significant changes in
spring flow have been detected. Measurement precision there is ±15%. Similarly, water-level
measurements in a nearby thermal monitor well (CH-10B) have shown no clear correlation with
pressure changes at Casa Diablo.

DISCUSSION

The monitoring data for Long Valley caldera document various hydrologic changes resulting
from over 10 years of geothermal development. In general, these changes are most significant within
a distance of about 2 km of the well field at Casa Diablo, and are as yet undetectable at distances as
far as 10 km. Changes in spring flow and temperature at the Fish Hatchery and Hot Creek Gorge
from the combination of geothermal and groundwater resource development has not resulted in any
significant adverse impacts. For the most part, this situation is a result of the fortuitous combination
of existing levels of resource development and the hydraulic properties of the aquifer systems
involved.
The LVHAC and the hydrologic monitoring program it administers have also played an
important role in the succussful development of these resources. The monitoring data have been
useful in identifying changes, both naturally occurring changes and development induced changes.
The LVHAC has provided the opportunity for these data to be presented and discussed, while
maintaining the proprietary nature of data from the geothermal well field. In many other cases of
resource development with environmental consequences, this forum does not exist and, instead,
adequate disclosure of information and interpretations only happens after costly legal proceedings
have been initiated.
In the case of Long Valley caldera, the LVHAC acts in an advisory capacity for regulatory

- 290-
 agencies such as the Bureau of Land Management and the U S. Forest Service who must make
decisions regarding permit conditions and the need for mitigation measures to reduce or eliminate
development-related adverse impacts to thermal springs. Although such measures have not yet been
needed, this situation may change in the future if additional developments are permitted. It is
anticipated, however, that the LVHAC will play a valuable role under such conditions in allowing
development to proceed in a manner that continues to provide adequate environmental protection.

Inyo
Craters •
Volcanic
Chain Caldera Margin

Resurgent
Craters* £ Dome
Casa Diablo
Mammoth
(Well MBP-4)
Lakes
CH10-B

Mammoth Long
Lake
Crowley
Mountain Valley
Caldera

10 km

Figure 1. Map of Long Valley caldera showing locations of various features noted in text,
including the geothermal well field at Casa Diablo and thermal springs labeled CS (Colton
Spring), HBP (Hot Bubbling Pool), FH (Fish Hatchery), and HCG (Hot Creek Gorge).

Well MBP-4
Deeper
Injection Figure 2. Pressure history and completion diagram for
P R E SSU R E (MPa)

Well construction well MBP-4 and periods of operation of each of three

geothermal power plants (bars at top) at Casa Diablo.
casing The pressure history for the period 1988-1993 is based
on continuous measurements made in the well (solid
Production line); the dashed line for the 1985-1987 period is based
Rate Changes
120 m on a combination of measured pre-development
■slotted casing pressure and numerical simulations. Production rate
changes noted during 1992-1993 were of the order of
200 m
±15%.

1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993

DATE

-291-
 Reinjection Lesson From Sibayak Geothermal Field,
North Sumatera-Indonesia*

*A Paper For The NEDO International Geothermal Symposium

11-13 March 1997, Sendai International Center, Sendai, Japan

Sjafei Sulaiman** and Kris Pudyastuti***

**) Planning Manager ***) PERTAMINA-Geothermal Division

ABSTRACT

The strict environmental standards for disposal of waste geothermal brine to surface waters has
constrained the testing of production wells at Sibayak geothermal field. The alternative action is to
reinject waste brine into the ground but it is constrained by the high potential of silica deposition in the
injection well. It is shown on the operations of reinjecting waste brine at low (ambient) temperature which
has not successfully undertaken at Sibayak. The lesson from these operations, PERTAMINA will
implement an action plan at Sibayak by considering an experiment result at Mac-Ban geothermal field.

INTRODUCTION
The Sibayak geothermal field is about 70 km SW of Medan in North Sumatra. A first stage
geothermal development of 2 MW has been commissioned in 1994. An additional 20 MW plant is
currently being developed in this field and expected to be in commercial operation by early 1998.

Several wells at Sibayak have been discharged and tested to characterise mass flow, enthalpy and
fluid chemistry in order to confirm resource characteristic and optimum power plant size. Conventionally,
testing of exploration and production wells is achieved by flowing the wells to atmospheric silencer with
separated steam and brine discharged to atmosphere. Because of strict environmental standards that exist
in Indonesia, it was recognized that all of the waste brine could not be discharged directly to surface
water ways. Two alternatives for disposal of brine from well testing were then considered-hot or cold
piped reinjection.

Hot injection was not preferred at Sibayak because of the unfeasible economic point of view.
Thus, our interest in disposing of brine is to initially cooled by flash at atmospheric pressure and then
flowed in open canal to injection well. The most significant constraint on injecting geothermal effluent at
relatively low temperature is the occuring of silica deposition which are readily exist in canals and
reinjection wellbore.

INJECTION OPERATION

The SBY-3. SBY-4 and SBY-5 wells have been planned to be the production wells for both the
first 2 MW power plant and the additional 20 MW. The wells have totally produced brine water of 365
ton per hour. The brine with temperature of about 98 ° C was injected to SBY-2 well. The SBY-2 well is
a dry hole with measured depth of 2302 meters. The well permeability is 6.2 darcy meter and the well
injectivity index is 2.9 kg per ksc.sec. Injection operation was started at 21 March 1994 when the SBY-3
well was in production for 2 MW power plant. A part of the brine water from SBY-4 and SBY-5 wells
began injected into SBY-2 well at 24 May 1996.
At present the SBY-2 well depth was shallower to 647 meters than the original depth and the
injection capacity of the SBY-2 well has decreased to 90 ton per hour.

-292
 At present the SBY-2 well depth was shallower to 647 meters than the original depth and the
injection capacity of the SBY-2 well has decreased to 90 ton per hour.

FLUID CHEMISTRY OF PRODUCTION WELLS

Water samples were collected at separator location during production test of the SBY-3 and the
SBY-4 wells. The production test of the SBY-5 well has not yet been conducted when water samples were
collected. Analysis of the brine water indicated that its silicic acid concentration is about 500 ppm. Table-
1 shows the recent data of fluid chemistry of the SBY-3 and the SBY-4 wells.

Table-1. Chemical Anaysis of Separator Water Samples (in ppm). Source: BATAN Preparatory
Reports For Internal Documentation, 1997

Wells Na K Mg Ca Li HCO 804 Cl pH Si02

3

SBY-3 539.8 116.7 0.57 41.5 1.7 0 12.5 1083 5.1 543.6

SBY-4 554 214.3 2.71 66.7 1.82 40.3 40.3 1344 5.5 517.3

EFFLUENT RE INJECTION SCHEME

The simple design of the effluent disposal system (EDS) at Sibayak is shown in Fig. 1. Two phase
fluid from the wells is flashed to an atmospheric silencer with the separated brine draining to the pond
located on the same well pad (Cluster A). The effluent was then piped into an open canal and directly
injected to SBY-2 well (Cluster B) at approximately 1.5 km distance from the Cluster A. The elevation of
the Cluster A is 1486 masl while the Cluster B is 1384 masl.

Figure-1. Discharge System For Cluster-A At Sibayak Geothermal Field

DISCUSSION

Current understanding on silica reaction kinetics as it was stated by Ramonito P. Solis et.all ,
that overall deposition occurs in three distinct stages: homogeneous nucleation of amorphous silica
particles via silicic acid; continued growth of these particles via silicic acid polymerization at their
surfaces; and a surface rearrangement process whereby chemisorbed silicic acid molecules condense fully
into solid silica. At low initial silica supersaturation, So, the onset of polymerisation shows an induction
period. This become progressively shorter with increasing supersaturation.

-293-
 The fluid chemistry of production well
data in Sibayak field say that So is very
high (500 ppm in brine flashed to
atmosphere).

If we apply the So on the

Fleming model (1986), the kinetic regime
will be in Region I. It mean the reaction
are relatively fast and involve a
condensation polymerisation reaction
between a hydroxyl group on the
amorphous silica surface and a dissolved
silicic acid molecule. This polymerisation
continues and approaches a pseudo
equilibrium solubility value which is
higher than the true thermodynamic
solubility In Region II there is a slower
surface rearrangement, that proceed from
the pseudo equilibrium point, Cx to the
equilibrium.

Ramonito P. Solis et. all have

taken advantage of these different regimes
in the design of the cold reinjection scheme
at the Bac-Man field. In the design of the
effluent re-injection at Sibayak field, we have not taken the advantage. By having the bulk of the
supersaturated portion of silica in the cooled brine polymerize and settle in surface ponds prior to injection,
with hold up time of brine in the ponds minimized on the basis of pseudo equilibrium. Figure-2 shows the
graph of the silicic acid deposition rate (ppm/min) . vs. silicic acid concentration, C (ppm) at Pseudo­
equilibrium Point (Cx) of Fleming, 1986

ACTION PLAN
The experiments result at the Bac-Man Geothermal field which have conclude that the success of
low temperature injection is dependent on: the initial concentration of silica in flashed brine: the
magnitude and rate of temperature drop in the aging/cooling brine; the retention time of brine in cooling
ponds and dilution of aged brine with fresh water prior to injection. Considering these results
PERTAMINA has decided to make an action plan of re-design the EDS and monitoring program.

Re-Design The EDS

The basic considerations that will be taken into acount in the re-design of our EDS are: to
maximise the amorphous silica supersaturation of the separated water: to cool the fluid as rapidly as
possible: and to maximise the fluid residence time in ponds prior to reinjection. Therefore, a pond-2 will
be constructed at Cluster B. Then baffles will be installed in pond-2 to increase residence time. A flow of
fresh water will be tapped locally and piped to mix and dilute the brine flow to the SBY-2 injection well.
Optionaly, an oil trap will be installed to filter out any solids and other driling waste that may be
discharged.

Monitoring in the EDS and Chemical sampling

Taking a run time of the new design of EDS, then a monitoring and chemical sampling at
various points in EDS should be conducted. The important chemical parameter will be monitored during
effluent injection is the concentration of monomeric silica. Then the silica saturation index (SSI) which is

294-
defined as the ratio of monomeric silica to the pseudo equilibrium solubility (Cx) could be calculated
using Fleming model (1986).
The equilibrium amorphous silica solibility (Ce) will be calculated from the equation of Fournier
and Rowe (1997), which is valid from 0 to 250 °C, or the equation of Fournier and Marshall (1983) which
is valid from 90° C to 340° C.

The retention time for waste brine within EDS prior to re-injection also will be measured through
each section of the system. This should be done for an extensive baffling arrangement.

EDS Efficiency Test

Tests will be conducted to determine the efficiency of the EDS in reducing concentrations of
monomeric silica prior to injection of waste brine, and silica polymerisation rates. This test will assess
three scenarios: scenario-1 consisting of pond 1 without baffels. scenario-2 consisting of pond-2 without
baffles; scenario-3 consisting of pond-1 with buffles.

CONCLUSION
The silica supersaturation of discharged water from SBY-3 and SBY-4 wells seem to be very
high (500 ppm in brine flashed to atmosphere).
Adopting the amorphous silica kinetic model of Fleming (1986) it could be concluded that the
silicic acid depositions (at pseudo equilibrium) of the Sibayak brine water have a relatively fast reaction
rate.

The Effluent Disposal System does not support those above condition. The EDS have to re-design
to maximise the amorphous silica supersaturation water and maximise the fluid residence time.

Monitoring in the EDS re-designed should be conducted for efficiency test. This should be done
for an extensive baffling arrangement.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

The outhors would like to thank PERTAMINA Management for allowing us to present this paper.

REFERENCES

Personal Communication. BATAN Preparatory Paper for Internal Report, 1997.

Ramonito P. Solis, Fidel S. See, Joselito R. Ruaya and Adriano C. Cabel, Low Temperature
Waste Water Injection Experiments At The Bac-Man Geothermal Field, Philippines, Proceeding of the
WGC 1995, Florence Italy.

- 295-
 GEOTHERMAL SPACE-HEATING OF THE CNR RESEARCH CAMPUS IN PISA:
PROBLEMS IN ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING

Aristide ROSSI and Paolo SQUARCI

C.N.R. - International Institute for Geothermal Research - Pisa, Italy

ABSTRACT
The geothermal space-heating project for the Research Campus of the Italian National Research Council
(CNR) in Pisa, utilising a doublet of wells for production and reinjection, is based on technology that has been widely
utilised and described in the scientific literature for several years.
The project leaders have taken into careful consideration the potential environmental impact and induced
hazards to the town of Pisa, especially as regards the historical importance of the medieval buildings.
Two years after the first proposal, this joint venture project of CNR and ENEL (the Italian Electric Utility) is
still faced with a number of problems: passive bureaucratic opposition, and lack of comprehension from local and
regional administrative bodies and local environmental associations.

INTRODUCTION

Tuscany, a region that has been in the forefront for almost a century in the utilisation of high-temperature
geothermal resources for electricity generation, is still in the early stages of exploiting its hot waters for district-heating
uses.
A joint venture project by ENEL and CNR proposes to heat the buildings and laboratories of the CNR
Research Campus in Pisa, utilising thermal waters (60-70°C) by means of a doublet of wells.
Right from the start the proponents were aware that they would have to overcome public distrust and suspicion
for the use of this type of non-conventional energy. The project is also aimed at fostering the development of similar
initiatives, in order to save fossil fuel and reduce the amount of air pollutants discharged into the atmosphere.
Low-to-medium temperature geothermal resources are widely spread all over the central Italian regions and
particularly in Tuscany, with thermal waters at temperatures in the range 50-100° C at depths of less than 1000 m
below ground level (Fig. 1).

Pistoia
Lucca

Florence

Leghorn

Arezzo

fo Usiena'

.Gross el

Fig. 1 Temperature map of Tuscany at 1000m below ground level.

The promotional effect of the Pisa CNR project could be further enhanced by demonstrating the benefits that can be
achieved with the direct use of low-temperature geothermal energy, particularly in the residential part of such an old
town as Pisa (Fig. 2).

296-
-
 Fig. 2 The new CNR campus in the town of Pisa.

The benefits include:

less polluted air
no disposal problems
negligible geological risk
no discharge of CO2 into the atmosphere, because there will be no combustion of fuels.
Apart from its technical feasibility and innovative solutions, the most challenging aspect of the Pisa project
will be to verify the environmental benefits, and the sustainability of geothermal development with time, provided an
effective system of integrated monitoring networks is set up.
The project has been partly sponsored and funded by the European Union (Research Project U.E., DG XVII),
the Regional Council of Tuscany, and the Italian Ministry for Industry.

TECHNICAL ASPECTS OF THE PISA GEOTHERMAL SPACE-HEATING PROJECT

*S. Giuliani
iTerme J

v /< *

Pcntedea

Ponsacc

«■* -800 —» 5 6) a!

Fig. 3 Geological map with isobaths of the Neogenic formations in the Pisa area.

l)Alluvium (Holocene); 2)Sandstone (U. Cretaceous-Oligocene); 3)Limestone (Mesozoic); 4)Basement, metamorphic

rocks (Paleozoic-Trias); 5)Isobath of the base of the Mio-Pliocenic formations (m b.s.l.); 6)Fault; 7)Cross-section;
8)Geothermal gradient shallow well; 9)Hydrocarbon exploratory deep well
— 297 —
The geological reservoir of geothermal fluids is expected to lie at a depth of 800-1000 m below ground level, with
temperatures around 70°C, within the Mesozoic carbonate complex that is present throughout a large part of Tuscany
(Figs. 3 and 4) (Bellani et al., 1995).
Two directional wells will be drilled from the same drilling pad.
The distance between well-bottom in the production and reinjection wells will be about 1000 m.
The geothermal water will circulate in a closed loop that has no direct contact with surface waters, thus
preventing any pollution.
All the thermal fluids extracted will be reinjected after use, thus maintaining a constant fluid pressure in the
reservoir.

thermal spring
I

Fig. 4 Geological cross-section trow the deep structures of the Pisa plain, with isotherms.

l)Gravel, sand, clay (Plio - Pleistocene); 2)Clay with sand (Upper Miocene); 3)"Macigno" sandstone (U. Oligocene - L.
Miocene); 4)Carbonates (Mesozoic); 5)"Basement" phyllite, quartzite (Paleozoic - Trias); 6)Isotherm (°C);
7)Hydrocarbon exploratory well; 8)Geothermal gradient shallow well; 9)St. Cataldo 1 and StCataldo 2 Planned wells.

The technical characteristics of the Pisa project are summarised below

Annual heat requirement of the Campus 13.50 MWh/yr

Annual thermal energy supplied by geothermal resources 12.345 MWh/yr
Annual percentage of total energy requirement provided by geothermal resources 88.5%
Annual energy savings 253 OET/yr

A significant part of the well completion facilities and of the heat exchanger system will consist of innovative
technology.
Initial investment costs are expected to be high, part of which will derive from the creation of an integrated
system for the environmental monitoring network.
The experience gained in this project will obviously be very important for future projects of this type.

ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING OF THE AREA

The Pisa geothermal project is based on a very conservative analysis of the safety parameters, in order to
prevent any risk. The project includes modelling of the possible effects of fluid extraction and injection on ground
movement, monitoring of any induced effects by means of an integrated network, and an EIA (Environmental Impact
Assessment).
The Pisa plain cannot, in fact, be considered a safe area in steady-state condition from the environmental point
of view. It is a flat lowland area (2-3 m a.s.l.) that was flooded a few times by the Amo river in past, and affected by a
natural historical subsidence.
Existing precision levelling data show negative ground-level variations at a maximum rate of 1 cm per year
during the period 1969-1983 (Palla, 1988). This high rate of subsidence can be explained by a combination of natural
and man-induced effects: the Pisa plain rests on a thick sequence of soft Quaternary unconsolidated sediments, and has
been a marsh land since the Holocene; its reclamation was not complete until the first half of this century.
Drainage of surface waters and pumping from shallow aquifers, in particular, increased the compaction rate of
the shallower layers.
The recent intensive urbanisation has further compromised the unstable foundation of the medieval buildings
and of the Leaning Tower of Pisa. The Tower is now undergoing maintenance work to consolidate the structure and, in
particular, the foundations.
Subsidence is commonly caused by the settlement and compaction of recent sediments and does not affect the
deep Mesozoic carbonate substratum, at least on a human time-scale.

-298-
 The production-reinjection process will be developed through the closed loop from the surface heat exchangers
to the deep reservoir without interacting with the cover formations, from which the wells will be completely isolated. It
must be stressed that hydrothermal exploitation will not entail any extraction of mass, but only of heat.

34 X 2

Y.ayi

Y YB23
'forence

Fig. 5 Seismicity map of Tuscany region during the period 1000 - 1985.

A further aspect to be considered is that of the seismic risk due to induced seismicity, as most of the Italian territory is
affected by historical and recent seismicity.
Seismic activity is, however, relatively low in the Pisa area: the Tower is still leaning after several centuries,
having survived the shocks of the many earthquakes shown in Fig. 5 (Gasperini et al„ 1985).
During 1995-96, however, five quakes of medium-to-low intensity whose epicentres were near this area caused
a flurry, as a result there were articles in the press avowing that drilling activity could change the local geological
situation and, consequently, jeopardise the safety of the Tower.
At the onset of drilling activity it is therefore important that an efficient local microseismic network be ready to
study the behaviour of the local seismotectonic features and detect the trend of the local and regional seismicity.

THE MONITORING NETWORKS

The draft program of an integrated system of monitoring networks has therefore been carefully studied to
answer to the demanding questions on the possible induced effects of the geothermal development and exploitation (fig.
6). The system consists of:
1) A topographic network to monitor the slow ground movements, vertical and horizontal, by mean of
periodical surveys of field measurements with precise levelling and Global Positioning System methods.
This network has been already set up, covering an area of about 30 km^ with more than 50 km of levelling
lines distributed in 10 polygons and connected to a reference base on the assumed stable area of the Mesozoic outcrops,
north of Pisa. A number of old benchmarks has been recovered, belonging to previous surveys of 5 other public
institutions. Several tens of new benchmarks have been set up and added.
2) A microgravity network, utilising about 30 % of the benchmarks of the topographic network, will help to
detect, with periodical surveys, any crustal mass variation, fluid displacements, and water level changes in surface
acquifers.
3) A microseismic network consisting of 5 triaxial stations will be set-up in the area within a few kilometres
from the geothermal wells.
A first phase of microseismic survey of the surface noise with mobile stations will allow the best choice of suitable sites
for the fixed stations.
It will probably be necessary to locate a pair of stations in shallow drilled boreholes to achieve a better signal
to noise ratio.
4) A network of multiparametric stations for the continuous chemical monitoring of atmospheric gases.
5) An hydrogeochemical monitoring network of the unconfined and confined shallow aquifers in 5 existing
boreholes, partially utilised for water supply, within the radius of about 0.5 km from the two geothermal wells.
The foreseen monitoring program consists of down-hole logs of physical and chemical parameters, fluid
sampling and laboratory chemical, bacteriological and isotopic analyses.
6) A continuous monitoring network of the acoustic noise in the urban area, just around the drilling pad, to
measure the noise of the of drilling equipment.
 In particular, the survey of the parameters monitored with the networks 4), 5) and 6) has been considered
mandatory by the local and regional administration and will follow an established procedure protocol in agreement with
the local sanitary authority.

VECCHIANO

MGLIARINO

S. GULIANO
TERME

PISA

CNR Research Area

Topographic and
microgravimetric network

Microseismic station

□ Leaning Tower

Wells site

Fig. 6 Environmental monitoring networks map.

REFERENCES

- BELLANIS., GRASSIS., SQUARCIP. - 1995 - Geothermal characteristics of the Pisa plain, Italy. World
Geothermal Congress, Florence, Italy, May 18-31,1995.

- GASPERINIP., LIGIM. AND POSTPISCHL D. -1985 - Catalogo dei terremoti italiani dall'anno 1000 al 1985.
Carta degli epicentri.
D. POSTPISCHL editor, Bologna, 1985.

- PALL A B. - (1988) -1 movimenti vertical! del suolo nella citta di Pisa e nel territorio circostante. Pisa University ed.,
Pisa, 1988.

— 300 —
TECHNICAL SESSION 3
 SUSTAINABILITY OF GEOTHERMAL ENERGY UTILIZATION

by

Phillip Michael Wright

Energy & Geoscience Institute
University of Utah
Salt Lake City, UT 84108 USA

ABSTRACT

Growing worldwide population and expanding economic development are causing increased
stress on the natural environment. There is a rising international awareness that we must make future
development sustainable or risk catastrophic deterioration of the environment. The sustainability of
production from geothermal resources is a topic that has received almost no study, leaving the question
open to conjecture. As geologic phenomena, hydrothermal systems in the continental crust can be
shown to persist for tens of thousands of years. However, system lifetimes can be foreshortened by arti­
ficial production at the surface during geothermal energy extraction. Geothermal project feasibility
studies typically deal only with developing a certain sized power plant to be run for an arbitrary period,
usually 30 years. Such limited studies fail to capture a true measure of the useful energy that can be
produced from a geothermal resource.

The International Energy Agency (IEA) is considering coordinating work to provide public
information on the sustainability of production from geothermal reservoirs. The objective of this work
would be to study important facets of the production of energy from geothermal resources with the view
of determining the long-term economic sustainability of such production.

INTRODUCTION

As the world's population increases and nations attempt to further their social and economic
development, an increasing level of stress is being placed upon the natural environment. To cope with
rising rates of natural-resource consumption and spiraling levels of environmental damage, govern­
ments and institutions worldwide are becoming more and more interested in how their finite resources
can be deployed to ensure an acceptable future for the human race. They are striving for ways to ensure
the sustainability of our atmospheric, hydrologic, mineral-resource, energy-resource, biological, social,
and economic systems (Brown et al., 1990; Gore, 1993; McLeod, 1995; Serageldin and Steer, 1994).

Availability of adequate energy supplies at acceptable costs is prerequisite to social and eco­
nomic progress. In past decades, there was concern that fossil fuels were being depleted too quickly.
Today, however, the primary concern in using fossil fuels is environmental degradation. We have found
economic ways to curtail emissions of sulfur and nitrogen oxides resulting from fossil-fuel combustion,
but we lack technology for economically eliminating carbon dioxide emissions. Non-carbon fuels will
be needed to avert a major environmental crisis if an unacceptable amount of greenhouse warming
eventually proves to be resulting from the well-documented buildup of CO2 in the atmosphere. Despite
the enormity of this potential problem, generating plants using fossil fuels are being built at increasing
rates worldwide.

- 301-
 Accelerated commercialization of renewable-energy resources is an option being promoted by
a growing segment of society. The reasons are well known — renewable-energy resources: (1) have
environmental advantages over other energy sources; (2) are available locally, mitigating the costs and
many other problems of importing, moving fuel minerals around the globe, and maintaining security of
supply; and, (3) are supported by enormous resource bases. However, under present systems of eco­
nomic analysis and compensation, renewable energy resources will not be able to satisfy even new
demand for energy in the foreseeable future, let alone replace existing fossil and nuclear uses. In the
decades to come, when energy use must rise dramatically in order to support economic growth for a
growing population, we must find significantly better ways to obtain and use energy resources.

DEFINITIONS OF RENEWABLE AND SUSTAINABLE

The term "sustainable development" was used by the World Commission on Environment and
Development (the Brundtland Commission) to mean development that "meets the needs of the present
generation without compromising the needs of future generations" (Brundtland Commission, 1987). To
meet the Brundtland Commission's definition of sustainability for energy supply, we must consider the
interactions among all available and reasonably foreseen energy sources. If one resource becomes
depleted, we need only have an available substitute to ensure that future generations are able to meet
their needs.

Kozloff and Dower (1993) believe that whether or not consumption of a resource be can said
to be renewable depends on the time frame under consideration. They suggest that a perspective of 300
years or more of continuous production is adequate for an energy fuel to be considered as renewable,
since technical advances during that time will have rendered today's perspective obsolete. Kozloff (per­
sonal communication, 1994) has stated that the biggest problem he perceives in assessing the potential
contribution of geothermal energy to society is not so much the lack of knowledge of resource occur­
rences, but rather the lack of information on the sustainability of production from these resources at use­
ful rates.

In this paper, we will use the term "renewable" to indicate geothermal energy use at the rate of
natural recharge of the thermal system. We will consider the term "sustainable" to have a time conno­
tation, as suggested by Kozloff and Dower (1993), and will also use this term in the sense of the
Brundtland Commission (1987) to indicate use that does not jeopardize future generations.

GEOTHERMAL ENERGY AND SUSTAINABILITY

In the strictest sense, the sustainability in consumption of a resource, of whatever kind, is

dependent on its initial quantity, its rate of generation, and its rate of consumption. Consumption can
obviously be sustained over any time period in which a resource is being created faster than it is being
depleted. If the rate of consumption exceeds the rate of generation, consumption can nevertheless be
sustained over some time period dependent upon the initial amount of the resource available when con­
sumption begins.

The total available amount of heat in any particular hydrothermal resource and its rate of resup­
ply by conduction and fluid recharge from great depth are quantities potentially amenable to determi­
nation by geoscientific methods. The rate of consumption of the resource through production of geot-

-302-
hernial fluids at the surface is most strongly dependent on financial, political, and regulatory factors,
which we will together term "economic factors." Determination of the potential sustainability of pro­
duction from a given hydrothermal resource, therefore, depends on both geoscientific and economic fac­
tors, and these factors can, in principle, all be determined.

Duration and Recharge of Natural Hydrothermal Systems

Some studies have been done to understand the duration of natural hydrothermal systems.
Sims and White (1981) concluded that hydrothermal activity responsible for deposition of mercury at
the Sulphur Bank mine, near The Geysers geothermal field, California, began 34,000 years ago and con­
tinues at the present time. White (1968) estimated that a magma volume of 100 km^ must have been
cooling and crystallizing for 100,000 years to supply the convective heat losses at Steamboat, Nevada,
at their present rates. The oldest hot spring sinter at that location was deposited 3 m.y. ago, document­
ing a very long history of hydrothermal activity, perhaps spawned by individual intrusions to shallow
depth from a very large underlying magma body. Silberman (1983) suggested that "the most conclu­
sive data from volcanic-hosted precious-metal vein and disseminated deposits, thermal spring systems,
and porphyry-copper deposits suggest that on average, the total time span of hydrothermal activity is
about 1 m.y., although the range of activity is between 0.6 and 2.5 m.y." These results are corroborat­
ed by numerical modeling studies carried out by several people. Some of the original work in this field
was done by Cathles (1977, 1981) and by Norton (1982).

The most important findings from these studies is that the duration of typical hydrothermal sys­
tems ranges upward from 5,000 to more than 1,000,000 years. Duration depends on the amount of ther­
mal energy input to the crust by the underlying pluton, the permeability of the pluton and host rock, and
whether or not free flow out the top surface occurs, among many other variables. High permeability
and free flow out the top promote more vigorous fluid circulation and lead to shorter system lifetimes.

Natural Recharge of Hydrothermal Reservoirs

Estimates of the rate of natural recharge of a hydrothermal system are available from two
sources. The undisturbed natural system will produce a heat-flow anomaly at the earth's surface which,
if defined well enough, may be integrated to yield the natural rate of conductive heat loss from the top
of the resource. To such determinations must be added the heat lost from hot springs, geysers and other
surface features. The total heat loss at the surface is taken to equal the rate of heat input from deep con­
vective and conductive thermal resupply. As an example of this method, Chapman determined that the
undisturbed rate of heat loss from the Roosevelt Hot Springs, Utah, system is 70 MWt, comprised of 60
MWt supplied from the source at depth and 10 MWt supplied from background heat flow, local hydro-
logic recharge, and exothermic clay alteration reactions (Ward et al., 1978).

A second method of determining natural recharge rate is with detailed reservoir-simulation

models. Starting from a known or assumed natural, pre-production state, these models attempt to match
either (1) the known, pre-production temperature and pressure distribution in the subsurface, (2) the pro­
duction history from available wells, or (3) both. The natural recharge rate is included as a parameter
to help improve the model match to the field data. When a satisfactory match is achieved, the recharge
parameter is taken as an estimate of the natural advective thermal recharge rate. For example, recent
reservoir studies have been performed on Roosevelt Hot Springs, Utah (Yearsley, 1994; Faultier, 1991).

- 303-
Yearsley's work addressed the remaining potential of the field in terms of capacity versus sustainabili­
ty. Through matching the production history of the wells in the field using the Tetrad software, he con­
cluded that: (1) the deep fluid recharge is about 23 kg/s at 260o C (26 MWt), although he stated that
this might be underestimated since a recharge rate of 37 kg/s (42 MWt) was needed to match the recov­
ery rate of well 25-15 during a three-month shut-in; and, (2) the power decline for various rates of power
production indicate an ultimate (sustainable?) capacity of 40 MWe.

Other estimates of natural recharge rates and limited ideas of reservoir longevity for liquid-
dominated systems have been provided by various authors. Sakagawa et al. (1994) matched the pre-
exploitation temperature and pressure distribution in the Mori field, Hokkaido, Japan using recharge of
35 kg/s at a temperature of 290°C. This yields 45 MWt for the convective thermal input to the system.
This field has been under production since 1982 with a 50 MWe plant. According to Elder (1981), the
surface heat loss of 1,000 MWt from the Wairakei system in its native state requires a recharge of 600
kg/s of 355o C fluid from depth.

A quick summary of such studies (Wright, 1995) indicates that the rate of natural recharge of
known crustal hydrothermal systems ranges from a few megawatts to more than 1,000 MWt. For com­
parison, Lowell et al. (1995) report that individual vents on the sea floor have typical discharge tem­
peratures of 350°C and outputs of about 1 MWt. Vent fields have typical outputs of 100 to 5,000 MWt,
but megaplumes of a few day’s duration are postulated with total energy outputs of 1016 to 1017 J. The
natural recharge rate represents the minimum rate at which hydrothermal systems could, in principal, be
produced for thousands of years.

From these considerations, we can conclude that hydrothermal systems in the earth's crust meet
any reasonable definition of the terms "renewable" and "sustainable". However, exploitation that
exceeds natural recharge can greatly shorten the system lifetime.

Exploitation and Sustainability

Hanano et al. (1990) give a particularly instructive illustration of the effect of various produc­
tion rates on the sustainability of a hypothetical hydrothermal resource. They assumed a field of a cer­
tain size, with production coming from a specific block of land and injection going to an adjacent block.
Boundary conditions were constant temperature and pressure. Figure 1 illustrates schematically one run
of the model. Reservoir
pressure draws down as soon
as production starts, then its
rate of decline slows.
Decline of fluid temperature 23
is small at first, but acceler­
ates gradually with time J
because of migration of
1
injected water into the pro­ E
duction well field. Steam
quality decreases with tem­
perature, so that the total pro­ Figure 1. Temperature and pressure behavoir of the reservoir, and
duction rate must be increasing produciton rate needed to meet 100 MWe con­
stant power output (after Hanano et al., 1990).

- 304-
increased to maintain a specified output.
As the production rate is increased, pres­
sure declines further. Figure 2 shows the
field longevity until abandonment as a
function of output power, and Figure 3
shows the recoverable electric energy
over the system lifetime as a function of
output power. Total recoverable electric
energy and reservoir longevity are both
highest at small output rates. As the
power-plant size increases, both parame­
ters decline rapidly. In this example, the
system longevity for 1 MWe is almost
200 times greater than for 100 MWe, and
the recoverable electric energy from 1
MWe is twice as large as that of 100
MWe.

Recovery of thermal energy

from a hydrothermal system is some­
times compared with recovery of oil Figure 2. Development longevity as a function of output
from a petroleum reservoir. However, power for example given by Hanano et al.
(1990).
there is an important difference: where­
as some of the oil occurs in dead-end
pores that cannot be accessed xlO4
at all by wells, heat can not be
similarly trapped in the rock.
We can, in principal, recover I
all of the heat in a system at
the surface if we are willing I
to wait for it to flow from the 1
rocks into the reservoir fluid. Eti
J2

I
The more efficient heat min­
ing that results from lower
production rates, as illustrated
in the case above, results part­
ly from this heat-flow effect.
The important point from this Output Power (MWe)
example is that at high pro- Figure 3. Total recoverable electric energy as a function of output
duction rates only a fraction P°wer for example given by et al. (1990).
of the energy in a hydrother­
mal system might be recovered — the rest is left in the ground, perhaps to be mined later. Although the
residual energy may not run the power plant used for initial reservoir exploitation, it may be useful for
another application.

- 305-
NEED FOR SUSTAINABILITY STUDIES

To the detriment of our industry, there is essentially no literature on the sustainability of pro­
duction from geothermal resources. This leaves a void that is filled with conjecture and, sometimes,
unfavorable assessments. Over-development and other reservoir problems have created questions in the
minds of utilities, financial institutions, governments, and the public about the reliability of geothermal
energy and its ability to contribute significantly to the world's energy needs over any significant time
period.

There are several reasons for the lack of information on geothermal sustainability. Perhaps
most importantly, the typical reservoir-performance study is carried out in a very conservative way,
assuming a reservoir area limited to that known directly through drilling, and an arbitrary lifetime for
the power plant, often 30 years. This is done to assure the financial backers that there is a low risk of
project failure. Few studies have considered application of the heat remaining in the reservoir after the
primary period of exploitation or the much larger store of heat lateral to and below the immediate reser­
voir. In addition, the high initial costs of geothermal development discourage acquiring a thorough
knowledge of the resource during the feasibility study, financing, well-field installation, plant design,
and construction phases of a project. Years of production may be required to gain an understanding of
the total capacity and optimum heat-mining strategy for a particular hydrothermal system.

New studies are recommended to provide estimates of the sustainability of production from
geothermal resources. These studies should account for: (1) the energy content of the whole thermal
system, not just the immediate reservoir; (2) the expectation of improving technology, leading to greater
ability to mine heat and turn it more efficiently into electrical power and other products; (3) the expec­
tation that energy prices will rise in the future; (4) the value of geothermal energy for preserving the
environment; (5) the value of geothermal resources due to their indigenous nature; (6) the value of geot­
hermal energy projects in providing fuel diversity and risk diversity to a utility's or a country's energy
portfolio; and, (7) the potential for mining heat from hot dry rock and deep crustal resources. The rec­
ommended studies should be undertaken with full consideration of changes being brought about by such
institutions as the World Bank in their quest to develop new economic-analysis systems that account for
measures to preserve the natural environment.

How can we determine the sustainability of production from geothermal resources? How can
we better quantify the productive capacity of a hydrothermal reservoir at an early stage in a project and
thereby avoid over-development? How can the geologists, engineers and financial people work togeth­
er to match better the sustainable reservoir capacity to economic requirements? How can we incorpo­
rate the idea of sustainable development into assessments of geothermal resources? These are some of
the questions for which we, the international geothermal community, need to provide answers.

IEA TASK V: SUSTAINABILITY OF GEOTHERMAL ENERGY UTILIZATION

The International Energy Agency is considering coordinating work to provide public informa­
tion on the sustainability of production from geothermal reservoirs (Wright, 1996). The objective of
this task is to study important facets of the production of energy from geothermal resources with the
view of determining the long-term economic sustainability of such production.

-306-
 This task is expected to fill a need for a worldwide resource assessment that is much more com­
prehensive than the usual geothermal resource assessment, and allow geothermal energy to be mean­
ingfully compared with solar and wind energy as sustainable resources. It will help promote geother­
mal energy as a viable alternative, worthy of R&D for continued technology improvement.

Subtasks

The participants in this task (annex) shall share the coordinated work necessary to carry it out.
The subtasks being considered for inclusion in this task are given below:

Subtask A: Ultimate Economic Production from Example Geothermal Fields

The participants will select certain geothermal fields throughout the world, representative of
chosen geological classes of fields, for study. Selection criteria will include the availability of sufficient
geological, geochemical, geophysical, drilling, well-testing, and reservoir-engineering data to charac­
terize the fields well. An estimate will be made of the total thermal energy in the field including the
known hydrothermal system and the additional heat contained in rocks around and beneath the system.
A second estimate will be made of the total recoverable thermal energy in the field. Study participants
will consider innovative methods for extracting the maximum amount of heat from these systems, and
will account for expected improvements in technology, future energy costs, and other factors that affect
project economics and ultimate energy production.

Subtask B: Sustainable Worldwide Geothermal Development Potential

Building upon the results of Subtask A, the participants will extend the analysis to the world­
wide inventory of hydrothermal systems. An estimate will also be made of the worldwide potential for
development of hot dry rock and deep geothermal resources. In this effort, the participants will coor­
dinate and use the results of studies carried out under other Tasks, in particular Tasks III and IV.
Expected improvements in technology, future energy costs, and other factors that affect project eco­
nomics will be taken into account. The participants will develop one or more scenarios to indicate the
potential for sustainable geothermal development worldwide, including both hydrothermal and HDR
resources, over a time period measured in centuries.

Subtask C: Economics of Sustainable Development

The Participants will study the efforts being made by the World Bank, the United Nations, and
other institutions to develop new methods of economic analysis designed to promote worldwide sus­
tainable development of natural resources. They will evaluate the potential effects of these new eco­
nomic methods on geothermal energy development worldwide.

- 307-
Expected Results

The expected results of this task will include:

(a) Analytical reports estimating the ultimate economic energy production from
example geothermal fields throughout the world, based on work under
Subtask A described above.

(b) Analytical reports on the worldwide geothermal development potential and

the level of production that can be sustained over some chosen period of time
measured in centuries, based on work under Subtask B described above.

(c) Analytical reports on the effect on the sustainability of geothermal energy

utilization of a potential worldwide shift to the economics of sustainable
development, based on the work under Subtask C described above.

The reports shall be presented in special issues of international journals and at special sessions
at international meetings.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I gratefully acknowledge the financial support of the U.S. Department of Energy, under con­
tract No. DE-AC07-95ID13274, for this study. Some of the concepts presented here came to light in a
workshop on geothermal sustainability which I conducted under the auspices of the Geothermal
Resources Council in March, 1994. I appreciate the willingness of the participants to share ideas.

DISCLAIMER

This report was prepared as an account of work sponsored by an agency of the United States
Government. Neither the United States Government nor any agency thereof, nor any of their employ­
ees, makes any warranty, express or implied, or assumes any legal liability or responsibility for the accu­
racy, completeness, or usefulness of any information, apparatus, product, or process disclosed, or rep­
resents that its use would not infringe on privately owned rights. Reference herein to any specific com­
mercial product, process, or service by trade name, trademark, manufacturer, or otherwise, does not nec­
essarily constitute or imply its endorsement, recommendation, or favoring by the United States
Government or any agency thereof. The views and opinions of authors expressed herein do not neces­
sarily state or reflect those of the United States Government or any agency thereof.

REFERENCES

Brown, L. R., Flavin, C., and Postel, S., 1990, Picturing a sustainable society: in State of the World, a
Worldwatch Institute Report on Progress Toward a Sustainable Society, W. W. Norton &
Company, 173-190.

Brundtland Commission, 1987, Our Common Future: World Commission on Environment and
Development (The Brundtland Commission), New York, Oxford University Press.

-308
Cathles, L. ML, 1977, An analysis of the cooling of intrusives by ground-water convection which
includes boiling: Economic Geology, 72, 804-826.

Cathles, L. M., 1981, Fluid flow and genesis of hydrothermal ore deposits: in Economic Geology,
75th Anniversary Volume, 424-457.

Elder, J. W., 1981, Geothermal Systems: Academic Press, 508 p.

Faultier, D. D., 1991, Conceptual geologic model and native state model of the Roosevelt Hot Springs
hydrothermal system: Proceedings, Sixteenth Workshop on Geothermal Reservoir
Engineering, Stanford University, 131-137.

Gore, A., 1993, Earth in the Balance — Ecology and the Human Spirit: Plume, The Penguin Group,
408 p.

Hanano, M., Takahashi, M., Hirako, Y., Nakamura, H., Fuwa, S., Nose, J., and Itoi, R., 1990,
Longevity evaluation for optimum development in a liquid dominated geothermal field —
effects of interaction of reservoir pressure and fluid temperature on steam production at oper­
ating conditions: Geothermics, 19,199-211.

Kozloff, K. L. and Dower, R. C., 1993, A New Power Base — Renewable Energy Policies for the
Nineties and Beyond: World Resources Institute, 196 p.

Lowell, R. P., Rona, P. A., and Von Herzen, R. P., 1995, Seafloor hydrothermal systems: Journal of
Geophysical Research, 100, Bl, 327-352.

McLeod, J. T., 1995, Sustainable management of geothermal resources, a New Zealand scenario:
Proceedings of the World Geothermal Congress, Florence, Italy, 1, 569-573.

Norton, D. L., 1982, Fluid and heat transport phenomena typical of copper-bearing pluton environ­
ments, southeastern Arizona: in Advances in Geology of the Porphyry Copper Deposits,
Southwestern North America, S. R. Titley, ed., The University of Arizona Press, 59-72.

Sakagawa, Y., Takahashi, M., Hanano, M., Ishido, T., and Demboya, N., 1994, Numerical simulation
of the Mori geothermal field, Japan: Proceedings, Nineteenth Workshop of Geothermal
Reservoir Engineering, Stanford University, 171-178.

Serageldin, I. and Steer, A., eds., 1994, Making Development Sustainable — From Concepts to
Action: Environmentally Sustainable Development Occasional Paper No. 2, The World
Bank, Washington, D.C., 40 p.

Silberman, M. L., 1983, Geochronology of hydrothermal alteration and mineralization — Tertiary

epithermal precious metal deposits in the Great Basin: in The Role of Heat in the
Development of Energy and Mineral resources in the Northern Basin and Range Province,
Geothermal Resources Council Special Report No. 13, 287-303.

309-
Sims, J. D. and White, D. E., 1981, Mercury in the sediments of Clear Lake, California: U. S.
Geological Survey Professional Paper 1141, 237-241.

Ward, S. H., Parry, W. T., Nash, W. P., Sill, W. R., Cook, K. L., Smith, R. B., Chapman, D. S., Brown,
F. H., Whelan, J. A., and Bowman, J. R., 1978, A summary of the geology, geochemistry, and
geophysics of the Roosevelt Hot Springs thermal area, Utah: Geophysics, 43, 7, 1515-1542.

White, D. E., 1968, Hydrology, activity, and heat flow of the Steamboat Springs thermal system,
Washoe County, Nevada: U S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 458-C, 109 p.

Wright, P. M., 1995, The sustainability of production from geothermal resources: Proceedings of the
World Geothermal Congress, Florence, Italy, 4, 2825-2836.

Wright, P. M., 1996, IEA task V — sustainability of geothermal energy utilization: Geothermal
Resources Council Transactions, 20, 271-272.

Yearsley, E., 1994, Roosevelt Hot Springs reservoir model applied to forecasting remaining field
potential: Geothermal Resources Council Transactions, 18, 617-622.

- 310-
 HOT DRY ROCK IN THE USA:
WHERE IS IT GOING?

David DUCHANE

Los Alamos National Laboratory

ABSTRACT

Since its beginning in the early 1970’s, the US Hot Dry Rock (HDR) Program has carried out extensive field work
at the Fenton Hill HDR pilot facility in northern NM, USA. Over a period of more than 25 years, two engineered
reservoirs were created, and the practicality of producing energy from HDR was unambiguously proven. An
automated surface plant was operated for a total of 11 months between 1992 and 1995. Consistent energy extraction
was achieved during several flow-testing phases. When operating under steady state conditions, no declines in fluid
production temperatures were observed, water consumption reached low levels and was continuing to decline, and all
other measurements indicated that HDR reservoirs would have long productive lifetimes. In addition, cyclic testing
showed the potential for load-following production schedules that could enhance the economic value of HDR energy
production.

In late 1995, the US Department of Energy (DOE) announced its intention to restructure the US HDR program to
work with "private industry and other interested parties" to address the remaining technical issues, rather than
pursuing commercialization of the technology. As this paper is being written, the exact nature of these “remaining
technical issues” has yet to be defined. As an initial step in the restructuring process, a group of experts from the
Geothermal Energy Association met in December 1995, under the auspices of the DOE, to formulate
recommendations on the future course of HDR work in the United States.

HDR field activities in the US reached a low point in 1996 with little definitive action on the restructuring process.
Reservoir modeling studies at Kansas State University and some technology transfer work continued, but
essentially, the only field activities involved the shutdown of the Fenton Hill test site. By the beginning of 1997, most
of the geothermal wells at the Fenton Hill site had been plugged and the site assets were in the process of being
diverted to non-HDR activities.

As of early 1997, proposed, but yet not implemented, DOE actions included soliciting proposals from
stakeholders for projects to help advance the state-of-the-art of HDR technology, participation in International
Energy Agency-sponsored tasks on HDR, the completion of a final report archiving the Fenton Hill HDR experience,
and development of a 5-year plan to achieve unspecified HDR technology improvements. The DOE also indicated
that it planned to commission an in-depth review of HDR and that it would transfer field management of US HDR
activities to the private sector via a solicitation process, but these measures were also still awaiting action. In the
meantime, budgets for federally funded HDR work in the US have continued to decline. On the positive side, several
US entrepreneurial organizations are in the process of formulating HDR projects that may go forward with or without
federal government participation.

INTRODUCTION

Accomplishments of the US HDR Program. The concept of extracting geothermal energy from HDR by circulating
water through an engineered geothermal reservoir created by hydraulic fracturing originated in the United States
more than 25 years ago. The original HDR patent (Potter et al) was issued to the Los Alamos National Laboratory in
1974. That patent has now expired. Beginning in 1974, the Los Alamos National Laboratory, working under the
sponsorship of the DOE, conducted numerous experiments and extensive field testing at the Fenton Hill HDR Test
Facility.

The world’s first HDR reservoir was created at Fenton Hill between 1974 and 1978. Flow tests of that reservoir
from 1978 to 1980 showed that it was possible to extract heat from HDR reservoirs and set the stage for worldwide
interest in HDR technology (Dash et al 1981). A second, much larger HDR reservoir was developed and characterized
at Fenton Hill between 1980 and 1986 by an international team comprised of scientists and engineers from Japan and
Germany as well as the United States. This large, Phase II, HDR reservoir was utilized for research, developing, and
testing until the autumn of 1995.

Experiments conducted with the Phase II HDR system revolutionized our understanding of the characteristics of
HDR reservoirs. Originally, it had been thought that the application of hydraulic pressure caused the formation of
nearly vertical, planar fractures in crystalline rock. Analysis of the development of the Phase II reservoir indicated
that no new fractures are created by hydraulic stimulation, but rather that pre-existing joints are opened by the
pressurized water in a pattern that is related to both the contemporary stress field and the pre-existing pattern of
jointing in the rock.
- 311-
 The most extensive and rigidly controlled l-DR flow testing to date was carried out on the Phase II reservoir at
Fenton Hill. After installation of a highly-automated surface plant, the long-term sustainability of HDR energy
production was demonstrated in a series of flow tests conducted from the spring of 1992 through the summer of 1995
(Duchane 1996). As shown in Table 1, production flow rates and fluid temperatures changed little over the 4-year test
period, during which flow operations were sustained for a total of 11 months.

Table 1: Typical Operating Data From Flow Testing of the Fenton Hill HDR System, 1992-1995

Year: 1992 1993 1995

Primary Control Parameters
Production Backpress., Mpa 9.7 9.7 9.7
Injection Press., Mpa 27.3 27.3 27.3
Operating Results
Production Rate, I/s 5.68 5.86 6.57
Production Temp., °C 183 184 185

Row testing at Fenton Hill also set new benchmarks for other aspects of HDR technology. Water loss was
eliminated as a major issue in determining the fundamental viability of the HDR process, as water consumption
declined to a level of 7% of the injected volume and data indicated it would continue to decline under steady-state
production conditions. The dissolved solids and gases in the fluid produced from the Phase II reservoir rapidly
reached equilibrium values at low concentrations, and the fluid remained uniformly geochemically benign throughout
the test period. Routine operation of the automated plant showed that HDR energy systems could be run using the
same economical staffing schedules that a number of unmanned commercial hydrothermal plants employ.

Finally, the testing at Fenton Hill clearly indicated the unique characteristics of HDR reservoirs that may give this
technology an edge in the competitive energy market of tomorrow. A series of short flow tests showed that HDR
systems are particularly applicable to load-following operation in which the system output is rapidly adjusted to meet
changes in customer energy demand (Brown 1996). Figure 1 illustrates graphically the results of one short test series
in which the energy production from the Phase II reservoir was increased by 60% over a baseline level for a period of
4 hours each day on several successive days, and then returned to the baseline output for the remainder of each 24-
hour period.

I I I

42 6 MW

i
cc 7.9 -
B
Production Flow
4MWt
4.7 i i
06:00 18:00 06:00 18:00 06:00

Time
Figure 1. Cyclic testing at Fenton Hill showed that HDR systems are well suited for electricity demand load-following
applications because the energy production rate can be rapidly increased substantially above a baseline
production level on a daily basis, and held at that enhanced production level for an extended time period.

The variable production schedule depicted in Figure 1 was achieved with only small (<12°C) excursions in the
production well temperature. After the initial parameters were established, it was automatically implemented each day
via the computer control and feedback system in place at the surface plant. This short load-following experiment, in
conjunction with additional cyclic operating data generated over the 4 years of flow-testing of the Phase II reservoir,
unambiguously demonstrated that HDR reservoirs can be used to store energy for release only when it is most
economically valuable.

DOE Actions Directed Toward Implementing HDR Power Production. In 1993, on the basis of the promising
results of the Fenton Hill Phase II reservoir testing, the DOE solicited private sector interest in HDR technology. More
than 40 responses were received indicating a strong industrial interest in the development of a power-producing HDR
facility (Duchane 1995). In the face of this positive feedback, the DOE, in late 1994, issued a formal solicitation

-312
seeking industrial partners to construct and operate a facility that would produce and market energy derived from an
HDR resource (GRC 1995). Several proposals were submitted over the next few months. An expert panel, convened
under the auspices of the DOE, met in June 1995 to evaluate the technical merit of those proposals that complied
with the organizational requirements of the solicitation. After a thorough review the expert panel recommended that
an award be issued and the project go forward. In October of 1995, however, the DOE changed its course on HDR,
withdrew the solicitation, ordered the closure of the Fenton Hill HDR test facility, and announced that the US HDR
Program would be redirected.

THE CURRENT STATUS OF HDR WORK IN THE USA

Initial Steps in Redirecting the US HDR Program. In announcing the restructuring of HDR work in the United
States, the DOE stated that it intended to defer commercialization of HDR technology and instead would refocus the
HDR program to “work with industry and other interested parties to resolve the key technical issues.” The
announcement went on to state that the Los Alamos National Laboratory was expected to play a continuing role in
technology development. Shortly thereafter, the DOE asked the Geothermal Energy Association (GEA) to convene
an industry panel to make recommendations on the future directions of HDR research and development in the United
States.

The GEA panel met during the first week of December 1995 at the offices of Unocal Geothermal in Santa Rosa,
California, USA. For the first day and one-half of the meeting, HDR experts from the US HDR Program at Los Alamos
National Laboratory, the Japanese and European HDR programs, universities, and other organizations with HDR
knowledge discussed all aspects of HDR technology, economics, and policy. The GEA committee then met in
executive session to develop a set of "industry” recommendations on the future course of HDR in the USA. These
recommendations were immediately presented in preliminary form to Allan Hoffman, then DOE Acting Deputy
Assistant Secretary for the Office of Utility Technologies.

A formal report on the GEA meeting has never been issued, but a summary of the panel's recommendations
appeared in an International Geothermal Association insert in the Geothermal Resources Council Bulletin in early
1996 (Wright 1996). As reported therein, the industry group affirmed the importance of HDR to the future of the
geothermal industry, suggested that HDR technology should be integrated into the conventional geothermal industry,
and proposed that the acronym "HDR" be replaced with a new term that would encompass all geothermal resources
requiring artificial measures beyond current technology to achieve commercial heat extraction. They did not,
however, offer any suggestions as to what the new term should be. The group also made the following specific
recommendations:

* Unify management of all geothermal R&D programs and include HDR elements
within the unified program.

* Convene a panel to formulate short- and long- term geothermal R&D goals
including the long-term commercialization of HDR.

* Establish a peer-review committee to evaluate the current status of the US

HDR Program, publish its findings, and implement technology transfer to move
HDR technology into the geothermal mainstream.

* Mothball the Fenton Hill site.

* Coordinate US geothermal R&D efforts with HDR programs in other countries.

Decommission of the Fenton Hill HDR Site. Concurrent with its decision to redirect HDR work in the United
States, and in variance with the above recommendations, the DOE ordered the full decommission and closure of the
HDR field test facility at Fenton Hill, NM. Between March and December of 1996, 3 of the 4 deep geothermal wells at
Fenton Hill and all but a few of the numerous shallow wells that had been used for heat flow measurements, seismic
monitoring, and other supporting activities, were plugged and abandoned. The surface plant was completely
dismantled and other decommission measures were implemented. Essentially all of the geothermal equipment and
materials were placed in indefinite storage at Fenton Hill for possible application in future DOE projects. The Los
Alamos HDR program is interested in transferring excess equipment to other organizations that may find them useful
to advance HDR technology, and efforts to cooperate with the programs of other nations in this regard are currently
underway.

Responsibility for the few remaining wellbores is being assumed by the Los Alamos National Laboratory. These
will be used for a variety of petroleum-related tool development projects currently underway and will be available for
future projects that may be undertaken by the Laboratory. Many of the assets at the Fenton Hill site will be
transferred to other Los Alamos projects. The ponds at the site, for example, will be transferred to an astrophysical
project that is already underway. The United States Forest Service, the owner of the property on which the Fenton Hill
HDR facility was developed, has also expressed an interest in using the site for training forest fire fighters. It thus
-313-
appears that Fenton Hill will continue to be utilized for many years into the future, but unfortunately its role as the
world’s foremost HDR development site has come to an end.

Impending HDR Initiative by the DOE. With the closure of Fenton Hill, the potential for direct HDR field work in the
United States is essentially zero. In a recent publication, the DOE stated that it plans to maintain an HDR effort by
undertaking the following activities (Hooper & Duchane 1996):

* Solicit proposals from stakeholders for projects that would help advance the
state-of-the-art of HDR technology.

* Participate in two or more tasks under the HDR part of the proposed International
Energy Agreement on geothermal energy.

* Issue a final report archiving the Fenton Hill experience for use by interested stakeholders.

* Develop a five-year plan for technology improvements needed by the geothermal industry to increase
their confidence in HDR technology.

The DOE has also indicated that it intends to commission a review of the US HDR Program that will evaluate the
accomplishments to date and make suggestions for the future course of the program. Perhaps these suggestions will
form the basis for the five-year plan mentioned above. As another step to increase private sector participation in US
HDR work, the DOE is planning to seek a private organization to manage the reformulated HDR effort.

As this paper is being written, no definitive steps have been taken to implement any of the planned new
directions in HDR work. The HDR budget in the US declined from somewhat over $3 million in Fiscal Year 1996 to less
than $2 million in 1997, and the future of federally-funded HDR work is highly uncertain, especially in the face of low
energy prices the US and a strong pressure to balance the national budget.

Other HDR Activities in the US. Although federal support for HDR research and development in the US is in a
state of uncertainty, there are a number of opportunities to advance the state of HDR with funding from other
sources. The State of California recently passed legislation that will provide very significant appropriations for
research, development and demonstration work on renewable energy technologies. At the invitation of the California
Energy Commission, representatives of the Los Alamos FDR program are participating in workshops and hearings
that will help determine the rules under which the available funds are allocated. Because California is a state with
extensive high-grade HDR resources and has a well-developed geothermal industry already in existence, there is a
significant potential for the development of an advanced HDR project with a combination of state, private, and
perhaps minor federal funding.

A number of private entrepreneurs have indicated an interest in taking the HDR technology proven at Fenton Hill
to the next step of implementation. These projects, which generally entail applying HDR technology to unique
situations, are in the early stages of development and will, no doubt, involve many proprietary activities if they move
forward.

SUMMARY

In late 1995, the DOE decided to change the focus of FOR work in the United States by stepping back from a
drive toward commercialization of the technology. The Fenton Hill FDR test facility has been decommissioned and
guidance from the US geothermal industry has been sought to help formulate future HDR directions. Initial industry
recommendations emphasized integrating HDR work into other geothermal R&D programs, assembling one or more
panels to take an in-depth look at the state of HDR technology for the purpose of developing short- and long-term
research and development goals, and increasing cooperation with HDR programs in other countries.

The DOE recently indicated that it intends to actively solicit proposals for HDR projects in the United States and
will participate in at least two of the HDR tasks being formulated under the International Energy Agreement on
geothermal energy. The DOE will also issue a final report summarizing and archiving the accomplishments at Fenton
Hill. For the longer term, the DOE plans to turn the management of HDR R&D over to a private-sector contractor and
to develop a five-year plan for achieving HDR technology improvements of interest to the geothermal industry.

The federal budget for HDR has been declining recently, and current trends in federal spending in the United
States give no indication that these budget declines are likely to be reversed in the near future. There is some non-
federal public and private industry interest in HDR development in the United States, but these efforts are still in their
formative stages.
REFERENCES

Brown, D. W., 1996. Experimental Verification of the Load-Following Potential of a Hot Dry Rock Geothermal
Reservoir, Proceedings of the Twenty-First Workshop on Geothermal Reservoir Engineering, Stanford Univ.,
Stanford, CA, p 281-285.

Duchane, D. V. 1996. Geothermal Energy from Hot Dry Rock: A Renwable Energy Technology Moving Toward
Practical Implementation, Proceedings of World Renewable Energy Congress, Denver, CO, USA, (15-21 June),
Vol II, p 1246-1249.

Duchane, D. V., 1995, Heat Mining: Putting HDR Technology to Practical Use, Proceedings of US Department of
Energy Geothermal Program Reveiw XIII, San Francisco, CA (13-16 March), p 8-19 to 8-26.

Dash, Z. V., H. D. Murphy, and G. M. Cremer, Eds., 1981. Hot Dry Rock Geothermal Reservoir Testing: 1978 to 1980,
Los Alamos National Laboratory Report LA-9080-SR.

Geothermal Resource Council, 1995. Solicitation for Cooperative Agreement - Hot Dry Rock Geothermal Energy
Systems Development of a Plant to Produce and Market Electric Power or Thermal Energy, Geothermal
Resources Council Bulletin, Vol.24, No.1 (January), p 31-32.

Hooper, G. and D. Duchane, 1996. Hot Dry Rock: An Untapped Resource, The Sustainable Energy Industry Journal,
Vol. 1, No. 2, European Media Marketing, Ltd., London, (Autumn), p 58-61.

Potter, R. M., E. S. Robinson, and M. C. Smith, 1974. Method of Extracting Heat from Dry Geothermal Reservoirs,
U.S. Patent #3,786,858.

Wright, P. M., 1996. WORKSHOP REPORT Recommendations for Hot Dry Rock Research, IGA News October-
December 1995, Insert in Geothermal Resources Council Bulletin, Vol. 25, No. 2 (February), Insert p 4-5.

- 315-
 !

REVIEW OF FENTON HILL HDR TEST RESULTS

Donald BROWN

Los Alamos National Laboratory

ABSTRACT

Results of recent flow testing at Fenton Hill, New Mexico, have been examined in light
of their applicability to the development of commercial-scale hot dry rock (HDR)
reservoirs at other sites. These test results, obtained during the cumulative 11 months of
reservoir flow testing between 1992 and 1995, show that there was no significant
production temperature drawdown during this time and that the reservoir flow became
more dispersed as flow testing proceeded. Based on these test results together with
previous HDR research at Fenton Hill and elsewhere, it is concluded that a three-well
geometry, with one centrally located injection well and two production wells — one at
each end of the pressure-stimulated reservoir region - would provide a much more
productive system for future HDR development than the two-well system tested at
Fenton Hill.

INTRODUCTION

The emphasis of this paper is on the major results of reservoir flow testing at Fenton
Hill, NM from 1992 to 1995. A more extensive — but non-inclusive — summary of the
results from 20 years of HDR research at Los Alamos National Laboratory’s Fenton Hill
test site was presented at the World Geothermal Congress, 1995, in Florence, Italy
(Brown, 1995). At the outset, it should be emphasized that in the original meaning, an
HDR reservoir is a man-made geothermal system where the reservoir fluid is supplied by
an engineered means, and geofluid production is managed so that under normal, steady-
state operating conditions, the rates of injection and production are nearly the same, save
for the amount of fluid lost from the periphery of the reservoir region. In this context,
the surface fluid pressures and flow rates are under the control of the operator, whose
main objective is to optimize the thermal power production from the reservoir under the
constraint of an upper pressure limit above which the previously confined reservoir
region will start to grow.

This paper emphasizes only three points that we feel are the most important results
obtained from the 11-months of HDR reservoir flow testing conducted from 1992 to
1995. The first two points are based directly on the flow testing and related experimental
data, while the third point, which draws on the total HDR experience at Fenton Hill and
elsewhere, looks to the future of HDR. These points are as follows:

• There was no significant production temperature drawdown over 11 months of flow

testing at Fenton Hill.
• The reservoir flow became more dispersed as flow testing proceeded.

- 316-
 A three-well geometry (one injector and two producers) would provide a much more
productive system for future HDR development than the two-well system tested at
Fenton Hill.

NO SIGNIFICANT TEMPERATURE DRAWDOWN

Figure 1 presents a typical temperature profile across the openhole interval in the
production well at Fenton Hill. This stepwise profile shows the principal joint
intersections with the wellbore (at least 8 can be identified), while points A, B, and C
represent fluid temperatures at selected depths along the production interval for
comparative purposes. Point D represents the mixed-mean reservoir fluid production
temperature at a location just above the highest flowing joint. The companion Table I
lists the temperatures for these 4 points at 4 different times during the recent flow
testing period.

3200 m 3505 m 3810 m

Table 1
Comparison of Fluid Temperatures at Four
July 16,1992 Wireline Log
245 - Specific PointsAcross the Production Interval, C

Date of Log: 7/16/92 9/29/92 3/16/93 6/22/95

Point A, 3610 m 234.5 233.9 231.5 229.7

(11,840 ft)
g- 235 - Point B, 3450 m
(11,320 ft) 233.4 232.9 232.4 230.6

230 -
Point C, 3350 m 232.0 231.7 231.5 230.0
(10,990 ft)
Point D, 3280 m 228.2 228.1 227.8 227.3
2251---- (10,750 ft)
10500 11000 11500 12000 12500
Depth, feet
Figure 1. A typical temperature profile across the
reservoir production interval.

Two significant features of the reservoir thermal behavior can be discerned from the data
shown in Table I. First, there was less than a 1°C cooldown in the reservoir outlet
temperature (Point D) over the duration of flow testing between 1992 and 1995. Only
0.4° of this temperature drop occurred during the 8 months between July 1992 and May
1993, an interval representing the majority of the flow testing. However, there was a
0.5°C temperature drop during the much longer time interval between March 1993 and
June 1995 which included a 2-year hiatus when the reservoir was shut-in, but maintained
at a pressure level between 10 and 15 MPa.

Second, there appeared to be a flattening of the temperature profile across the

production interval as the flow testing proceeded. This latter feature suggests that during
both periods of pressure maintenance without flow, and during high-pressure flow
testing with the mean reservoir pressure maintained at a level of about 24 MPa above
hydrostatic, buoyant convection was active within the pressure-dilated joint network of
the reservoir, tending to flatten the vertical temperature gradient at the production
wellbore.

-317-
Without significant thermal drawdown (10 to 20°C at a minimum) accompanying an
extended period of reservoir circulation, it is essentially impossible to determine the
effective heat-transfer (i.e., circulating-flow-accessible) volume of an HDR reservoir.
Even if the mean joint spacing were known, one could only obtain a lower bound to the
size of the effective heat-transfer volume for the given circulation time. Figure 2 shows
the modeled production temperature behavior for a fully flow-accessible HDR reservoir
with a volume of 50 million m3 and a flow rate of 31.5 1/s, for three effective joint
spacings: 10, 25 and 50 m. These results were obtained using the GEOCRACK
reservoir model developed at Kansas State University (McLarty, 1996).

10 meter spacing
25 meter spacing

50 meter spacing

I- 100

Time, years
Figure 2. The influence of joint spacing on HDR reservoir production temperature profiles for a
reservoir volume of 50 million m3 per production well at a flow rate of 31.5 1/s. These results were
obtained using the discrete element HDR reservoir simulator GEOCRACK (DuTeaux et al., 1996a,
Swenson et al., 1995.

The predicted thermal drawdown results shown in Figure 2 should closely scale to the
HDR reservoir at Fenton Hill, which had a circulating-flow-accessible (i.e., heat-transfer)
volume of about 8 million m3 (16% of the GEOCRACK modeled volume) and a
production flow rate of 5.7 1/s (18% of the GEOCRACK modeled flow rate).
Previously, a total fluid-accessible volume of 20 million m3 had been determined for the
Fenton Hill reservoir from a static (i.e., non-circulating) stepwise pressurization of the
Fenton Hill reservoir from 7.5 to 15 MPa (Brown, 1991). The effective 8 million m3
heat-transfer volume specified here was obtained by scaling down the reservoir region
shown in Figure 3, to account for the large (roughly 60%), essentially unproductive,
region south of the injection well.

318-
 Production Well

Injection Well
Present Reservoir '
Boundary

Microseismicity During:

• Initial Reservoir
Formation (Dec. 1983)

• Subsequent Reservoir > •

Growth (30-Day Flow

200m

Horizontal Distance

Figure 3: Plan view of the HDR reservoir at Fenton Hill showing the microseismic event
locations for the two principal episodes of reservoir growth. The large region to the
south of the injection well [encompassing most of the reservoir extension that occurred
during the very high pressure initial 30-day flow test of the reservoir in 1986 (Dash, 1989)]
is essentially a stagnant part of the reservoir that is unavailable for heat transfer to the fluid
flowing mostly northward from the injection well to the production well.

Because of the asymmetrical, two-well configuration, the actual heat-transfer volume of

the Fenton Hill reservoir is considerably less than the fluid-accessible volume that was
determined from the non-circulating stepwise inflation of the reservoir. However, for
future HDR reservoirs that are more fully accessed by employing two widely spaced
production wells for each centrally located injection well, these two volumes should be
essentially equivalent, since the majority of the stimulated reservoir region would then be
accessible to the circulating fluid. In this latter case, the effective joint spacing within an
HDR reservoir could be determined, after a minimum amount of cooldown, by applying
a GEOCRACK discrete-element model similar to the one used to produce the curves
shown in Figure 2.

-319
THE RESERVOIR FLOW BECAME MORE DISPERSED WITH TIME

During the 11 months of flow testing between 1992 and 1995, the reservoir flow became
more dispersed with time, rather than becoming more concentrated in a few flow paths
as cooling proceeded. This is shown graphically in Figure 4 which depicts tracer
responses on three occasions during this period of flow testing.

Normalized Time, hours

Figure 4. Recovery of fluorescein dye tracer on three occasions; early and late during the
8-months of flow testing in 1992-1993, and 4 weeks after renewed flow testing in 1995.

Although tentative at this time, it appears that when a large number of interconnected
flow paths at various orientations are open during the high-pressure operation of an
HDR reservoir, flow short-circuiting will not occur even after an extended period of
circulation. However, as discussed by DuTeau and coworkers, there exists an upper limit
to the circulating flow rate through an HDR reservoir, per unit volume of active
reservoir, before the tendency to concentrate the flow in a few, more-direct flow paths
develops (DuTeau et al., 1994).

The results shown in Figure 4 illustrate the great potential for tracers in interrogating
HDR reservoirs at selected times during flow testing or during production from a
commercial-scale reservoir. With a well-characterized conservative tracer, one could
determine the temporal variation in the net aggregate of the reservoir flow paths and the
effective (i.e., circulating) reservoir fluid volume, as was recently done at Fenton Hill. In
addition, a conservative tracer run in conjunction with an appropriate adsorbing tracer
could indicate the change in the effective reservoir heat transfer surface with time. A
simulation of this type of result is shown in Figure 5, at the end of a continuous

-320
reservoir flow period of 10 years, using particle-tracking techniques built into the
GEOCRACK reservoir model (DuTeaux et al., 1996b).

0.0250

non-reactive
0.0200

0.0150

0.0100

adsorbing
0.0050 -

0.0000

Produced Volume

Figure 5. A comparison of non-reactive and adsorbing tracers at 10 years.

If one were able to adequately calibrate an adsorbing tracer in the laboratory or in a well-
characterized in situ environment, the potential for determining the actual effective heat
transfer surface in an HDR reservoir would exist. With a known effective reservoir heat-
transfer volume as discussed above, it would then be possible to determine the mean
joint spacing within the HDR reservoir — and therefore its cooldown behavior and
effective lifetime, as illustrated in Figure 2 above. These measurements could all be done
during the early stages of production from the HDR system, when appropriate system
or reservoir modifications could still be made to adjust the reservoir productivity and/or
lifetime, if necessary.

ADVANTAGES OF A THREE-WELL HDR SYSTEM

From the Los Alamos experience at Fenton Hill during the development and testing of
the present HDR reservoir, it is apparent that the pressure-stimulated reservoir region
extended preferentially, but generally symmetrically, outwards from the injection well
along an axis oriented approximately N 30° W — S 30° E. This elongate, elliptically
shaped region, as shown in Figure 3 above, developed in response to the preexisting joint
patterns in the rock mass as influenced by the contemporary stress field.

Since the least principal earth stress (a3) at Fenton Hill is oriented N 111° E (Bums,
1991), it is apparent that the joint networks within the basement rock were more
influential in determining the direction of reservoir development than the orientation of
the least principal earth stress. Therefore, it is our view that the actual three-dimensional
shape of an HDR reservoir will be principally influenced by the preexisting jointing
patterns within the rock mass, as modified by the normally anisotropic in-situ stress

- 321-
field. The reservoir volume that actually develops can be characterized from the envelope
of the microseismic events which occur during its formation and subsequent extension
(Brown, 1990). After the reservoir is extended to its ultimate size, the actual levels of the
in-situ stresses will play only a minor role in determining subsequent reservoir operating
conditions.

Again referring to Figure 3 above, the basic problems inherent with any two-well HDR
system are clear. First and foremost, if the reservoir region develops symmetrically
around the injection well, then any one production well cannot possibly access the entire
fractured reservoir. At best, only about half of the HDR reservoir will be accessible to
flow from the centrally located injection well, if the reservoir develops in a roughly
elliptical shape as occurred at Fenton Hill. Second, again as shown in Figure 3 above, any
attempt to circulate at a very high injection pressure from the injection well to a single
production well will undoubtedly result in unwanted reservoir growth on the side of the
reservoir opposite from the production well, as occurred during the very-high-pressure
flow testing at Fenton Hill in 1986 (Dash, 1989). Third, even if unwanted reservoir
growth is prevented by reducing the injection pressure, the stagnant, high-pressure
portion of the reservoir, besides being unproductive, will lead to greatly increased
permeation water losses during operation.

The obvious solution to all three of these problems is to provide a second production
well to access the dormant half of the reservoir region. This three-well configuration, at
least for the example of Fenton Hill, would provide at least four times the thermal power
output (Brown, 1994). This would be accomplished by operating at a significantly
increased injection pressure level and flowing through twice the reservoir volume. At the
same time, unwanted reservoir growth would be precluded by the pressure sinks
provided by the production wells at either end of the reservoir, shielding those parts of
the periphery most susceptible to extension from the higher injection pressures. In
combination, the two production wells would tend to reduce the absolute rate of
peripheral water loss for any given injection pressure since the average pressure level
around the periphery of the reservoir would be reduced. Further, when calculated as a
percentage of the production flow rate, the relative reservoir water loss would be very
much reduced over the two-well system because of the greatly increased production flow
provided by the three-well system.

SUMMARY

Recent flow testing results for the HDR reservoir at Fenton Hill have been examined for
their applicability to the development of commercial-scale HDR reservoirs at other sites.
These test results, obtained between 1992 and 1995, show that there was no significant
drawdown in the geofluid production temperature during this time and that the reservoir
flow became more dispersed as flow testing proceeded. Based on these test results,
together with previous HDR research at Fenton Hill and elsewhere, it is concluded that a
three-well system, with one centrally located injection well and two production wells at
or near the farthest boundaries of the reservoir region, would provide a much more
productive system for future HDR development than the two-well system tested at
Fenton Hill.

-322-
Almost all the information of relevance to determining the actual optimum operating
conditions for an HDR reservoir, including flow rate as a function of injection pressure,
joint opening pressures as determined from gradual inflation and deflation pressure
profiles, the fracture extension pressure, and overall flow impedance as a function of
both the mean reservoir pressure and production backpressure levels, could be
determined during the early phases of reservoir flow testing and subsequent reservoir
extension, if necessary. Static (non-flowing) reservoir pressure testing could be
employed to determine the flow-accessible heat-transfer volume as discussed above.

REFERENCES

Brown, D.W. (1990), Hot Dry Rock Reservoir Engineering, Geothermal Resources Council
Bulletin, 19, No. 3, p. 89-93.

Brown, D.W. (1991), Recent Progress in HDR Reservoir Engineering, Proc. US Department
of Energy Geothermal Program Review IX, March 19-21, 1991, San Francisco, CA,
CONF-913105, p. 153-157.

Brown, D. (1994), How to Achieve a Four-Fold Productivity Increase at Fenton Hill,

Geothermal Resources Council Transactions, 18, p. 405-408.

Brown, D. (1995), The US Hot Dry Rock Program — 20 Years of Experience in Reservoir
Testing, Proc. World Geothermal Congress, 1995, Florence, Italy, v. 4, p. 2607-
2611.

Bums, Kerry L. (1991), Orientation of Minimum Principal Stress in the Hot Dry Rock
Geothermal Reservoir At Fenton Hill, New Mexico, Geothermal Resources Council
Transactions, 15, p. 319-323.

Dash, Z.V., ed., 1989. ICFT: An Initial Closed-Loop Flow Test of the Fenton Hill Phase II
HDR Reservoir, Los Alamos National Laboratory Report LA-9080-SR.

DuTeau, R., T. Sprecker, and D. Swenson (1994), Preventing Short-Circuiting of Flow in

Hot Dry Rock Reservoirs, Geothermal Resources Council Transactions, 18, p. 415-
422.

DuTeaux, R, D. Swenson, and B. Hardeman (1996a), Insight from Modelling Discrete

Fractures Using GEOCRACK, Proc. 21st Workshop on Geothermal Reservoir
Engineering, Jan. 22-24, 1996, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, p. 287-293.

DuTeaux, R, B. Hardeman, and D. Swenson (1996b), Modeling the Use of Tracers to

Predict Changes in Surface Area and Thermal Breakthrough in HDR Reservoirs,
Proc. 3rd International HDR Forum, May 13-16, 1996, Santa Fe, NM (in press).

McLarty, L. and D. Entingh (1996), EERE/DOE Technology Characterization: Geothermal

Hot Dry Rock Electricity 1996 Draft Version, Princeton Economic Research for
the Office of Geothermal Technologies, US Department of Energy, Forestall Bldg.,
Washington, DC, (in press).

Swenson, D., R. DuTeau, and T. Sprecker (1995), Modeling Flow in a Jointed Geothermal
Reservoir, Proc. World Geothermal Congress, 1995, Florence, Italy, v. 4, p. 2553-
2558.

-323-
 AUSTRALIA'S FAVOURABLE GEOLOGICAL ENVIRONMENT FOR ECONOMIC
EXTRACTION OF HDR ENERGY: AND CURRENT PROPOSALS.

by Doone Wybom and Frame Chopra (Department of Geology,

Australian National University) and Malcolm Somerville
(Australian Geological Survey Organisation)

ABSTRACT

Geothermal energy has, until recently, not been regarded as a major future source of energy for Australia. However the
coupling of knowledge learned from US, European and Japanese hot dry rock (HDR) programs with an understanding of
the temperature and stress regimes pertaining to the Australian continental crust has dramatically changed that view. The
economics of extracting large amounts of HDR energy from a large rock volume with a minimum number of drill holes of
minimum depth is suggested to be highly attractive in Australia because of the unique combination of a number of
independent geological conditions. These are:
1. In much of central and eastern Australia the crustal heat generating capacity is twice that of normal continental crust.
2. Much of the Australian continent is covered by sedimentary basins which contain a high proportion of coal measures
and shales that have low thermal conductivities, thus providing an insulating blanket for the heat being generated
beneath.
3. The sedimentary basins are in many places underlain by large untectonised granite bodies that are a major contributor
to crustal heat generation. Such granite bodies are likely to be ideally suited to the establishment of HDR reservoirs
because of their homogeneous character and intricately distributed joint sets.
4. The crustal shortening stress field that is found in the majority of the Australian continental crust results in a vertical
minimum principal stress orientation which should result in horizontal propagation during fracture stimulation.

As a result of the new understanding plans are being put into place to attempt to exploit these energy resources.

A study of the rock properties and stress conditions in the Cooper Basin area of South Australia has begun, and will lead
into a microfracture stimulation program in a gas exploration well to determine the extent and direction of fracture
propagation. The project is funded by the Australian Government through the Energy Research and Development
Corporation, and by a number of industry partners.

In the northern part of the Sydney Basin a geothermal anomaly discovered by the local electricity utility during a search
for coal-bed methane is the focus of attention. A
company with part ownership by major Australian
resource and mining companies has been established
to carry out a pilot two-well circulation program.

INTRODUCTION

The extent of geothermal energy use in Australia up to

the present has been limited to low temperature direct
heating of public buildings in the city of Portland in
western Victoria, and to small scale electricity
generation (150KWe) using an organic Rankine Cycle
system from 100°C water at the remote town of
Birdsville in western Queensland. However, a recent
report published by the Energy Research and
Development Corporation (Somerville et al., 1994) HIGH GEOTHERMAL GRADIENT
REGIONS OF AUSTRALIA
documents the hot dry rock (HDR) geothermal energy
potential for electricity generation. It concludes that
Australia has a large high grade HDR resource at depths Fjgure i. Distribution of high geothermal gradient
of less than 5km, equivalent to 7500 times the present areas across Australia. Most areas are coincident
annual energy consumption. Here high grade is defined as with basins containing low conductivity sediments,
hot enough to generate electricity, or above 150°C. Most

- 324-
of this resource (80%) underlies the Great Artesian Basin in central to eastern Australia, but favourable sites are
distributed across the country (Fig. 1). The high HDR potential is possibly unique in the world, in that the potential sites
mostly lie beneath sedimentary basins, with the best sites corresponding to gravity lows interpreted as buried granitic
bodies. The resources residing in these granitic bodies at depths shallower than 5km contain the equivalent of 830 times
Australia’s present annual energy consumption.

GEOLOGICAL SETTING

Australia is situated wholly in an intraplate environment in the Indian-Australian Plate. The most recent volcanic activity
that could have contributed to heating of the upper crust is related to the passing of Australia over a mantle hot spot
millions of years ago. The geothermal energy potential relating to this volcanism is small. However hot springs and hot
artesian water is widely distributed in Australia. The Great Artesian Basin is the most well known area (Habermehl,
1980). It underlies 1.7 million square kilometres of Australia (about 22%), and is currently producing around 1 million
cubic metres of water per day from 3000 wells. The high water temperatures in the basin appear to be related to high
crustal heat production mainly from underlying granitic rocks, as suggested by Koch (1985). High geothermal gradients in
oil and gas exploration wells from sub-basins beneath the Great Artesian Basin are closely correlated with known granitic
bodies in the basement that have been intersected in drilling, or occur near gravity lows that can be interpreted as
basement granites. Measurements of heat productivity in basement granites intersected in exploration wells commonly
give up to 10 pwatts per cubic metre.

High geothermal gradients in other basins are also possibly correlated with high heat production granites in the basement.
Two 800m wells drilled by Pacific Power 5km apart in the northern Sydney Basin have geothermal gradients twice that of
other wells in the region. Subsequent gravity measurements outlined a surrounding gravity low about 10km by 15km. The
basement is estimated at a depth of 3.5km in this area, with possible temperatures at that depth of 200°C. Assuming that
the gravity low corresponds to a buried granite, this area is a prime target for HDR development. It lies only 15km from
one of Australia’s largest coal-fired power stations, and is centrally located to major industry, population centres, water
supply and the national electricity grid.

STATE BREAKDOWN OF POTENTIAL SITES

1. South Australia: The Cooper Basin, a sub-basin of the Great Artesian Basin in the NE of the State, has long been
known for its high geothermal gradients. Koch (1985) states that “the Cooper Basin must be one of the most significant
geothermal areas in the world”. The highest gradients are associated with the gravity low from the deepest central part of
the basin where nine wells have intersect high heat production granites in the basement. The area of granite is estimated at
900 square kilometres, with an average temperature of 260°C between 3.5km and 5km depth (Somerville et al., 1994).
This area is the highest grade HDR resource known in Australia, but it is far removed from population centres.

2. Queensland: Several gravity lows beneath the Great Artesian Basin in western Queensland are thought to be buried
granites with relatively high rock temperatures. The Betoota gravity low appears the most promising. It has an area of 750
square kilometres, with an average rock temperature shallower than 5km estimated at 230°C.

Closer to population centres are a number of narrow rift basins near the central coast of Queensland containing thick shale
oil deposits. High geothermal gradients are expected in these basins, and if thicknesses of several kilometres can be
proven, there is the potential for relatively high temperatures at their base.

3. New South Wales: The gravity low in the northern Sydney Basin mentioned above is a prime target for HDR
development. Its area of about 150 square kilometres could contain enough high grade HDR energy to provide New South
Wales with all its electricity needs for the next 50 years. Other well defined gravity lows are known within the Sydney
Basin, but drilling has not been sufficiently well spaced to determine if they are associated with high geothermal gradients.

4. Western Australia: In the northern Perth Basin, quite close to large population centres, relatively high temperatures are
associated with rift faulting and basement granites. This area is similar to the Rhine Graben site for the European Hot Dry
Rock Project at Soultz (Baria et al, 1995), in that there are already hydraulically active fracture zones known from the
basement. Development of the site could potentially follow a successful program at Soultz.

- 325-
5. Victoria: No high grade HDR sites are known in Victoria, but aquifers within the Gippsland and Otway Basins are
bringing moderately hot water close to the surface along the Victorian coast. This water is already being used for direct
heating at Portland, and could potentially be used to a much greater extent.

IMPLICATIONS FROM THE AUSTRALIAN CRUSTAL STRESS FIELD

The intraplate environment of Australia is similar to most other cratonic areas, in that the majority of the Australian crust
is in a crustal shortening regime (Denham & Windsor, 1991) where fault types are overthrust and the minimum principal
stress axis is close to vertical. This fundamental characteristic of the crust has been determined using earthquake focal
mechanisms, hydrofracture experiments, well bore breakouts, and overcoring experiments. The implication is that HDR
reservoirs will tend to have horizontal or sub-horizontal orientation rather than the vertical or sub-vertical orientation of
HDR experimental sites elsewhere. A second general result of the stress observations is that there is considerable regional
variation in the orientation of the maximum principal stress axis. This does not have particular implications for HDR
reservoir engineering except to suggest that, while in general, crustal blocks in Australia are tending to overthrust each
other, there is a tendency for horizontal wrenching in some zones, as borne out by some strike-slip and oblique-thrust focal
mechanisms. In these zones, HDR reservoirs would tend to have vertical or sub-vertical orientations.

The experience of HDR experiments performed to date indicates that an injection test carried out at a representative
Australian site would stimulate a horizontal or sub-horizontal reservoir zone. The zone would have maximum elongation
in a direction close to the maximum principal stress axis. Fractures most readily opened would be horizontal, and shear
fractures most readily activated by release of tectonic strain would be inclined at about 30° to the horizontal. The zone
would have minimum extent in a vertical or sub-vertical direction.

There are several important implications of a sub-horizontal reservoir geometry. Firstly, water migrating horizontally
away from the injection well would be flowing through rock at near-isothermal conditions. This is more favourable than
upward migration, in which case water is flowing through cooler rock, and also more favourable than downward
migration, in which case the temperature will increase but the water will tend to become inaccessible to production wells.
Secondly, in a sub-horizontal reservoir, the problem of water loss, or ‘leakage’, would be minimised, and it should be
possible to optimise production of water at temperatures prevailing at the bottom of the injection well. Thirdly, vertical
geometry for injection and production wells is optimum in terms of ease of drilling and logging. Elimination of the need
for directional drilling, which has been employed at some of the HDR experimental sites, is a significant advantage of the
crustal shortening stress regime that is characteristic of Australia.

Sub-horizontal reservoir geometry also has important implications for multi-cell reservoir design. In a crustal shortening
stress regime, it should be possible to generate a vertically-layered group of sub-horizontal reservoirs from a vertical
injection well. Decisions on the siting of a production well, or wells, would be straightforward. Sub-horizontal reservoir
geometry would provide scope for expanding the scale of an HDR facility virtually without limit by drilling additional
vertical wells. Moreover, with sub-horizontal reservoir cells, there would be options for engineering additional cells in
both vertical and horizontal directions (Figure 2).

The existence of a crustal shortening regime does however have an important consequence on the injection pressure that
may be required to generate a reservoir. In crustal shortening regimes, the minimum principal stress is vertical, and
equivalent in magnitude to the lithostatic pressure. In general, fluid pressures at least as high as this are required to open
existing fractures in the rock. Thus, although shear failure may be induced at lower pressures, provision must be made,
when planning an injection experiment, for borehole pressures at least as high as the minimum principal stress. The
lithostatic pressure at the depth of a typical HDR test in granite overlain by a thermal blanket of sediments is likely to be in
the order of lOOmPa corresponding to a depth of 4 to 4.5km. The hydrostatic head at this depth is 40 to 45 mPa, so
injection pressures of up to 60mPa are required to overcome the minimum principal stress. This pressure is higher than
has been used in HDR testing to date. Such pressures are not, however, uncommon in oilfield fracturing operations, and
the technology is well understood. Furthermore, while the minimum principal stress is large in crustal shortening regimes,
it is at least predictably large, thereby obviating the need for hydrofracture stress measurements to determine its
magnitude.

The high pressures pertaining in an HDR reservoir at 4km depth in a crustal shortening regime could be advantageous for
reducing water losses during circulation. The reservoir will be surrounded by an unstimulated envelope of granite whose

-326-
permeability will be lower than granite under lower confining pressures. This may help keep the water confined to the
stimulated region, thus minimising water losses.

lOOMWe HOT DRY ROCK

RESERVOIR DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM
FIVE CELL FRACTURE PROGRAM
FROM A SINGLE WELL
Nine Wells, four cubic kilometres of stimulated reservoir

Direction of minimum
principal stress

250°C
2nd frac. through
perforated casing
1 st frac. in
open hole
5 KILOMETRES

Direction of maximum horizontal stress

◄------------------------------- ►
Figure 2. Hypothetical development of stacked horizontal stimulation cells producing
approximately 1 cubic kilometre of HDR reservoir from one vertical well, and showing how
these could be packed together to build larger systems. The system shown requires 9 wells
and could produce lOOMWe from 4 cubic kilometres of stimulated reservoir.

In summary, HDR reservoir engineering in a crustal shortening regime will differ from most HDR experiments to date in
that higher injection pressures will be required, and the geometry of the reservoir generated by stimulation will be sub­
horizontal rather than sub-vertical. Overall, a crustal shortening regime appears to be more favourable than others, despite
the need for higher injection pressure, because of advantages in reservoir geometry and drilling requirements. This should
considerably reduce the cost of development of multicell reservoirs, and most importantly deliver economically attractive
large scale HDR multiwell systems.

CURRENT RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT PROPOSALS

Two projects are currently being planned. The first has secured funding from the Energy Research and Development
Corporation and a number of industry partners. The project is focused on the mechanisms of fluid pressure induced
fracture and sub-surface reservoir engineering in hot, low permeability, highly stressed rocks of the deep parts of the
Cooper Basin in NE South Australia. It has a dual aim of enhancing natural gas recovery from this region, and proving the
relationship between horizontal fracture propagation and a crustal shortening stress field. A microfracture stimulation trial
is due to take place in early 1999 involving a seismic monitoring network, and pumping to a depth of 3km where the rock
temperature is around 200°C. Additionally, high pressure and temperature laboratory facilities will be used to determine
fracture permeability enhancement during shearing along joints in granite samples.

The second project will capitalise on the experience of the first, and is focussed on the high geothermal gradient area
coincident with a gravity low in the northern Sydney Basin. The site is adjacent to the Hunter River south of the town of
Muswellbrook. A group of Australian resource companies has formed a research company known as Hot Rock Energy Pty
Ltd. The company plans to characterise the geothermal anomaly with further shallow drilling and seismic reflection

-327-
surveys leading to the drilling of a 3km slim hole. If a buried high heat production granite is indicated, then two wells will
be drilled to a depth of 4.5km. The aim is to create a series of horizontal stimulation cells stacked up the first well (Figure
2), with the extremities of the cells intersected by the second well. Success in this project could lead to the building of a
demonstration power plant of about 20MWe on top, and future expansion into a multiwell system similar to that depicted
in Figure 2.

CONCLUSIONS

Australia has large volumes of high grade HDR resources at depths of less than 5km. As far as is known, there are no
other parts of the world where large volumes of high temperature rock (>200°C) occur close to the earth’s surface in a
crustal shortening stress field. It is this fact that gives Australia its unique advantage. The attempts to extract HDR energy
resources from high temperature rocks in Japan, Europe and USA have all taken place in stress fields which have
produced vertically extensive reservoirs, and, to date, have failed on economic grounds. In the Australian crustal
shortening stress field the reservoirs should be oriented horizontally, an ideal geometry to maximise reservoir size with a
minimum number wells. This fact alone makes it essential that Australia takes a new initiative on a HDR extraction
research program. Two projects, one in northern South Australia and one in the northern Sydney Basin in New South
Wales are about to commence to capitalise on the unique geological environment.

REFERENCES

Baria, R., Garnish, J., Baumgartner, J., Gerard, A., and Jung, R., 1995. Recent developments in the European HDR
research programme at Soultz-Sous-Forets (France). Proceedings of the World Geothermal Congress, Florence, Italy,
1995. International Geothermal Association, volume 4, 2631-2637.

Denham, D., and Windsor, C.R., 1991. The crustal stress pattern in the Australian continent. Exploration Geophysics, 22,
101-105.

Habermehl, M.A., 1980. The Great Artesian Basin, Australia. BMR Journal of Australian Geology and Geophysics, 5, 9-
38.

Koch, R.D., 1985. Geothermal - South Australia’s future energy bonanza. Journal of the South Australian Chamber of
Mines, April 1985, pp 22-26.

Somerville, M. D. Wyborn, P. N. Chopra, S. S. Rahman, D. Estrella and T. van der Meulen (1994). Hot Dry Rocks
Feasibility Study, Energy Research and Development Corporation Report 94/243, pp 133.

-328-
 AN ATTEMPT TOWARDS A CONCEPTUAL MODEL DERIVED
FROM 1993-1996 HYDRAULIC OPERATIONS AT SOULTZ

A. GERARD1, J. BAUMGARTNER1, R. BARIA1, R. JUNG2

‘Socomine, Route de Kutzenhausen, BP 39, 67250 Soultz-sous-Forets, France

Bundesanstalt fiir Geowissenschaften und Rohstoffe, Stilleweg 2, 30631 Hannover, Germany

ABSTRACT

The aim of the ongoing research programme at Soultz-sous-Forets is to understand & define the requirements
for heat mining in the specific tectonic conditions of a Graben area.

The recent hydraulic tests have demonstrated the possibilities of developing a very large permeable volume at
great depth (around 3000 m) using hydraulic stimulation and then to initiate circulations between wells with large
separation (450 m).

A preliminary general conceptual model is proposed. Hydraulic testing of the system developed will be
continued in 1997 in order to determine additional parameters for the model of such a large system.

1. INTRODUCTION

The Soultz geothermal HDR research programme is located in the Rhine Graben, 50 km North of
Strasbourg, very close to the German Border.

This project is aimed at the development of forced fluid transfers between wells in the deep granitic rocks
which are covered by sedimentary rocks with variable thickness (1.4 km at Soultz). It is a heat mining project
aiming to recover the heat stored in the rock mass rather than the heat contained in hydrothermal waters.

Even if the characteristics of this

site are dominated by a specific and
advantageous “Graben tectonic”, the
expected success will open up a
considerable larger geothermal resources
in the future leading to a long term
continuous development in the
exploitation of regional targets. This
could expand the present accessible
geothermal resources in Europe beyond
those which are exceptional and limited
to hydrothermal systems.

Activities on site at Soultz

started with a preliminary exploration
4601
hole in 1987 (2000 m deep) where a (1600m)

bottom hole temperature of 140°C was (2227m)

observed (Schellschmidt & Schulz,
PLAN VIEW OF THE NETWORK
1991). This was interpreted as a result
of deep water circulation through a dense ^616 Figure 1
fracture network. In order to allow the T4550

fluid to migrate, it was considered

iNg %PK1 WELL NETWORK
necessary for some of these fractures to
have minor, but non negligible,
T *t’S'
at SOULTZ
(as being available 01Z03/95)
S|GPK2
permeability. This deep water 3590 m 160° C
"^4601
circulation by itself offers a good
explanation for the higher temperature 0 500m 1000m gQg Well heads to cations ^------- 3900m
gradient observed in the sediments (up 1 i
to 3 times the normal value) - an

-329-
anomaly which covers an area of about 3000 km2 in the Rhine Graben, the target for potential future exploitation.

From 1987 to date (Baria et al., 1995), the project has been progressively reinforced in terms of
infrastructure on site. In parallel with the step by step enhancement of the network of the wells (figure 1), a
series of hydraulic stimulation and circulation tests were performed in order to collect enough data for a preliminary
definition of a model. This could then be used as a guide for future experiments leading to a successful scientific
pilot plant. This paper makes an attempt to produce such a model that describes or explains the underground
behaviour.

2. MAIN DATA USED TO DEFINE THE MODEL

2.1 The stress regime at Soultz

The stress regime at Soultz was obtained using the hydrofracture stress measurement method (Klee and
Rummel, 1993). The stress magnitude at Soultz as a function of depth ( for 1458-3506 m depth) can be
summarised as:

Least horizontal stress Sh = 15.8 + 0.0149 . (Z - 1458)

Max. horizontal stress Sh = 23.7 + 0.0336 . (Z - 1458)
Overburden stress Sv = 33.8 + 0.0255

The direction of Sh was assessed from borehole images such as FMS/FMI and BHTV. These measurements
indicate that between 2000 and 3500 m the direction of Sh is about N170eE.

Extrapolating the above given stress profiles and implementing the fluid density of the brines found in situ
shows that even at greater depth fluid injection in favourably oriented joints may be rather easy. It can be
expected that the necessary overpressure during injection (downhole) which was found to be in the order of 10-
13 Mpa in the depth range investigated so far (2800 - 3600 m, overall these values do agree with the stress
measurements) will be in the order of 16-17 Mpa at around 5000 m.

2.2 Geological situation before stimulation

The geological synthesis (Center et al., 1995) is based on the geophysical logs performed during and
immediately after the drilling of the two deep near vertical wells GPK1 and GPK2, and on the cores (Center and
Traineau, 1992a & 1992b) collected in the inclined well EPS1 (figure 1). The well-bore imaging tools (BHTV*,
FMI-0+) detected numerous fractures, some of them were drilling induced but most of them were pre-existing
natural joints. It would appear that the granite in Soultz contains a very dense fracture network, most of them
being subvertical and some embedded in hydrothermalized zones, oriented at N140° to N200°, dipping E or W
between 55° and 80°. The vertical nature of the deep wells may cause additional vertical structures not to show up
and thus cause some bias against detection of vertical joints.

The natural joints are rather randomly distributed in depth, with a mean frequency of around one per 2 m and
a sizeable proportion embedded in “hydrothermalised” granite. The core samples from the hydrothermalised zones
show that:

The rock matrix inside the hydrothermalized zones has a poor mechanical resistance and is rather
“porous” compared with the sound granite ;
most of the joints are plugged by soft and rather porous filling materials i.e. hydrothermal deposits.

Taking into account the fact that for a large proportion the joints are strongly dipping and the sub-vertical
inclination of the wells, it would appear that the mean frequency of these joints along an horizontal cross section
may be probably higher than 1 /meter.

During various drilling operations (GPK1 + GPK2 + EPS1), a total length of about 5000 m of granite
was sampled logged to a maximum depth of 3800 m. The wells inside the granite crossed some 10 “permeable”
fracture zones (faults) identified from their drilling mud losses and/or their thermal signatures just after drilling.
These “permeable” fracture zones/faults seem in a large proportion dipping around 70-75° (E and W) and oriented
grossly N-S.

Borehole Televiewer (ultrasonic images of the structures in boreholes)

+ Oriented Formaiton Micro-Imager (borehole wall resistivity image)

330
 On an average one “permeable” fracture zone was found each 500 m along the vertical profiles.
Considering their sub-vertical dip angle, the mean normal distance between two of these fracture zones can be
estimated at 200-250 m. No obvious hydraulic connection between the “permeable” fracture zones in the
crystalline and the major faults seen in the sediments could be identified from vibroseis surveys.

It had also been observed that the center of the distribution of the azimuths of the joint network is oriented
around 170°N, which is also the orientation of the maximum horizontal component of the stress field.

2.3 Data obtained during hydraulic injection tests

2.3.1 Hydraulic stimulation of GPK1 in 1993.

During the summer of 1993, the open hole of GPK1 (from the casing shoe at 2850 m to the bottom at
3590 m) was stimulated extensively using cold fresh water. During several stimulation phases a total of
45,000 m3 was injected at a maximum flow rate of about 50 1/s. Microseimic monitoring was carried out during
this period which indicated that the overpressure required to shear the most favourable joints (reservoir extension
pressure) was around 6 MPa at about 2900 m depth. Microseismic maps produced during these stimulations
(figure 2) show a North South expanse of the events which is consistent with the direction of maximum
horizontal stress. There was also some upward migration of events (above 2800 m) towards the latter part of the
main injection test (figure 2), when the horizontal extent of the stimulation had reached about 400 m on both sides
of the well.

Overall, it can be observed in

GPK1 open hole
figure 2, that most of the events are
Vertical depth distributions of the microseismic events generated
more or less symmetrically distributed
during GPK1(1993) and GPK2(1995) stimulations <
down and above the casing shoe of Figure 2
GPK2 open hole

GPK1, between 2500 m and 3200 m.

GPK1:15691 events
This suggests that the maximum GPK2:5344 events

impact of the stimulation occurred in

S 2
this depth range and the centre of the
spread is at the casing shoe as §>!_

expectable if we consider the fact that

it is at this depth that the difference
between the minimum horizontal
stress value and the hydrostatic
pressure is minimum. Two additional
impact zones appeared deeper at 3200
m and at 3500 m (at large natural DEPTH (m)
fracture zones). XL § §
[

The flow logs carried out during

the stimulation of GPK1 showed that
the main hydraulic outlet zone was
>W DISTRIBUTION DURING INJECTIONS IN GPK1
close to the casing shoe (60% within
75 m of the casing shoe). Other
significant outlets were observed at
around 3.2 and 3.5 km (figure 3), Figure 3

which is in good agreement with the

initiation of the microseismicity near
the well and the locations of the
secondary peaks in the microseismicity
depth distribution in figure 2.

The presence of the major flow

20 -•
exits in the upper part of the openhole
section of the well and the progressive --1996
upward migration of a part of the
10
microseismic events during the latter --

stage of stimulation suggests that this

was caused by the injection of the DEPTH (m)
fresh water, as the subsequent
3100
warming, in a formation full of heavy
brine set in a specific tectonic setting.

- 331-
The density variation could be up to 7% and the Archimedes pressure may contribute to the upward trend for the
microseismic events.

Nevertheless, the overall result of the operation was a success from the point of view of the injectivity
obtained after stimulation (figure 4). During the main stimulation, around 9 MPa over pressure was necessary to
inject 121/s. After stimulation less than 2 MPa over pressure was required to inject the same flowrate. For
higher flowrates, the injectivity after stimulation improved slightly less i.e. 3.2 MPa was required to inject 18 1/s.

f___

/ /
/ /
Legend

/ GPK1 stimulation (estimated) 1993

D GPK2 Stimulation 95JUN16

+ GPK2 Stimulation 96SEP18

O GPK2 Step Injection 95JUL01

☆ GPK2 Step injection 96SEP29

• GPK1 Step injection (94July)

* GPK2 Injection test after leak rep. 95AUG15

GPK1 Injectivity 96O0T13

Figure 4
* GPK2 Productivity 96DCT13
Injectivities & results of the J
stimulations at GPK1 and GPK2
Tran-Viet/BGR 10/96

1 I 1 I 1 T

25 30 35 50 65 70
The good correlation between the peaks in the distribution of the density of seismic events and the location
of the main water outlets suggests that the microseismic activity (generated by overpressure) is in agreement with
the active flow zones (in this case).

Summarising the result of the stimulation of GPK1 in terms of permeability development, it can be stated
that the largest improvement of permeability occurred in the vicinity of the casing shoe and, to a lesser degree, at
two deeper zones i.e. at 3200 m and 3500 m.

2.3.2 Initial hydraulic stimulation of GPK2 in 1995.

During the summer of 1995, the accessible part of the open hole of GPK2 (from the casing shoe at 3200 m
to 3650 m) was stimulated extensively. Following the experience of the large scale stimulation of GPK1, where
the lighter injected fluid migrated upwards towards the latter part of the test, it was decided to initiate the
stimulation of GPK2 with a slug of cold and heavy brine (300 m3, d = 1.18) at 30 1/s followed by injection at
121/s of stored brine (d = 1.06) produced from GPK1. The operations continued with progressively increasing
flow steps (12, 18, 24, 38, 44 & 56 1/s) of fresh water containing a decreasing proportion of brine and
consequently a decreasing density for the same temperature. GPK1 was kept on production (~ 12 1/s) up to the 44
1/s injection step. A total of 30,000 m3 was injected at a maximum flow rate of about 56 1/s. A pressure/flow
diagram for this stimulation period is shown in figure 4. The flow distribution is described on figure 5.

Microseismic monitoring (Jones et al, 1995) was carried out during this period (figure 2 ; the 1995 events
around GPK2) which showed that the events were roughly distributed to the North and South of the open hole
section of GPK2. This is consistent with the direction of the maximum horizontal stress as observed in 1993 in
GPK1. Figure 2 shows that the distribution in depth of the microseismic events (unlike the observation in GPK1
where 60% of the fluid left within 75 m below the casing shoe) is not dominated by a single major stimulated
zone. The distribution is more widely spread (Nicholls, 1995) (as expected !) along the open hole length and the
 main peak is translated
70
attheFLOWLOGS during GPK2's stimulation 1995 downward 300 m under the
ig Shoe Figures
depth of the casing shoe.
The events above 3000 m
Vertical
absorbing
depth appear as being in a
outlet negligible proportion. The
seismic map also shows
that there is a horizontal
trend in the seismic events
at around 3500 m depth
towards and possibly
intersecting GPK1.

The data from

microseismic and flow
logs indicate that the
551,8 technique of using heavier
38-44.51/s fluid (of progressively
181/s decreasing density for the
DEPTH (m) 121,5 same temperature) for
3200 3250 3300 3350 3400 3450 stimulation in this
tectonic setting gives some possibility of controlling the upward or downward reservoir growth.

The term controlling implies in this context that the colderfluid mixture (cooled in-situ brine) which at the
early stage of the stimulation (pre-pad) is heavier than the in-situ hot brine will create a differential density and
viscosity barrier (a bubble which will become later a kind of complex shell) between the fluid mixture injected and
the in-situ brine.

During the successive phases of the stimulation processes:

the average density of the fluid of the external shell will become similar to that of the in-situ hot
brine because of the warming. This shell will expand as more fluid is injected.

The decreasing proportion of brine from GPK1 in the stimulation fluid will cause the shell to be
filled with a mixture offresh and saline water in decreasing proportions from the external boundary to
the core of the bubble. In parallel, the temperatures will decrease from the boundary to the core of
the bubble and consequently the densities of the various fluids inside the bubble will remain rather
constant during the major part of the duration of the stimulation. This will retard any tendency for
upward migration of the injectedfluid mixture caused by the Archimedes principle.

After stimulation, the fluid contained in the "invaded’ volume (the "bubble") will progressively warm up
and will become internally progressively homogenised through convection. This mixture will have a progressive
tendency to become lighter due to warming inside the shell and in parallel to become heavier at the boundary due
to mixing. At the end of the process a general upward percolation will appear as a general trend but it will be
strongly smoothed by the described phenomena.

As expected, the pressures required for the stimulation of GPK2 were higher for similar flow rates than
those for GPK1 (figure 4). This is due to the greater depth at which the stimulation occurred. Nevertheless, it was
observed that the injectivities obtained in GPK2 after stimulation were very similar to the values obtained for
GPK1 (figure 4), even though these values from GPK2 may be considered as slightly optimistic as steady state
conditions had not reached fully during injectivity testing in 1995.

2.3.3 The second hydraulic stimulation of GPK2 in 1996.

The second stimulation of GPK2 was performed in the summer of 1996. A total of 28,000 m3 fluid was
injected between 3200 m and 3650 m in three flow steps (25,45 & 781/s) with a maximum wellhead pressure of
13 MPa for 78 1/s. One of the main reason for restimulating GPK2 was to be able to return to the injectivity
values obtained during the final stimulation of GPK2 in the summer of 1995. The productive joints in this well
had been progressively plugged during a circulation test carried out without filtering and exposing the formation
fluid to oxygen towards the end of test period in 1995 (testing had to be done with the available equipment on
site). The second reason was to evaluate the correlation between the higher flowrate used for stimulation and the
value of the resulting injectivity.

-333-
 Microseismic monitoring
csm and flow logs were also
carried out during this
operation. There was no
microseismic activity during
the 24 and 45 1/s injection
step. There was intense
activity during the 78 1/s
injection starting near the
wellbore of GPK2 and
progressing outwards in the
North/ South direction as
observed before (figure 6).
The overall seismicity can be
divided into two groups, one
3100-3300 2900-3100 2700-2900
forms a structure connecting
3500-3700 3300-3500
a zone near 3500 m in GPK1
Figure6a depth distribution of union (grey) and intersection (black.) 0 250 500
with the 3470 m level in
OF THE GPK1 AND GPK2 SEISMIC CLOUDS. GPK1 (DIAMONDS) AND
GPK2 (SQUARES) ARE ALSO SHOWN.
DISTANCE (M) GPK2. The second structure
starts at around 3350 m in
i 250 500
GPK2 with an
2500 m
DISTANCE (M) approximately NW-SE
azimuth and dipping towards
GPK1. The seismic “cloud”
contains a lot of events which are in the same area to
3000 m' those created during the stimulation of GPK1 (see
“dark points” on figure 6a and 6b).

The flow logs carried out in GPK2 during the

3500 m stimulation showed that there was only a minor
redistribution in the flow profile. The only noticeable
GPKK** redistribution occurred after the increase from 25 1/s
to 45 1/s when the flow leaving 3460 m began to
reduce in percentage but the flow below 3560 m
[Figure 6b side elevations of the union (grey> and
INTERSECTION (BLACK) OF THE GPK1 AND GPK2
increased and accounted finally for around 3-4% of the
CLOUDS. VIEWED FROM AN AZIMUTH OF N235E. total flow.

Another important observation was that during the stimulation of GPK2 a cross flow in GPK1 was noticed
with GPK1 shut-in. A steadily increasing flow of up to 51/s entered GPK1 at 3500 m (4 1/s) and 3300 m (1 1/s)
then left higher up in the well between 3200 m and 3000 m (~ 20%) and within 40 m under the casing shoe
(' 80%). In parallel an increase of pressure in GPK1 was noticed. The rate of pressure continued to increase at a
constant rate of 0.3 MPa /day and reached 1.5 MPa at the end of the stimulation (values measured at the casing
shoe) - see figure 7.

Overall, the strategy followed for stimulation was very similar to that followed in 1995 (except for the
high saline fluid used in 1995 for the initiation of the stimulation). Figure 7 summarises most of the hydraulic
results obtained.

It would appear that the density/temperature plume progressively deployed in the formation during the early
phase of the injection (cold brine from GPK1 initially pure then mixed with cold fresh water in proportions
decreasing with time) was again “heavy” enough to sufficiently prevent upward reservoir growth even though up
to 13 MPa were required for injection of 781/s. This conclusion is supported by the fact that:

The microseismic observation did not show any significant upward growth, suggesting that there was
limited upward pressure migration.

The pressure increase (figure 7) observed in the annulus of GPK1 and in the peripheral wells (4616
and 4550) was very small and considerably lagging in time with the injection pressure (max.
0,06 MPa/day - delay > 20 hours in the annulus of GPK1; 0,002 MPa/day in 4616,0,001 MPa/day
in 4550 - delay > 48 h).

The water level in the well EPS1, which proved in 1995 to be the most reliable indicator for any
injection into the annulus of GPK2 (at that time a failure of the sealing at the casing shoe, has

— 384 —
 shown a connection to EPS1 via a
I* m\ In 6! 6-, 4 M
-SF91- 1.000 c major fault at 2175 m in GPK2) did
only start to rise once the production
0.800 « from GPK1 was stopped and GPK1 was
^ Or an si
shut-in. It is proposed that this
demonstrates again that GPK1, while
producing, acts as a drainage valve for-
and controls the impacts of GPK2’s
pressure changes on the pressure in the
upper section of the granite. It can also
be observed that after stopping of the
injection into GPK2 the water level in
EPS1 dropped very slowly, over a
period of several days, thus indicating
that a rather large volume is being
drained.
Evidently EPS1 reacts to pressure
2 12 changes in GPK1 (at a distance of
around 500 m along the maximum
horizontal stress direction) more than in
GPK2 (a distance of around 70 m along
a direction orthogonal to the maximum
horizontal stress). No sign of a new or
more intense upward fluid / pressure
0. 40
migration could be observed.

The flow distribution in GPK2

during the 78 1/s injection in
1996 is very similar to the one
observed at 551/s in 1995 (figure
i: I C PI 2
5 and figure 8) especially no new
outlets in the upper section of the
25JZt. open hole appeared.

Figure 9 is an attempt to
present the obvious and
20-Sep-96 22-Sep-68 24-Sep-96 2S-Sep-96 28-Sep-96 30-Sep-96 2-Oct-66 4-Oct-96 6-Ocl-96 B-Oot-96 predominant hydraulic / pressure
Figure 7 links at great depth at Soultz:

The first hydraulic link is shown by the fact that the pressure wave generated in GPK2 during the
stimulation propagates initially towards the deepest section of GPK1 (> 3200 m). This is
confirmed through the inflow observed at 3500 m and 3290 m while GPK1 was shut-in during the
stimulation.

The second hydraulic link can only be

• GPK21996: Comparison between Flow Profiles during Stimulation (76 I/s) explained through indirect observations.
then during Circulation (-18.5 I/s)
The pressure increase observed in
Figures
GPK1, once it was shut-in, cannot be
explained by the inflows of some 5 1/s
at 3300 m / 3500 m depth which flows
upward in the well feeding the
previously stimulated top zones below
the casing shoe. It is known from
previous hydraulic testing that
considerably higher injection rate is
required to fill and linearly pressurise the
stimulated rock volume around GPK1 at
the observed rate of 0.3 MPa/day
reaching 1.5 MPa. The steady state
injection pressure for 5 1/s had been
3200

defined to less than 0.5 MPa in 1995 !

This observation implies the existence

- 335-
 of a second hydraulic link between GPKl
and GPK2 which connects the zone
stimulated at the casing shoe of GPKl to
the deeper open hole section of GPK2.
This link was still present (pressure
increasing at a constant rate in GPKl)
when the stimulation had to be stopped
due to the limitations of the available
equipment.

The moderate daily pressure increase in

the annulus of GPKl (reduced by a factor
of 4 in comparison to the situation at the
casing shoe) and the large time delay
(multiplied by 4 in comparison to the
situation at the casing shoe) suggests a
GPK1 open :Very minor Impact minor hydraulic connection between the
GPKl closed :Ap< 0.01 Mpa/d
Ap3=0.06 Mpa/d EPS 1 At=0 natural permeable fractures crossing the
AT3=22H 2227 m annulus of GPKl and the parts of the
I—Impact under detection limit stimulated rock volume extending around
Zone of micro
the casing shoe of GPKl. It is apparent
A pi> 0.25 Mpa/d 2 seismic activity that there is no major direct connection
Ati= 6H between the open hole and the annulus of
I GPKl.

Apo>Apf- The water level in the Buntsandstein

AtikAti’ showed only a very weak response (< 1
m increase) during stimulation of GPK2.
170* C This observation supports the view that
3870m only a weak link exists between the deep
- Pressures situation/evolutions fracture system in GPKl and GPK2 and
Figure 9
during GPK-2 restimulation the aquifers in the sediments.
- autumn 1996 -
Summarising, it can be stated that
both targets for the 1996 stimulation were achieved. The well and its vicinity were cleared of the plugging
material as shown by the result of the production test. Furthermore, the injectivity was greatly
improved by the higher flowrate used and is in direct proportion to the increase in flow.

2.3.4 Observed results during the short production and circulation tests

Figure 10 In 1994, GPKl was put on production using

on the production rate of GPKl
The drawdown pressure given is adjusted
through throttling of the outlet at the
wellhead of GPKl
time after start of production in hours immediately responded to the injection in GPK2
the buoyancy effect following the stimulation
(1995 with reinjection
test. The buoyancy effect produced a drawdown
1barinGPK2) of -0.71 MPa (-7.1 Bar). A decline of the
production flow from around 9 1/s to 7 1/s was
observed after 100 hours (figure 10). A similar
impact of
test was carried out again in 1995 when GPKl
reinjection in the
was put on production and the flow started to
deep exchanger
decline as observed before. However, the flow
from GPKl increased immediately when
reinjection (12-151/s) was carried out in GPK2
. The production from GPKl stabilised at
around 12 1/s for an equivalent drawdown
pressure as before. The production from GPKl
and the productivity increased by more than
50% (figure 10). This is equivalent of a
productivity of 171/s/MPa.

During an another circulation experiment in 1995 (GPKl ---> GPK2) using a downhole pump, the production
from GPKl was stabilised at around 21 1/s for a total drawdown pressure estimated at about -2.4 MPa (i.e. a
productivity of about 9 1/s/MPa, no fluid losses ; total injected volume = total produced volume).

336-
 A preliminary reverse circulation test was performed in 1996 following the restimulation of GPK2 (GPK2 -
--> GPK1). Again using the buoyancy effect, a drawdown in the order of -0.8 MPa in GPK2 produced 18.81/s (i.e.
a productivity > 20 I/s/MPa'), supported by reinjection in GPK1 (figure 11). This is a clear improvement
compared to the previous productivity value obtained during circulation tests at similar
flowrates.

Figure 11 Corrected production from GPK2

vs injected flowrates in GPK1

Corrected

0:00 0:00 0:00 0:00 0:00 0:00 0:00

14-Oct-96 15-Oct-96 16-Oct-96 17-Oct-96 18-Oct-96 19-Oct-96 20-Oct-96

Figure 11 shows a part of the hydraulic history for the above reverse circulation test. An interference test
was performed between GPK2 and GPK1 for reservoir analysis. From point A to B (14 October to 18 October),
100% of the produced volume was reinjected. The mean corrected production was at about 181/s. The “corrected”
production flow was computed after compensation of the downhole pressure drift during the tests. From point B
to C (18 October to 20 October) only 60% of the total volume produced was reinjected and consequently the mean
production dropped down to about 16 1/s and still declining. The experiment had to be stopped because of the
limited storage capacity on surface. The transient part of the data indicates that the system has a large storage
capacity but the hydraulic link between the two wells is also emphasised by the increase of the production flow
when reinjecting.

Flow logs carried out in GPK1 during this period show that the injection flow profile was generally very
similar to that found during the end of the stimulation phase (figure 3), except for an increased proportion (* 2 !)
leaving from the permeable fracture at 3500 m. The most important differences between the two experiments
were the density of the fluid and the reinjection pressure. It appears that the distribution of the flow leaving
GPK1 is rather sensitive to these parameters.

Production flow logs carried out in GPK2 show that the general profile for the stimulation and production
tests are very similar except that the (production) flow inlets are more concentrated at 3 specific inlets. The first
one is at 3245 m (15% ; 45 m under the casing shoe), the second one at 3340 m (25%) and the third one at
3470 m (35%). (Figure 8).

3. AN UNDERGROUND MODEL DERIVED FROM THE AVAILABLE DATA

An attempt is made here to put forward a model that fits with the observations made from the available data.
It is recognised that this is not a unique model and the model will change as more data are acquired or a different
interpretation is put forward of the available data. Nevertheless for the time being it appears to fit with the data
previously described.

The overall “conceptual model” is represented by a schematic as shown in figure 12. It summarises the
present status of our understanding and lays foundation for a medium term circulation test which can be performed
without any modifications to the present completion of the wells.

After the drilling of both deep wells, the open hole sections of the wells had very low permeability close to
the wells and this was enhanced significantly at high flowrates, large volumes and high pressures. The stimulated
areas were mapped using microseismic monitoring, representing a volume of rock mass where sufficiently high

- 337-
pressures woe attained to make favourably aligned joints to shear first and thus produce an enhanced degree of
permeability. This stimulated volume is defined here as a reservoir and is different from the actual volume of the
rock mass which takes part in the transfer of the energy from the hot rocks to the cold circulating fluid i.e. the heat
exchanger. *7

H g The apparent structure of the

O underground can be described using
surface figure 12. Both, the stimulations of
GPK1 and GPK2 are represented in this
figure as volumes in the underground.
These two volumes can be regarded as
the most actively stimulated part
representing the “reservoir-volume”
occupying about 0.2 km3. They are
defined using the microseismic events
located during various stimulations
(figures 2 & 6). These volumes can be
associated with the highest event
density. Both volumes around GPK1
and GPK2 show an anisotropic growth
with the major and minor axes roughly
in the direction of the maximum and
minimum horizontal stress,
respectively. This is consistent with our
understanding of the interaction of the
injected fluid, the stress regime and the
joint network.

The main link between the wells

appears to be at around 3.5 km depth.

9u m 8H The average permeability (vertical

and horizontal) of the stimulated rock
3870 m volume can be considered as higher
- Schematic interpretative model of compared to the adjacent rock volume
FIGURE 12
induced circulations during which has not been stimulated.
1996 tests-
It is suggested that there is some hydraulic interaction between the stimulated rock (the reservoir volume)
and the surrounding unstimulated virgin rock mass. Although this virgin rock is considered as less permeable,
due to the large external surface area of the volume affected by stimulation, numerous fractures are intersected.

Furthermore, it was repeatedly observed that the injectivity/productivity of the wells increases with an
increasing injection flow during massive stimulation but it is not clear whether this is due to the flow or volume,
or a combination of both. It is proposed that the increase in the permeability of the rock mass during stimulation
and the subsequent circulation is obtained by a number of mechanisms. These are as follows:

a. microseismic events are generated by the shearing of critically aligned natural joints and this causes
the joints to remain open by riding on the asperities. The degree of residual aperture depends on a
number of conditions such as the normal stress, condition of the rock mass (fresh altered) grain size
(size of asperities), injection pressure. It is also well established that to restimulate or enhance
permeability of a previously stimulated rock mass requires the injection pressure to exceed that used
for the initial stimulation. This is well documented from microseismic observations, numerical
modelling etc.

b. It is probable that there is a readjustment of stresses locally (in the reservoir region) because of the
high flowrate large volume injection which may result in a larger aperture of the hydraulically
activated fracture(s) through closure of respective compression of (minor) neighbouring fractures.

c. It is also probable that the extraction of the energy from the hot rock mass will cause a contraction
of the rock blocks and thus a readjustment of the stresses causing the predominantly active joints
with larger aperture to open further.

-338-
 It is most likely that a number of these mechanisms work together to produce the enhanced permeability
observed during the stimulation and the subsequent circulation. But what is helpful is the Graben setting with:

Ioverall relatively low values of stress

2.- especially its low minimum horizontal stress which is very close to the hydrostatic pressure
3.- its dense joint network which is partly filled with rather porous hydrothermal deposits
4.- its hydrothermal altered rock beds (incorporating numerous joints) which themselves have a rather
high porosity and probably lower mechanical strength.

This means that only relatively low pressures are required to open favourably Oriented joints. Furthermore
the critical shear stresses in Soultz are also rather low (typical Graben stress regime). If the fluid pressure gets
very close to the critical shear stress for optional oriented planes then there is a good possibility that this would
cause an incipient failure of critically aligned joints and would assist the natural migration of fluid at great depth
and would explain the natural residual aperture observed in the joint network at depth.

An additional observation made during the stimulation tests at Soultz is also stated here:

The post-stimulation step injection tests performed both in GPK1 and GPK2 revealed non linear relations
(with a quadratic term) between the injection pressure and the flowrate used. This relation can be explained by
turbulent flow. If this occurs locally or over longer distances is still a matter of debate. However, the high
flowrate re-stimulation of GPK2 in 1996 showed a clear reduction of the non-linear term of the pressure / flowrate
relation thus demonstrating that these appearant turbulences can be reduced by the appropriate engineering.

The relatively open joint network at Soultz is also seen as being able to support the upward slow
percolation of the injected fluid as this injected fluid becomes hotter and the density begins to drop relative to the
in-situ fluid (Archimedes principle). This upward migration of the lighter fluid will be associated with local
convective loop and will draw-in the in-situ fluid causing the two fluids to mix. The degree of mixing will most
probably depend on the interaction of the pumping pressure, joint apertures, temperature contrast and the
viscosities. It can also be assumed that as the veins of mixed fluid (depending on the salt content) become more
dense as they cool, starts to sink downward then will migrate upward again thus forming convective loops and
continuing the mixing process.

A mechanism like this may be appropriate for explaining the rapid evolution of the salinity of the produced
fluids observed after the stimulation of GPK1 and GPK2. GPK1 was stimulated using fresh water (over 45000 m3
injected) but when the well was put on production, the produced fluid started with fresh water first but then showed
a rapid mixture with formation fluid (brine). During the short production test (10,000 m3, figure 11) the mean
proportion of natural brine in the produced fluid increased again from 0 to around 50%. Then, in GPK2, a
downhole conductivity log was run following the hydraulic experiments in the well (- 40,000 m3 injected) in 1996
and after having produced around 10,000 m3. The data showed that the salinity of the water produced was nearly
homogeneous regardless of the depths of the inlets implying a nearly homogeneous mixing of fluids.

From these observations one can deduct that it is likely that very large mixing currents (or convective cells)
are occurring across the whole “reservoir volume” inside and at the boundary of the heat exchanging area. These
observations support not only the previously described model of an “internal motor” generated by density
variations caused by temperature and salinity differences but also the image of a rock mass in which numerous
open joints interact allowing also some vertical fluid migration within the “reservoir volume”.

Taking into account all these observations, four major effects for the development of the HDR technology
at Soultz could be expected:

In view of the internal mixing of the fluid in the rock mass, it is expected that the thermal life of the
reservoir will be longer than in a system without some degree of inherent background permeability.

The effect of the interaction of the densities in conjunction with the low value of the minimum
horizontal stress gradient showed that it is possible in a partly open system of a Graben setting to
control the upward or downward growth of the stimulated volume using a stimulation fluid with
appropriate salinity which evolves.

For the circulation experiment planned for 1997 it is expected that some downhole migration /
circulation will be observed. Cold brine reinjected in GPK1 leaving the well high up in the open
hole section (main outlet just below the casing shoe) will be forced downward due to the described
density effect and is expected to drain a part of it towards the production well GPK-2 at greater depth
with a downhole pump.

-339-
 The open nature of the enhanced and the background fracture network would indicate that a down hole
pump is essential for this type of system to maintain the balance between the injected and the
produced fluid at high flowrates.

4 MAIN CONCLUSIONS ABOUT THE MODEL AND FUTURE

EXPERIMENTS

4.1. Main conclusions about the model

A preliminary set of conclusions about the proposed model are:

In a Graben setting, the rock mass at depth has some degree of permeability created by a partially
open fracture network but this is far from sufficient to provide the right characteristics for an efficient
heat exchanger needed for heat mining. Large volume and high flowrate stimulations are necessary to
create the required characteristics.

the stimulated part of the rock mass is defined as the reservoir 'as mapped by microseismic' and
represents a volume of a certain size where a specific pressure level has been reached sufficient to
shear the natural joints. The heat exchanger is defined as a volume inside the reservoir volume of the
rock mass where a majority of the transfer of the heat from the hot rocks to the injected fluid takes
place within the reservoir.

the border between the stimulated reservoir and the virgin rock mass is not hydraulically separate
because the joint network (with some degree of permeability) is continuous and therefore it
reasonable to assume that there is some hydraulic interaction at the boundary. This “boundary
volume” can be visualised as the area where the density of the microseismic events is low (figure 2).

during circulation between the two wells, it is expected that the path the fluid follows from one well
to the other is very complex (distorted by local convective loops) and travels through one subvertical
stimulated “reservoir volume” with enhanced permeability to the other, driven by the buoyancy effect
and the pressure from the injection an production pumps. This will generate a very complex 3 D
geometry of the exchanger.

the physical size of the reservoirs appear to be big with a very large storage capacity which will
strongly damp the hydraulic behaviour of the exchanger. It would appear that the system may reach a
hydraulic equilibrium (i.e. production balances the injection) by the interaction at the boundary where
the fluid can either leave or enter depending on the suction pressure of the downhole pump.

the anticipated balancing of the injected and produced fluids will occur at the boundary during the
early stages of the circulation test but it is also envisaged that this activity will interact with much
larger external faulted system near the stimulated reservoir. This may greatly extend the thermal life
of the system.

4.2 Future experiments

In order to improve our understanding of the underground process and the model, it is suggested that future
research should be organised in such a way that:

future experiments should be designed in order to learn more about the internal structure and
properties of the heat exchanger and the hydromechanical behaviour governing the fluid transport
between the wells

the design of these experiments should allow sufficient flexibility so that the experiments can be
modified subsequently to the obtained additional data if required.

Our present understanding of the heat mining concept is based upon what we feel as being a reasonable
knowledge on the creation of a reservoir and the properties that can control it, but upon rather poor knowledge of
the actual properties of the heat exchanger. To evaluate the heat exchanger requires a circulating system for a
prolonged period in order to reach a steady state and to carry out diagnostic techniques such as the tracers
experiments, geochemical analyses, hydraulic analyses, thermal drawdown studies, etc.

- 340 -
 Supporting technologies need to be evaluated which should include the handling of problems such as
precipitation, corrosion etc.

At present it is proposed to cany out a medium term circulation for around 4 months in 1997 to assess
these properties. This will consist of production from GPK2 at about 20-351/s using a down hole pump, cooling
the fluid down to around 50-80*C and injecting this in GPK1.

The data from the experiments in 1993, 1995 and 1996 have indicated that there is a potential for further
development of the deepest and hottest connection between the two deep wells. In future, this aspect can be further
developed in order to target a specific interesting zone, if an opportunity arises - one more step toward the
engineering of a deep underground exchanger.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to thank all the teams who contributed to the success of the 1993 - 1996 test
programme at Soultz. Special thanks go to all participants & organisations who were actively involved during the
hydraulic experiments (BGR, BRGM, CSMA, NLffl, GTC, SII, Ruhr-Universitat Bochum, MeSy, Stadtwerke
Bad Urach, NIRE, University of Tohoku, Chalmers University Gothenburg, IPG Strasbourg, IPG Paris).
The European HDR Programme is part of the “Community Research Programme” of the European
Commission. Funding for the European HDR programme was provided by DGXII of the European Commission
(Brussels), ADEME, BRGM and CNRS (France), BMBF and FZ Jtilich (Germany) and other national and private
sources. Additional technical on site support came from ENEL (Italy), Pfalzwerke (Germany) and Electricite ds
Strasbourg (France).

REFERENCES
Aquilina L., Pauwels H., Fouillac C., Brach M., Deschamps P.: Geochemical studies of the Soultz-sous-Forets
Hot Dry Rock geothermal site, France - Geofluids II, Belfort 10-14 March 1997 (in press)

Baria R., Garnish J„ Baumgartner J., Gdrarri A„ Jung R.: Recent developments in the European HDR research
programme at Soultz-sous-ForSts (France) - Proceedings World Geothermal Coherence, p. 2631-2637,
Florence 1995

Dezayes C., Center A., Villemin T: Inherited and induced fractures: characterized fracs acoustic and electric
borehole images. Bull. Centres Rech. Explor. Prod. Elf Aquitaine, 2, 1, 197-212 - Pau, June 28,1996

Center A. and Traineau H. 1992a: Hydrothermally altered and fractured granite in an HDR reservoir in the EPS 1
borehole, Alsace, France - 17th Workshop on geothermal reservoir engineering, Stanford Univ. Jan. 29-31,
1992; pre-print

Center A. and Traineau H. 1992b: Borehole EPS1, Alsace, France - Preliminary geological results from granite
core analysesfor Hot Dry Rock research; Scientific drilling 3; pp. 205-214

Center A., Traineau H., Dezayes Ch., Elsass Ph., Leddsert B., Meunier A., Villemin Th: Fracture analysis and
reservoir characterisations of the granitic basement in the HDR Soultz project (France) - Geothermal
Science Tech. 1995, Volume 4 (3), pp. 189-214

Jones R., Beauce A., Fabriol H and Dyer B, 1995: Imaging induced microseismicity during the 1993 injection
tests at Soultz-sous-Forets, France - IGA, World Geothermal Congress in Florence, Italy (May 1995)

Klee G. and Rummel F.: 1993 hydraulic fracturing stress measurements in the geothermal borehole GPK1,
Soultz-sous-Forets - 15-18.12.1992 - Report 04.93, MeSy (Bochum)

Leddsert B: Fracturation and hydrothermal paleo circulations. Application to the Hot Dry Rock Soultz-sous-Forets
project (Alsace, France) - Extrait des annales de la Societd Geologique du Nord T4 (2eme sdrie) Seance de
novembre 1995, p. 13

Nicholls J., 1995: Temperature and flow logs recorded during the production and injection tests in GPK1 and
GPK2 between May and July 1995 at Soultz-sous-Forets, France

Schellschmidt R. and Schulz R., 1991: Hydrothermic studies in the Hot Dry Rock project at Soultz-sous-Forets ;
Geothermal Science and Technology, vol. 3(1-4), Bresee (Ed), Gordon and Breach Science Publishers, pp.
217-238

-341-
 GEOTHERMAL RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT IN SWITZERLAND: ACHIEVEMENTS
AND PROSPECTS

Ladislaus RYBACH

Institute of Geophysics ETH Zurich, Switzerland

HaraldL. GORHAN

Elektrowatt Engineering Zurich, Switzerland

ABSTRACT

In Switzerland the R & D efforts in the past years led to significant achievements in direct uses of
geothermal energy: areal density of borehole heat exchanger systems for decentral space heating is highest
worldwide; novel solutions like combined heat extraction/storage, energy piles, tunnel water use are
supported by govermental aid. The risk guarantee system for aquifer drilling >400m which terminates in
1997 led to some success (e.g. the first doublet system in Riehen/BS which will be extended into Germany)
but also to a number of failures. After summarizing the present status of utilizing the indigenous resources
the Swiss activities on the international geothermal scene are highlighted, including the banking of
development projects for electricity generation.

INTRODUCTION

Switzerland is a small country (41 ’000 km2, 7 million population) with a remarkably low reliance
on fossil fuels for electricity generation (about 60 % hydro, 40 % nuclear). There is no geothermal-based
electricity. Most primary energy carriers for heating and transportation must be imported. In this situation
the Federal Government initiated significant steps in the energy policy development towards the utilisation
of indigenous and environmentally benign forms of energy: i) acceptance of an energy law (popular vote, 23
September 1990), ii) initiation of the action plan ENERGY 2000 (on 14 December 1990; details see below),
and iii) issuing of the energy utilisation decree (enacted on 22 January 1992) to encourage, by financial
support mechanisms, the development of new solutions. In this context a govenmental risk coverage system
for deep (>400m) geothermal drilling must be mentioned (for details see Rybach and Gorhan, 1995) which
will terminate in 1997.

A brief summary of geothermal direct use in Switzerland is given below. First, the role of
geothermal energy utilisation is positioned within the global and the Swiss energy scene. Thereafter, near­
surface thermal water occurrences are treated, followed by deep, stratiform aquifers. Then some of the
unique experience with the numerous borehole heat exchangers is highlighted (including some specific
applications) and some prospects of tunnel waters are outlined, followed by a summary of Hot Dry Rock
activities. Finally the Swiss activities on the international geothermal scene are summarized and an outlook
at further domestic developments is presented.

GEOTHERMAL UTILISATION IN THE GLOBAL AND THE SWISS ENERGY SCENE

The achievements of Switzerland in the direct use of geothermal energy are remarkable: with an
installed capacity of about 20 W& per capita it ranks number 6 worldwide behind 1) Iceland, 2) New
Zealand, 3) Hungary, 4) Macedonia, 5) Slovakia (ranking based on the numbers published by Fridleifsson,
1996).

- 342 -
 On the national scene the utilisation is embedded in the above-mentioned action plan EN2000. This
ten year program aims, for the year 2000, at

• stabilising CO2 emmissions at the 1990 level

• additional production of 3 ’000 GWh heat from renewable sources (3 % of total heat demand)
• additional 300 GWh electricity production from renewable sources (0.5 % of total production)
• efficiency improvement of hydropowar; power uprate (10 %) of nuclear power plants as well as saving
and rational use of energy.

In 1995, at mid-way, the EN2000 goals were generally fulfilled to 50 %. Table 1 shows the role of
geothermal production in comparison with other sources; Table 2 presents the breakdown of different
geothermal sources. It is anticipated that the geothermal production can be incerased to about 350 GWh in
2000.

Table 1 Heat production from different Table 2 Contributions of different geothermal

sources in 1995 sources to heat production in 1995

Source Production (GWh) System Production (GWh)

Biomass e.g. wood) 5’120 Foundation piles 1.0
Environment (e.g. air) 580 Borehole heat exchangers 240.0
.Geothermal 265 Thermal springs 6.0
Solar 180 Deep aquifers 8.0
total 6’145 Tunnel waters 10.0
total 265.0

THERMAL SPRINGS, NEAR-SURFACE THERMAL WATERS

The occurrence of thermal springs and near-surface thermal waters is strongly corrrelated with the
main geologic-tectonic units of Switzerland. These are, from north to south (cf. Fig. 1): the Jura (mainly
relatively compact Mesozoic limestones and dolomites arranged in rather simple folded and faulted
structures), The Molasse basin (a flat-lying Tertiary sandstone/marl/conglomerate sequence with increasing
southeatsward thickness where, near the Alps it is uptilted, "subalpine"), and the Alps (a complicated nappe
structure consisting of sedimentary and metamorphic units like the Helvetics and Penninics and of Central
Massifs). In the Jura and Alps fracture zones and fractured strata can accomodate thermal spiings/near-
surface thermal waters while these are absent in the Molasse basin, mainly due to generally low vertical
permeability.

The environs of long-known thermal spring occurrences were targets of modem prospecting
(including exploration/production drilling). A number of sites like Zurzach, Lavey-les-Bains, Lostorf,
Schinznach) benefited from the general interest created by the oil crisis in 1973. Subsequently the thermal
power output was increased and most Swiss spa localities take now advantage of the cascaded use of the
geothermal fluid. While the primary purpose remains the balneology itself, space heating in the bathing
facilities and of nearby buildings like hospitals is established. Heat exchangers and heat pumps are essential
components of the utilisations schemes. At Schinznach, cascade use with greenhouses as end user is in
construction. Fig. 1 shows the location of spa facilities, along with sites of deep aquifer utilisation (singlet,
doublet; see below).

- 343 -
DEEP AQUIFERS

The success of large-scale geothermal heating systems in France led to exporation and drilling
activities also in Switzerland. Both the doublet and singlet concept has been followed, encouraged by a
Government Risk Guarantee (a total of 15 Msfr to cover activities from 1987 to 1997; Rybach and Gorhan,
1995). In the eighties, several drilling projects were successful (Kloten/ZH, Kreuzlingen/TG, Riehen
1&2/BS). In fact, the first Swiss doublet system is operational in Riehen since 1994 (geothermal capacity
4.7 MW*, total heating power 15.2 MW*), the district heating network will be extended to the neighboring
community LOrrach in Germany, thus providing the first example of a trans-boundary geothermal
utilisation.

Unfortunately the activities in the nineties were less successful (failure at St. Moritz/GR, Bulle/FR,
Thonex/GE, Weissbad/AI („dry holes"); success at Bassersdorf/ZH and Schinznach/AG); The mixed
balance of these drilling endeavours directed interest to other options for using geothermal heat: borehole
heat exchangers and tunnel waters; in addition, at some of the "failure” localities the establishment of a deep
borehole heat exchanger is planned (see below).

Riehen Xtrzoch

Baden
PLATEAU JURA Schinznach
[ioten *# Weissbad

lad Lostorf

Bad Ragoz

AUSTRO-AIP
Yverdon
H A P P

Lovey—les—
'Bains _ Brigerbad'
pE"
Saillon

■ Spa
• Singlet
** Doublet

V Deep BHE

Fig. 1 Sites of geothermal direct use in Switzerland (thermal water production and deep borehole heat
exchangers; for shallow BHE's see Fig. 3)

-344
SHALLOW AND DEEP BOREHOLE HEAT EXCHANGERS (BHE)

BHE’s are ideal to make use of shallow geothermal resources. The most popular BHE heating
system with one or more boreholes typically 50 - 150m deep is a decentral, closed-circuit, heat pump-
coupled system, ideally suited to supply heat to smaller objects like single family or multi-family dwellings.
The heat exchangers (mostly as double U-tube plastic pipes) can be installed in nearly all kinds of geologic
media (except in materials with low thermal conductivity like dry gravel). These systems operate by
conduction, i.e. there are no formation fluids produced. Experimental and theoretical invesitigations prove
that BHE systems, if properly designed, operate reliably also on the long term without negative
environmental effects (Rybach and Hopkirk, 1995). In fact, a new thermal equilibrium is reached in the
ground around the BHE after a few years of operation (Fig. 2). To date, over 10*000 such systems are
installed, with a total of 1*500 km BHE length; areal density (number of BHE's per country area) in
Switzerland is highest worldwide. Fig. 3 shows the areal distribution of shallow BHE installations, delivered
by a single company (GRUNDAG, Gossau/SG: 7*500 BHE's with 643 km total length; status in mid
1996).

Deep BHE's can be installed in abandoned drillholes, provided that consumers are nearby. Due to
the considerably higher hydrostatic and ground pressures this will require special construction, including
materials like thermally isolated tubes and adequate heat extraction strategies. A deep BHE system can
provide several hundrers of kW* heating capacity. A first succes has been achieved with the 2.3 km deep
BHE at Weggis/LU (a „dry“ geotheimal borehole; Rybach and Hopkiik, 1995). Another deep BHE is in
test operation in Weissbad/AI where a 1.6 km drillhole failed to find formation water in Molasse rocks.

- 10

December 1986
(undisturbed profile) - 20

- 30
September 1987

----- September 1986

[-------September 1989

60 i- - 60
September 1990

- 70

September 1991
80 -• • - 80

September 1996

100 - • - 100

r i r r jr 11 11 i i ri p r | n rr j i m » | i m i | i rr

Ground temperature profiles at a distance

of 1.0 m from the BHE in Elgg (ZH)

Fig. 2 Ground temperature profiles at 1 m distance from a BHE, before the heating season's start, over
10 years. New thermal equilibrium is approached, at somewhat lower temperatures.

-345
"uKl POIYDYNAMICS €NOIN€€RING

Fig. 3 Distribution of shallow BHE installations in Switzerland (of GRUNDAG company only;
status in mid 1996). Distribution corresponds roughly to population density.

SPECIAL BHE APPLICATIONS

This rapidly growing field of research and development can only briefly be summarised here,
merely by mentioning the main topics:
• Multiple BHE's: There is a tendency increase the size of geothermal installations by using a multitude of
BHE’s. Here, extensive studies are being carried out to determine optimum depths and borehole spacings
in order to guarantee an economic life span. As an example, the BHE field with 40 150m deep BHE’s at
the Scuol/GR spa can be mentioned.
• Combined heat extraction/storage: multiple BHE’s can also be used to acess a ground storage volume
for seasonal storage of waste heat from large buildings or with solar energy (solar collectors, flat
building roofs, surfaces of streets or parking areas). In this respect, a well-balanced management of the
subsurface stock, taking into account local factors, is essential. The stock (up to several lOO’OOO m3)
can be installed directly beneath the building compexes; its use for heating in winter and cooling in
summer is technically feasible. Several such installations work satisfactorily (Meister jewelery factory
Wollerau/SZ with 32 135m deep BHE’s, the road bridge de-iceing system SERSO at DSrligen/BE with
91 65m deep BHE’s, no heat pump).
• Energy (foundation) piles: Piles up to tens of m length are often driven into problematic ground to
increase foundation stability. The idea is to equip these piles with heat exchangers. In this context, the
influence of load bearing capacity of the temperature reduction around the piles and the effect of cyclic
heat extraction over the years need to be carefully addressed. Two installations in Kreuzlingen/TG
(Fotocolor: total pile length 1 ’023m) and Finkemweg (4’200m) can serve here as examples.

- 346 -
• Major airports frequently need piling for sound foundation of runways. By means of energy piles the
extracted heat can be used for de-iceing of runways and aircraft parking lots (thus elimininating the use
of salt or toxic substances) as well as for heating airport buildings during the winter (or for cooling
puproses during the summer). Exactly such a combined utilisation is foreseen for the extension of the
airport Zurich-Kloten (Project "Midfield"). Based on this type of Swiss experience, similar plannings are
underway for the extension of a runway at the Vienna airport Schwechat, Austria.

TUNNEL WATERS

Being a typical Alpine country, Switzerland has many deep road and railway tunnels. Several deep
tunnels crosscut considerable sections of Switzerland in the Jura and the Alps which drain, especially in
permeable fracture zones, considerable amounts of warm water. Two tunnels of considerable length and
cover are planned for the near future (Gotthard and Lotschberg base tunnels, NEAT project). The warm
waters encountered during tunneling can be directed, instead to disposal, to the tunnel portals e.g. for space
heating, provided that consumeras are nearby. In fact, this is already done at several sites including a small
alpine village which uses water flowing out of the Furka rail tunnel by applying decentralized heat pumps
(Rybach and Wilhelm, 1995). Several feasibility studies are presently underway to assess the geothermal
potential of the existing and planned tunnels all over Switzerland.

HOT DRY ROCK (HDR), DEEP HEAT MINING (DHM)

Switzerland is actively participating since several years in the European HDR Pilot Project in
Soultz/F. The primary goal of the Swiss contribution is a quantitative understanding of the relevant physical
processes which may influence the long-term production behavior of HDR reservoirs. In particular, the
hydraulic, thermal and rock mechanic processes and their coupling must be addressed. To this end, a
mathematical simulation software tool FRACTure (Kohl 1992) is used to evaluate and interpret field test
data. Fig. 4 shows a nearly perfect fit between measured and numerically modelled data from flow tests; the
results indicate non-Darcyan, non-laminar flow in the and far field of the boreholes (for detailed description
see Kohl et al„ 1997). These activities are supported by the Swiss Federal Office of Science and
Education.

The Swiss Federal Office of Energy has initiated in 1996 a new project, called „Deep Heat
Mining". This project aims at the realisation of a first pilot plant in Switzerland, between the years 2005
and 2010, to produce electricity and/or heat by the HRD technology. The current activities of a special
team, assembling private companies as well as university institutes, extend over general site evaluation,
feasibility studies, public relations and financing considerations; Fig. 5 displays the timetable of the planned
actions. It is intended to incorporate some of these activities in an Annex of the new Geothermal
Implementing Agreement of IEA.

INTERNATIONAL ACTIVITIES

Swiss scientists are regularly active on the international geothermal R&D scene. The synoptic
interpretation of KTB observables (German Continental Deep Drilling Project) must be mentioned here,
along with the POLYPROPJECT MARMARA, an interdisciplinary approach to unveil the complex
interplay of active tectonics, hydrogeology, geothermics and seismology in W. Turkey. Regardless of its
non-member status, Switzerland participates in EU projects like the European Geothermal Atlas and the
European HDR Pilot Project in Soultz (see above).

- 347 -
 lime [days In July)
10__________11___________ 12___________ 13
n-------------- 1-------------- 1-------------- 1-------------- 1--------------1-------------- 1--------------r
I 1,11 f

e. <4- -tW-Wl

f rr
O-dMa Q-lnput(60%)

11 2E5 365 M 4E5 . 565 „ 6E5 7E5 8E5

time |s) from Jtrty 41h,1994, 0

lime [days In July)

P model

P-dala

time (s) From July 4th,1994. 0n

IWne [days In June)

4E5 5E5 6ES

lime [s| Irom June 16th, 1994, 12"

time [days In June)

P-model

4E5 5E5 FES

tlme[s| IromJune 16lh, 1994, 12*

Fig. 4 Measured and modelled test data of the European HDR Pilot Project Soultz/F. Top: injection test
94JUL04; measured flow history and main points of the applied flow-time function (open circles;
upper part of the diagram); pressure response (lower diagram). Bottom of figure: production test
94JUN16 (same data plotted as in upper diagram). Ap: difference between measured downhole
pressure and natural formation pressure.

-348
The Swiss DHM project - global timescale Version: Dec. 1996

Year
Phase Description
1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2 001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010

1 CONCEPT
. Data collection
. Evaluation of potential for DHM
. Development of a concept

11(a) FEASIBILITY
. 3-5 sites located
. Choice of one site for the pilot plant
. Financing the project
. Establishment of a promotion group
. Initiate procedure for building permit

11(b) PRE-PROJECT
. Pilot and auxiliary boreholes and
characterisation of the rock mass
. Planningthe reservoir
. Building permit received

III RESERVOIR COMPLETION

. Production drilling operations
. Stimulation of the reservoir and
circulation testing
. Final design of the surface plant

IV PLANT CONSTRUCTION

V PILOT OPERATION

Fig. 5. Timing and plannned activities of the Swiss Deep Heat Mining Project.

According to old tradition, large Swiss companies and banks are internationally active. The lack of
indigeous high-enthalpy fields is counterbalanced by the development of this resource type abroad under
Swiss control. CALPINE, the second largest producer of geothermal electricity in the USA, is a wholly-
owned subsidy of Elektrowatt AG (Zurich). Swiss banks like Union Bank of Switzerland (UBS) or Credit
Suisse (CS) are active in project financing in USA and Philippines since 1990 (Table 3 lists current CS
activities). Also the involvement of the first author in the International Postgraduate Schools in Gcolhermics
(in Pisa/I, Rejkjavik/IS and Auckland/NZ) is worth to be mentioned.

Table 3 Geothermal project financing by Credit Suisse

Locality State/Country Year MW,

Puna Hawaii/USA 1990 25
Salton Sea Califomi a/USA 1994 80
Upper Mahaio Leyte/Philippines 1994 119
Malitbog Leyte/Philippines 1994 216
Mahangdong Leyte/Philippines 1994 180
Diengl Java/Indonesia 1996 60

- 349 -
OUTLOOK

New frontiers are already visible: novel techniques and solutions in BHE applications (alternative
options like the GEOHIL system with half-open circulation, multiple BHE’s, combined heat
extraction/storage, energy piles, deep BHE’s); utilisation of tunnel waters; further pursuing HDR/DHM
work. Concerted PR actions on the private, cantonal and community level are also in planning. The Swiss
geothermal activities are favourably supported by Federal Offices (for Energy, for Science and Education)
and popularized by the ..Schweizerische Vereinigung fur Geothermic" (SVG), with presently over 300
members. The present support of the Swiss Federal Office of Energy amounts to a total of 2.1 Msfr per
year (about 5 % of its total EN2000 R&D budget). Switzerland intends to continue its involvement in
international geothermal cooperation like the IEA Geothermal Implementing Agreement.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Thanks are due to Mr. M. Brunner and Dr. G. Schriber (Swiss Federal Office of Energy) for
continuous support, to Mr. Scott Mclnnis (Credit Suisse Hongkong), Mr. J. Wilhelm (Chairman SVG,
Lausanne) and Dr. W. Eugster (POLYDYNAMICS Zurich) for various helpful information.

LITERATURE

Fridleifsson, I. (1996):The role of geothermal energy in the world. Geo Heat Center Bull. 17/3,1-5

Kohl, T. (1992): Modellsimulation gekoppelter Vorgange beim Warmeentzug aus heissem Tiefengestein.
PhD Thesis ETH Zurich no. 9802

Kohl, T„ Evans, K., Hopkirk, R., Jung, R., Rybach, L. (1997): Observation and simulation of non-Darcian
flow transients in fractured rock. Water Resources Research (in press)

Rybach, L.; Gorhan, H. (1995): Swiss geothermal energy update 1990-1995. In: Proc. World
Geothermal Congress 1995, Vol. 1, p. 329-337

Rybach, L.; Hopkirk, R. (1995): Shallow and deep borehole heat exchangers - achievements and
prospects. In: Proc. World Geothermal Congress 1995, Vol. 3, p. 2133-2139

Rybach, L.; Wilhelm, J. (1995): Potential and use of warm waters from deep Alpine tunnels. In: Proc.
World Geothermal Congress 1995, Vol. 3, p. 2199-2203

- 350 -
 Development of Hot Dry Rock Technology at Hijiori Test Site
- Program for a Long Term Circulation Test -

Masahiro NAGAI and Norio TENMA

New Energy and Industrial Technology Development Organization

ABSTRACT

Since 1985, the New Energy and Industrial Technology Development Organization (NEDO) has continued the
development of Hot Dry Rock power generation in Hijiori Hot Dry Rock test site, Yamagata prefecture, Japan, as part
of the Sunshine Project and succeeding New Sunshine Project sponsored by Agency of Industrial Science and
Technology (AIST), a branch of the Ministry of International Trade and Industry(MITI). The objective of this project
is to identify the feasibility of a Hot Dry Rock power generation system in Japan. Thus, the research and development
being undertaken at Hijiori HDR test site is aiming to establish hot rock drilling technology, logging borehole
technology for evaluating the state of the rock around the well, hydraulic fracturing technology for creating artificial
fractures in rock, fracture mapping technology for surveying the reservoir area, and reservoir evaluation technology for
predicting reservoir longevity.

INTRODUCTION

The Hijiori HDR test site is located on

the southern edge of the 2 km diameter
Hijiori caldera, which was formed about
10,000 years ago (Fig. 1). Topographic
effect extend underground, and the
prevalence of fracture groups has a strike
in the east-west direction and a dip to the
north side with high angle.

As noted in Fig.2, the technical

development being carried out the Hijiori
HDR test site is largely divided into two
phases. The first phase was conducted
from 1985 to 1991, when a shallower
reservoir was formed and various
technological development works were
carried out. The second phase started
from fiscal 1992, when the study entered
a deeper reservoir development.

The well, SKG-2 ( depth 1802 m, the

bottom hole temperature 254 °C) was
drilled to explore a geothermal reservoir. ■ : Micro-seismometer installation
At first, the shallower reservoir was @ : Hot spring water sampling , • 25,000 Hijiori
▲ : River water sampling soom o soo__
created by hydraulic stimulation at about
• : Micro-earthquake recorder installation
1800 m deep in 1986. The amount of O : Well
injected water was 1080m3. HDR-
Fig. 1 Location of Hijiori HDR test site
1 (depth 2206 m), HDR-2(depth 1910 m)
- 351 -
 Hydraulic Drilled Circulation Drilled Drilled Circulation
deep fracturing HDR -1 test for HDR-2 HDR-3 test for 90
reservoir to 1,805 m 2 weeks to 1,910 m days 78%
created a 8.5 MW
depth ; man-made communica Deepen Circulation communica thermal
reservoir -ted HDR -1 test for 29 -ted
temperature to the to the
± 250‘C SKG-2 Set PBR 4.5 MW SKG-2
thermal
Hydraulic Deepen Sidetracked Preliminaly Circulation
2,200-m- & Deepen circulation for reduce
fracturing HDR-3
deep HDR-2 test for 25 the flow
reservoir
created a impedance
man-made communica communica 8~9 MW
reservoir -ted to the ted to the thermal
HDR -1 HDR -1
temperature
± 1 270‘C
SKG-2 SKG-2 HDR-1 SKG-2 HDR-1 SKG-2 HDR-1 SKG-2 HDR-1 SKG-2 HDR-1 SKG-2 HDR-1 SKG-2 HDR-1
SKG-2 SKG-2 HDR-1 SKG-2 HDR-1 HDR-2 HDR-1 HDR-2 HDR-3 HDR-2 HDR-3 HDR-2 HDR-3 HDR-2 HDR-3 HDR-2 HDR-3 HDR-2 HDR-3 HDR-2 HDR-3

Fig. 2 History of the Hijiori HDR test site

and HDR-3(depth 1907 m) were drilled HDR-2 HDR-1 SKG-2 HDR-3
to construct a circulation system in 1987,
1989 and 1990. Three circulation tests
were performed to estimate the
shallower reservoir characteristics using
these wells until 1991. During a 90-day
circulation test using four wells in 1991,
the amount of hot water and steam Casing
Depth
produced from three production wells 1800m A 1 k
was about 80 % of the total injected
water(Yamaguchi et al., 1992).
Shallower Reservoir
Depth 90m 130m
As a result of the success, it was 2200m <---------------- 3i
proposed to carry out a larger scale and
L_r Deeper Reservoir 1—f
higher temperature development of the
deeper reservoir. In 1992, hydraulic Fig. 3 Concept of a Hijiori HDR system
stimulation with about 2000 m3 water (Black zone of well show casing, and white zone is openhole)
was conducted at a depth between 2151
and 2205 m in HDR-1 to create the
deeper reservoir. In 1993 and 1994, HDR-3 and HDR-2 were deepened to a depth of 2303 m and 2302 m to intersect
the deeper reservoir, and a three-wells system was established. The distance from HDR-1 to HDR-3 was about 130 m
at the depth of reservoir and from HDR-1 to HDR-2 was about 90 m. The Hijiori HDR system has two reservoirs( the
shallower reservoir and the deeper reservoir ) and four wells (SKG-2, HDR-1, HDR-2 and HDR-3) as shown in Fig. 3.

HDR-1
HDR-2
HDR-3

8/06 8/09 8/12 8/15 8/18 8/21 8/24 8/27 8/30 9/02 9/05 9/08

Elapsed Time, day

Fig. 4 Records of flow rate obtained during a preliminary circulation test in 1995
(The injection well was HDR-1 and production wells were HDR-2 and HDR-3 )

TWO CIRCULATION TEST FOR THE DEEPER RESERVOIR

In 1995, a preliminary circulation test was conducted with an injection well HDR-1, and two production wells HDR-2
and HDR-3( Sato et al., 1995 ). The purpose of the test was to evaluate the deeper reservoir characteristic for the long

- 353 -
term circulation test and to improve the connectivity of the deeper reservoir between the injection well and production
wells. The period of the test was from August 6 to 30. The injection and production flow rate are shown in Fig. 4.

At the beginning of the test, water was injected under high pressure to improve the connectivity at the maximum flow
rate of about 60 kg/s. After initial high flow rate injection, the productivity of the deeper reservoir was evaluated using
around 16.7 kg/s or 33.4 kg/s during the test. The summary of the test is shown in Table 1. A total recovery rate of the
test was about 40 %. And a recovery rate of hot water and steam was about 55% - 60% during the constant flow rate at
16.7 kg/s. The amount of hot water and steam from HDR-2 was larger than that from HDR-3.

Table 1 Summary of the preliminary circulation test in 1995

Circulation test period 25 days Aug. 6 - 30, 1995

HDR-1 total injection 51500 m3 Total recovery : 39.0 %
HDR-2 total production 13200 m3 Recovery of HDR-2 : 25.6 %
HDR-3 total production 6900 m3 Recovery of HDR-3 : 13.4 %

Constant flow circulation test recovery (Aug. 11 - 17) About 55 % Flow: 16.7 kg/s Valve opening: 40 %
Constant flow circulation test recovery (Aug. 17 - 26) About 30 % Flow: 33.4 kg/s Valve opening: 40 %
Constant flow circulation test recovery (Aug. 26 - 30) About 50 % Flow: 16.7 kg/s Valve opening: 40 %

Wellhead temperature during HDR-2 production About 180 °C Heat output: about 4.5 MW
Wellhead pressure during HDR-2 production About 10 kgf/cm2

Wellhead temperature during HDR-3 production About 180 °C Heat output: about 4.0 MW
Wellhead pressure during HDR-3 production About 10 kgf/cm2

PUN VIET

AE was measured to evaluate extension of

the deeper reservoir during the test. As noted in
Fig. 5, AE sources were mostly distributed in

DISTANCE (KM)
the east-west direction around HDR-1, and
ranged from 1500 m to 2700 m deep. The
circle show a location of AE, and the size
indicate the magnitude of AE. AE events
during the test were extensively distributed
ELEVATION VIET
around AE of the hydraulic fracturing in 1992.

PTS logging was periodically carried out in the O %.

:... 0...
two production wells during the test. The O O
pressure, temperature and flow rate were
measured along each production well. As
shown in Fig. 6, the number of outlet points
where hot water flowed into the production
wells was ten in HDR-2 and nine in HDR-3. In
DISTANCE (KM)
total, nineteen outlet points were recognized in
production wells from these data. The mark of Fig. 5 Seismic source distribution of AE during
preliminary circulation test in 1995
“F**-l” to “F**-5” indicate outlet points of the

354-
shallower reservoir, and other show outlet
points of the deeper reservoir. -500 -400 -300 -200 -100 100 200 300 400 500
1 500-1—"' ■ 1......... ..—-L

F2-1 (1564-1594)
1600 F2-2(1654-1668) .....
In 1996, a one-month circulation test was
F2a-2(1673m-1677m)
carried out with HDR-1 as an injection 1700- F2-3(1753-1758) ...
F2-4(1766-1775) .................. F3-3,4(1754m-1759m)
well and HDR-3 as production well. The F2a-3,4(1780m-1783 m)
1800-
purpose of this test was to improve a FZ-S(IBIO) ..................
F2a-5 F3-5(1861m)
connectivity of fractures between HDR-1 1900 (1808m-1630m)
F3-6(1929m-1931m)
as the injection well and HDR-3 as the
F2a-6 F3-7(2002m-2007m)
2000-
production well, because performance of (2032m-2035m) -

both HDR-2 and HDR-3 were difference.

2100 F2a-7 (2107m-2109m)
The injection flow rate was constantly 16.7 F2a-8(2136m-21 50m)
F2a-9(2165m-2166m) F3-8(2188m-2190m)
kg/s during this test. A single production 2200-
F2a-10(223 9m-2242m) F3-9(2250m-2255m)
well test for HDR-3 was conducted from
2300 HDR-3
HDR-2a
August 10 to September 1. After the single
production well test, hot water and steam 2400-
were produced from two production wells
2500-
until September 9. The summary of this
test is shown in Table 2. A recovery rate
Fig. 6 Trajectories of injection and production wells and
was 70 % during two production wells test. the location of outlet points at Hijiori HDR test site
(Elevation view in E-W direction)

Table 2 Summary of the one-month circulation test in 1996

Circulation Test in 1996

Period August 10 - September 1 September 2 - September 9 Total
Single production test Two production test
HDR-1 injection 32200 m3 8700 m3 40900 m3
HDR-2 production 3650 m3 3650 m3
(41.2%) ( 9.0%)
HDR-3 production 6340 m3 2720 m3 9060 m3
(19.7%) (31.3%) (22.2 %)

FUTURE PLAN

Two circulation tests were conducted to estimate the deeper reservoir characteristic for the long term circulation test in
1995 and 1996. We got some data to evaluate the behavior of the deeper reservoir from tests. Thus, NEDO continue
the Hijiori HDR project as shown in Table 3. NEDO will be making a program for the long term circulation test from
1997 to 1999. In this preparatory period, we are going to discuss data measured during the long term circulation test.

As the Hijiori HDR test site is located in a heavy snow fall area, a surface pipe system must be protected from freezing
during the long term circulation test. And, NEDO make design and construction of facilities for a long term circulation
test in Hijiori HDR test site from 1997 to 1999.

NEDO is going to make a 3D graphic system of Hijiori HDR test site from 1997 to 1999. For example, the geological
-355-
data, temperature logging data, BHTV data ( dip, azimuth, depth, etc ) and AE measured by some tests are put in this
system.

NEDO have a plan of a long-term circulation test of the Hijiori HDR system to confirm the feasibility of Hot Dry Rock
power generation from the autumn in 2000 till the autumn in 2002. Objective of the long term circulation test is to
estimate life and volume of the deeper reservoir. As noted in Fig. 3, the characteristic of Hijiori HDR system is one
reservoir with one injection well (the shallower reservoir with SKG-2 and the deeper reservoir with HDR-1 ). Then,
NEDO is thinking an attempt that water is injected in SKG-2 and HDR-1 to estimate the multi-reservoir of Hijiori HDR
system during a particular period of the long term circulation test.

Table 3 Schedule of Hijiori HDR project until a long term circulation test

Preparation ( 1997 to 1999 ) Test (2000 to 2002 )

• make a program for a long term circulation test
Task of Hijiori HDR project • design and construction of facilities A Long Term Circulation Test
• make a 3D graphic system of Hijiori HDR test
site

REFERENCES

Sato, Y. et al.(1995) “Stimulation of the 2200-m-deep Reservoir at Hijiori HDR Test Site”, Geothermal Resources
Council TRANSACTIONS, 1995, Vol.19, 275-278

Yamaguchi, T. et al.(1992) “90-day Circulation Test at Hijiori HDR Test Site”, Geothermal Resources Council
TRANSACTIONS, Vol.16, 417-422

- 356 -
 RESERVOIR EVALUATION OF THE HIJIORI HOT DRY ROCK
GEOTHERMAL SYSTEM

Isao MATSUNAGA

National Institute for Resources and Environment

ABSTRACT

The natural fracture system at the Hijiori test site is described. The analysis of oriented cores and
BHTV survey indicate fractures with E-W or ESE-WNW strike are predominant and major flow
paths in the reservoir. The conductive fractures seem to be related with the ring fault of the Hijiori
caldera. The flow regime in the deep reservoir is evaluated by the results of tracer experiments and
PTS logs during circulation tests in 1995 and 1996. Severe interaction between the shallow and deep
reservoirs was recognized during the tests. The PTS logs and tracer experiments reveal the connection
from HDR-1 to HDR-2a is much better than that to HDR-3.

INTRODUCTION

After the success of a three-month circulation test of 1991 in the Hijiori hot dry rock (HDR) reservoir
at a depth of 1800 m, R&D activity has been progressed to develop a deeper and hotter region (2,200
m depth and temperatures up to 270 °C). In 1995 and 1996, short term circulation tests were carried
out in the deep reservoir with an injection well, HDR-1, and two production wells (HDR-2 and HDR-
3). Pressure-Temperature-Spinner (PTS) surveys and tracer experiments were conducted to evaluate
flow regime in the reservoir. Well tests with multi flow rates were also applied before and after the
circulation tests to evaluate the injectivity of the reservoir. Those tests revealed the very complex flow
regime and the severe interaction of the shallow and deep reservoirs (Hydo et al., 1996;Tenma et al.,
1996).

Since the flow in the reservoir is controlled by the fracture system, the knowledge of the natural
fracture system and also in-situ stress are very important to develop and evaluate an HDR reservoir
(Willis-Richards et al., 1995; Dezayes, et al., 1995).

In this paper, the results of the natural

fracture system analysis of the Hijiori test
site are described. The flow regime in the
deep reservoir is evaluated by the results ST-9
of tracer experiments and other
diagnostic methods conducted in the Hijiori
{• ST-5 SKG-1
circulation tests.
ST-2

FRACTURE SYSTEM IN HIJIORI Test site

The HDR test site of NEDO is located

near Hijiori hot spa in Yamagata
prefecture. Geothermal activity in Hijiori
is related with a recent volcanism which
formed a small caldera of 2 km diameter ST-4
around 10,000 years ago. The test site is
Z / // . ST-10
located on the southern edge of the
caldera, as shown in Figure 1. Figure 1. Location of the Hijiori test site

-357
There are four wells, SKG-2, HDR-1, 2, and 3, at the site. Those wells penetrate into a Cretaceous
granitic basement, which is a target rock, at around 1,500 m depth through Quaternary and Neogene
volcanic rocks. SKG-2 was used as an injection well until 1991 and is now used for an observation
well. Well HDR-1, which was the first well drilled by NEDO at Hijiori in 1987, had been used for a
production well until 1991 but is now used for an injection well of a deep reservoir at 2,200 m depth.
In 1991, Well HDR-2 had been drilled and used for a production well in the shallow system. In 1994,
HDR-2 was sidetracked and deepened westwards to obtain a longer separation from HDR-1. HDR-3
was drilled in 1990 eastwards from a injection point of SKG-2 and deepened from 1,909 m to 2,300 m
in 1993. Trajectories of those wells are shown in Figure 2.

During the drillings of HDR-1,

HDR-2, and HDR-3, around
60 meters of cores were
obtained by 28 spotted coring
operations. Oriented coring
was tried 21 times and 12
oriented cores were — HDR-2
SKG-2 HDR-3
successfully obtained. Fracture
analyses were conducted on
the oriented cores by NIRE
and NEDO. HDR-1

A fracture set striking E-W or

ESE-WNW with dip about
-80 -60 -40 -20 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
70°N is predominantly
observed in the cores, as West - East
shown in Figure 3. This
fracture set usually associates Figure 2. Trajectories of injection and production wells at the
with hydrothermal alteration Hijiori test site.
veins (quartz, anhydrite, calcite, epidote and chlorite) and is thought to be created by the extensional
stress condition. Fractures with the same striking but dip S are also recognized on the cores from the
deep reservoir (Figure 3). Other two fracture sets striking NNE-NE and NW, associated with chlorite
and epidote veinlets, are also dominant. Since slikenside is often observed in the fractures, these
conjugate fracture sets were thought to be formed under the shearing stress condition.

The extension and shear

fracture sets were also N66W 35S
detected by Borehole N84E38S
Televiewer (BHTV) survey in
openhole portions of HDR-1,
N8W31W
2, and 3. In 1992, an injection
portion of HDR-1 was
observed by BHTV before and
after a hydraulic stimulation of
the deep reservoir. Although
several fractures with N-S
striking and dip W were newly
created by the stimulation as N63W 70N
shown in Figure 4 (Yamaguchi
et al., 1996), the fractures
striking E-W and dip N were
mainly observed in the Figure 3. Contoured diagram (lower Schmidt projection) of
communication part of HDR-2 natural fractures observed on oriented cores of HDR-3
and HDR-3. During oriented deepened portion.

-358-
coring at the depth of 2183 m in HDR-3,
a hydraulic communication with HDR-1
N
was inferred by a rapid ascending of the
water level in HDR-1. Two open
fractures associated .with quartz and
adularia crystals and sericite alteration
are observed on the oriented core
recovered from that depth. Strike and dip
of these fractures were N100°E and 74°N
and N110°E and 78°N, respectively. A: New
■ :0ld
Outflow zones detected by PTS surveys • :Unci ear
in the production wells also tend to
spatially align on paralleled planes of the
E-W trend and dip N, as shown in Figure
5 (NEDO, 1996), hence the E-W striking Figure 4. Orientation of fractures observed by BHTV
fractures are thought to be major flow before (old) and after (new) the hydraulic stimulation in
paths in the reservoir. HDR-1 (Yamaguchi et al., 1996).

This type of lineaments

and fractures is not
obvious in an outcrop of
the Kotake granodiorite,
which is the same granitic
rock of the reservoir, at
about 4 km south of the
test site nor in a volcanic
ash formation at the
Hijiori caldera. The test
site is located at the
southern edge of the
caldera, as mentioned
previously, hence the
conductive fractures of E-
W trend seem to be
Figure 5. Outflow zones detected by the PTS log in HDR-2 and
closely related with the
ring fault of the caldera. HDR-3 (NEDO, 1996)

DIAGNOSTIC METHODS APPLIED FOR CIRCULATION TESTS AT HIJIORI

After a hydraulic stimulation from an open-hole section of HDR-1 in 1992, HDR-3 was deepened in
1993 and HDR-2 a was sidetracked in 1993 to achieve communication with HDR-1. The first
circulation test was conducted for one month in 1995. The second circulation test was conducted for a
month last summer. Results of these test were already reported by Sato et al. (1995) and Nagai et
al.(1997), therefore several topics related with the reservoir evaluation are described here.

At the beginning and end of the circulation test, step-rate (multi-rate injection) test was conducted to
obtain information of hydraulic parameters around HDR-1 (Kadowaki, 1996). Hydo et al. (1995)
analyzed impedance components in the shallow reservoir using pressure and flow data obtained in the
1991 circulation test.

PTS log is the most powerful tool to distinguish fluid flow paths in a borehole. If PTS log is repeated
during a circulation test, we can obtain temperature and flow changes at each flow zone. During the
circulation test in 1995, PTS log was conducted 6 times each in HDR-2 and HDR-3. Miyairi and
Sorimachi (1996) identified 10 effective fracture zones, which are already shown in Figure 5, by using

-359-
these PTS logs.

Tracer experiment is a useful diagnostic method to identify flow in a reservoir, especially in a multi­
reservoir and multi-production well system such as Hijiori. In the Hijiori test site, tracer experiments
have been conducted with every circulation test at the shallow and deep reservoirs. Although tracer
response curves are obtained as an overall response for a reservoir at the surface, we may distinguish
each response of flow path by applying PTS logs as mentioned in Matsunaga et al.(1995a).

Fluid geochemistry is also a possible indicator of flow regime of an HDR reservoir. At Fenton Hill,
sodium vs chlorine concentration plot indicates dilution process of an original high chlorine formation
fluid by injected surface water (Grigsby et al., 1989). We observed the same phenomena at Hijiori in
the circulation tests in the shallow and deep reservoir (Matsunaga et al., 1995b;1996). Since anhydrite
is widely seen as alteration mineral at Hijiori and it exhibits inverse solubility with respect to
increasing temperature, sulfate concentration of the production fluids is also a good indicator of the
reservoir response for injected fluid.

EVALUATION OF FLOW REGIME IN THE DEEP RESERVOIR AT HIJIORI

At the beginning of the 1995 circulation test, interaction between HDR-2 and HDR-3 and also the
deep and shallow reservoirs was recognized (Tenma et al., 1996). Although the injection well is cased
through the shallow reservoir, a significant amount of production from the shallow reservoir was
detected by PTS logs. This means there is flow somewhere between the deep and shallow reservoirs.
However, the production from the shallow reservoir shows a negative correlation to the wellbore
pressure at the depth, while the production from the deep reservoir correlate to the injection pressure at
HDR-1 (Miyairi and Sorimachi, 1996). Therefore, the communication between the deep and shallow
reservoirs seems indirect and not so dominant near the wellbores. Hyodo et al.(1996) applied their
model for the analysis of impedance components in the deep reservoir, however it was difficult to
measure due to extensive interaction between the deep and shallow reservoirs.

Figure 6 shows tracer response curves for the first experiment in 1995. These response curves suggest
the deference in the fracture connections from HDR-1 to HDR-2 and HDR-3 (Matsunaga et al., 1996).
It was estimated by PTS log analysis that roughly 75 % of fluid from HDR-1 to the deep reservoir part
of HDR-2 flowed through a single fracture, F2a-9 (NEDO, 1996), hence a major part of injected
tracer to HDR-2 flowed into this fracture in a short time and came out through the surface with a sharp
response. On the other hand, paralleled and also slightly minor flows from HDR-1 to the deeper part
of HDR-3 could have caused the small response in HDR-3.

As shown in Figure 7, the variation of Cl

and SO42" concentration in HDR-2 was
closely related to the flow control at the t Exper ment
surface. Decreasing Cl and increasing
SO42" levels suggests that relatively fresh
— HDR-2
surface water tends to flush out formation -=- HDR-3
fluid which is high in Cl" and low in SO42"
concentrations. In the 1996 circulation test,
fresh river water was periodically injected
at the same flow rate as the circulation rate
for HDR-1 during tracer experiments.
During tracer return, small decreasing of Cl
and increasing of SO42" were recognized 0 100 200 300 400 500
only in the production from HDR-3. Since ZQprod after tracer injection, ton
fluid geochemistry variation, as like the Figure 6. Tracer breakthrough curves of HDR-2
tracer response, is more remarkable in and HDR-3 at the first tracer experiment in 1995.
HDR-2, we can conclude that the

- 360 -
connection from HDR-1
to HDR-2 is more 240
dominant than that to HDR-2
HDR-3. 2500 200 i

2000 160 g
If we compare tracer
recovery with fluid I
1500 120 %
recovery during a tracer fl>
o
experiment, we may 1000 80 g
estimate fractional flow
from the shallow reservoir 40 %
since tracer is contained in
the flow from the deep
16.7ES r Venting
0
reservoir. Once the flow 8/7 8/14 8/21 8/28 9/4
fraction is obtained, we
Date
can estimate the tracer
travel time in wellbore Figure 7. Cl and SO42" concentration of HDR-2 production fluid
and also in the reservoir. during the 1995 circulation test in the deep reservoir.
As the response curves of
HDR-2 were much clearer,
it was easier to Table 1. Results of tracer experiments in HDR-2
calculate recovery.
Therefore a comparison
was done for HDR-2
1st exp. 2nd exp. 3rd exp.
production. The result Tracer recv. 14.3 % 11.1 % 9.0 %
are shown in Table 1. Fluid recv. 30% 13.7 % 30.3 %
Values obtained from (5.01/s) (4.6 1/s) (5.11/s)
the tracer recovery are Fract. QuP 0.52 0.19 0.7
almost comparable to (3.6 1/s)
(2.6 1/s) (0.9 1/s)
those obtained from the
Fract. Qiow 0.48 0.81 0.3
PTS logs. Although the
(2.4 1/s) (3.7 1/s) (1.5 1/s)
travel time in the
reservoir increased Residence time 1:03 1:07 1:20
during the circulation
Modal Vol. 9 m3 15 m3 7.2 m3
test, modal volume of
the reservoir increased
only in the second experiment from 9 m3 of the first experiment to 15 m3. This means that injection
with a doubled flow rate (32 1/s) tended to inflate fracture volume near wellbore, however the effect
did not continue for long since the modal volume was decreased to 7.2 m3 at the third experiment.

CONCLUSIONS

Detailed analysis of oriented cores and also BHTV survey in boreholes reveals that the major fracture
system contributed to the fluid circulation in Hijiori is the E-W or ESE-WNW fractures. These
fractures seem to be correlated with the formation of the Hijiori caldera. Two fracture sets of NNE-
NE and NW strike might be weak flow paths which connect major fractures.

During the 1995 and 1996 circulation tests, the severe interaction between the shallow and deep
reservoirs were observed. Although the hydraulic analysis to obtain the impedance components in the
deep reservoir was difficult, PTS logs and the tracer experiments reveal that the connection from
HDR-1 to HDR-2a is much better than that to HDR-3.

Long term circulation test are needed to evaluate the performance of the Hijiori HDR reservoir.

- 361 -
ACKNOWREGEMENTS

The author would like to thank the entire staff of the hot dry rock geothermal project at NIRE, NEDO,
and the New Sunshine Program Promotion HQs in MITT

REFERENCES

Dezayes, Ch., Villemin, T., Center, A., Traineau, H., and Angelier, J. (1995) Analysis of fractures in
boreholes of the Hot Dry Rock project at Soultz-sous-Forets (Rhine graben, France). Scientific
Drilling, 5, 31-41.
Grigsby, C.O., Tester, J.W., Trujillo, Jr., P.E., and Counce, D.A.(1989) Rock-water interactions in
the Fenton Hill, New Mexico, Hot Dry Rock geothermal systems I., Fluid mixing and chemical
geothermometry. Geothermics, 18, 629-656.
Hyodo, M., Shinohara, N., Takasugi, S., Write, R.A., and Conant, R.A. (1995) An HDR system
hydraulics model and detailed analysis of the 1991 circulation test at the Hijiori HDR site,
Japan. Geothermal Resources Council Trans., 19, 263-268.
Hyodo, M., Shinohara, N., Takasugi, S., Write, R.A., and Conant, R.A. (1996) An HDR system
hydraulics model and analysis of the 1995 preliminary circulation test at the Hijiori HDR site
of the NEDO project, Japan. Proc. 3rd HDR Forum, p.23-24, Santa Fe.
Kadowaki, M. (1996) Pressure transient analysis of injection test at Hijiori HDR site. Proc. 3rd HDR
Forum, p.27-28, Santa Fe.
Matsunaga, I., Tenma, N., Miyazaki, A., and Kuriyagawa, M. (1995a) Characterization of forced
flow in a deep fractured reservoir at the Hijiori hot dry rock test site, Yamagata, Japan. Proc.
8th Congress International Society for Rock Mechanics, 795-798, Tokyo, Japan.
Matsunaga, L, Miyazaki, A., and Tao, H. (1995b) Water-rock interactions during a three-month
circulation test at the Hot Dry Rock test site in Hijiori, Japan. Proc. World Geothermal
Congress 1995, 2679-2693, Florence, Italy.
Matsunaga, I., Tao, H., and Kimura, A. (1996) Preliminary characterization of the Hijiori HDR
deeper system by fluid geochemistry and tracer experiments of a one-month circulation test.
Proc. 3rd HDR Forum, p.25-26, Santa Fe.
Miyairi, M. and Sorimachi, M. (1996) Characterization of effective fractures by downhole
measurements at Hijiori HDR test site. Proc. 3rd HDR Forum, Santa Fe.
Nagai, M. and Tenma, N.(1997) Development of Hot Dry Rock technology at Hijiori test site -
Program for a long term circulation test. This issue.
NEDO (1996) FY1995 Summary of Hot Dry Rock geothermal power project in Japan, p.45 (in
Japanese).
Sato, Y., Matsunaga, I., Nagai, M., Ikawa, T., and Tenma, N. (1995) Stimulation of the 2200-m-deep
reservoir at Hijiori HDR test site. Geothermal Resources Council Trans., 19,275-278.
Tenma, N., Yamaguchi, T., Matsunaga, I., Kuriyagawa, M., and Sato, Y. (1996) Interference of
production during a one month circulation test at the Hijiori Hot Dry Rock test site. Proc. 21
Workshop Geothermal Reservoir Engineering, Stanford, California, SGP-TR-151, 295-298.
Willis-Richards, J., Green, A.S.P., and Jupe, A. (1995) A comparison of HDR geothermal sites, Proc.
World Geothermal Congress 1995, p.2601-2605, Florence, Italy..
Yamaguchi, T., Oikawa, Y., Matsunaga, I., and Tenma, N. (1996) Stress states and fracture at the
Hijiori HDR test site. Proc. Fall Meeting of MMIJ, A71-74 (In Japanese).

- 362 -
 PRESENT STATUS AND TASKS OF THE OGACHIHDR PROJECT

Koichi KITANO

Central Research Institute of Electric Power Industry

ABSTRACT

The CRTEPI's Ogachi HDR Project has begun in 1989 with the objective of developing
elemental technologies to make economically available geothermal energy. Two reservoirs, the
upper and the lower, were created by drilling of a 1,000m well (the injection well) and by
hydraulic fracturing in the basement rock of granodiorite at Ogachi, in Akita Prefecture, Japan.
In 1993, another well (the production well) with a 1,100m depth was drilled intersecting both of
these reservoirs. After two circulation tests and some reservoir stimulations using these two
wells from 1993 to 1995, a one month circulation test was conducted in 1995 and hot water and
vapor of 165 °C were produced at a rate of 7.5m^/hour from the production well when water of
20 °C was injected at a rate of 30m3/hour from the injection well.
These accomplishments have been supported and paralleled by developments in various
technologies such as the microseismic fracture mapping technique, the multiple-reservoir
creation technique, the geology and geochemistry studies, and many instruments to obtain
hydraulic and thermal data etc.
The most important task for the next step at Ogachi is the evaluation of the reservoir by some
data analyses and a 3D-simulation method.

INTRODUCTION

Advancements in geothermal energy are giving new dimensions to the development of clean
natural energy resources. CRIEPI(Central Research Institute of Electric Power Industry) has
been applying its research expertise to the development of Japan's abundant geothermal
resources as part of a grand strategy for the diversification of energy sources designed to reduce
both dependency on petroleum and environmental pollution.
CRIEPI has been conducting Hot Dry Rock Geothermal Energy Development(HDR)
experiments at Ogachi in Akita Prefecture, northeast Japan ( See Fig.-1,2 )since the beginning in
1989, after the Akinomiya Project ( phase- 1,1986-1988 ) as a preparation stage for the Ogachi

— 363 —
Project.
This paper outlines the present status of the Ogachi Project reaching through our experiments
since 1989 and the tasks to solve for making an advance in future.

1. RESULTS OF EXPERIMENTS FROM 1990 TO 1994

The Ogachi site is situated in the mountainous region of the elevation of about 600m. The
geology of the Ogachi site consists of Cretaceous granodiorite covered with Tertiary lappily tuff
to a depth of 300m from the ground surface( Fig.-3 ). A number of pre-existing or natural joints
are developed in the granodiorite, the mother rock of hydraulic fracturing, with an average
spacing of about 8 cm observed from the geological investigation but with a comparably low
natural permeability obtained from the result of an initial flow test.
In 1990, second year of the phase-II (1989-1992), an injection well was drilled to a depth of
1,000m where the rock temperature was measured at 228 °C, and a casing pipe was set in the
well except a 10m section at the bottom. In 1991, over 10,000 nC of water was injected from
the open-hole section at the bottom of the well,creating a fractured area with 200m thick and
500m wide that estimated to stretch 1,000m in the direction of 20 degrees NNE from AE
hypocenters distribution.
After the lower fracture completed, the well's casing pipe were milled from 711m to 719m to
produce an open hole section called a window, then the open-hole section at the bottom was
filled with sand. In 1992, an upper fracture was created at the window depth by injecting nearly
5,500 m^ of water. The upper fracture, also 200m thick, was estimated to extend over a 400 X
800m area in 110 degree ESE direction from AE hypocenters distribution (Fig.-4 ).
In January, 1993, a production well was drilled directionally to a depth of 1,100m to intersect
both the lower and upper fractures. The distance between both wells was about 80m at the level
of 1,000m depth. After confirming the hydraulic communication by a flow test, a 22 days
circulation test was conducted in the phase-111(1993-1995).
In 1994, a 5 months circulation test between the two wells accomplished. The results of the test
showed that the recovery rate was about 10% and the injection pressure was 13 MPa at a flow
rate of 30 irC/hour as shown in Fig.-5 . Unless obtaining hot water and vapor of the temperature
of 160 cC, the recovery rate was comparably low and the injection pressure was comparably high
to our targets of the test.

2. RESULTS OF EXPERIMENTS SINCE 1995

The principal objectives of the 1995 Ogachi project were to reduce the water injection

— 364 —
pressure and to improve the water recovery during water circulation tests. At first we redrilled
down the bottom of the injection well from 1,000m to 1,027m to extend the water injection
(open-hole) region. After the redrilling, the water injection well was stimulated by injecting
water with total volume of 3,400 m3 at a flow rate of 105 m^/hour and at a wellhead pressure of
18 MPa. The production well was also stimulated by injecting water with total volume of 4,300
nU at a flow rate of 135 m^/hour and a wellhead pressure of 18 MPa. AE hypocenter location
distribution during these stimulations showed that the area around these wells were well
fractured.
We conducted a one-month circulation test between these wells to confirm the above
mentioned redrilling and stimulation effects. During the circulation test, the water injecting
pressure decreased to 7 MPa, about a half of that in 1994, and the injected water recovery from
the production well increased to about 25%, about twice as much as that in 1994 ( See Fig.-5 ).
In the Fig.-5 , the recovery rate for the last three days in the test term suddenly goes up to 32%,
unless no change of the injection rate. What does it mean ? It means a result of the change
from 0.8 MPa to 0.6 MPa of the wellhead pressure of the production well by the valve operating.
The produced water temperature of 160 to 165°C (a maximum of 169°C) was measured.
A tracer test was conducted during this circulation test and the modal volume, a characteristic
nature of void volume of major fractures and joints, was 135 m3 which was about 100 m3
smaller than that of the tracer tests in 1994 . The resulting in smaller modal volumes was
thought to mean the tendency for the water to sweep through new and old fractures of larger
aperture around these wells created by these stimulations.
Therefore, we concluded that the extension of the water injection area and the stimulation to
these wells were more effective to reduce the water injection pressure and to improve the water
recovery.
Through the experiments at the Ogachi site until 1995 , we have a lot of experience and many
techniques for HDR development . The table-1 shows some techniques and methods that we
have developed or are developing. For example, multiple stage fracturing method, geothermal
resource exploration technique using CSAMT, AE observation method for measurement of
underground reservoir,etc.
In spite of these many important techniques, new problems or tasks over our prospect, like as
the different direction between two reservoirs and the low recovery rate, were produced. So, in
1996, we looked at our previous plan of the Ogachi experiment and presented a new plan of it
as shown next two chapters.

3. PRESENT STATUS AND TASKS OF OGACHI PROJECT

- 365 -
 In general, it has been said that the technical issues or tasks faced in HDR were as follows:
(1) Well must be drilled to depths where temperature range 200 to 400 °C, suitable for electric
generation.
(2) Such temperature are found at depth of 2 to 5 km where have large in-situ earth stresses.
One must then fracture the rock with such temperature and stress, and open the fractures so that
the permeability remains high and flow resistance is low.
(3) Large area of hot rock must be adequately bathed to result in high heat production. Since all
water must be provided extraneously, losses to the country rock surrounding the fractured
reservoir must not be excessive.
(4) The technology development must assure that potentially damaging earthquakes will not
caused by downhole accumulation of this water.
(5) One must also avoid potential geochemical problems, such as scaling of surface equipment
with precipitated products of rock dissolution and corrosion of surface.
Otherwise, a concept of HDR system has been presented by CRIEPI, which has a power of
240MW using average temperature of 300 °C from a hot dry rock and whose well system
consists of 5 injection wells and 11 production wells with each depth of 4,000m.
In this chapter, taking account of both the general issues and the conditions involved in our
concept, I would like to describe the present status and tasks of the Ogachi Project from two
points, the reservoir creation and the recovery products.
(1) Reservoir Creation:
Each reservoir created at Ogachi has an enough size for the heat extraction from the hot mother
rock. On the other hand, for an efficient heat extraction from the broad area of ranging from 2 to
4(or 5) km in depth, it needs to create multiple reservoirs having an adequate interval each other.
Ogachi's two reservoirs were successfully created at depths of about 700 m and about 1,000 m in
the injection well by the method called "Casing Reamer and Sand-plug Method".
(2) Recovery Products:
The temperature of the products recovered from the production well was 165 °C and this
showed a sufficient value for heat to be obtained. Because the temperature of products at the
bottom of the well was over about 230 °C (See Fig.-6), nearly equal to the primary rock
temperature at the depth. And the deference of the products temperature between at the bottom
and the wellhead means no more than an influence of cooling during its rising in the well with a
small diameter of about 10cm.
The higher the recovery rate is , the more efficient it is for the HDR power generation. And it
has been said that the recovery rate needs to hold at more than 80 % for the following two
reasons mainly. One is for an economical operation of the HDR and another is for minimizing
the influence of the dispersion of injected water on the circumstance surrounding the reservoirs.

- 366 -
 Both at Fenton Hill and Soultz the recovery rate were obtained over 80 %, but at Ogachi only
about 25 %. The Fig.-7 shows an image of the Ogachi reservoir structure in 1995. In this
picture, the two reservoirs are more simplified for easy understanding, though these have more
complicated shapes and different direction each other as before mentioned. And each numeral
shows the allotted volume rate per the total volume of the injected water. Certainly, these values
are estimated, but have some indirect evidences. Now, if a volume of 100% of water was
injected into the injection well, then about 80% of it should flow into the lower reservoir and
the remained 20% into the upper . And a total about 25% of it should be recovered from the
production well, the 3% should be from the upper reservoir and the 22% from the lower.
There are two problems here. One is how to make the different rate each other even and
another is how to evaluate the low recovery rate or the reason why about 75% of total volume of
the injected water could not return. The research into the both problems is going on now, as the
important our tasks to solve for advance to the next step. Considering of the reason of the latter,
it is possible to say that the mother rock, the granodiorite, has a comparably high permeability or
has such faults or long open-cracks as a large passage of water flow toward outside the reservoirs.
The initial rock permeability measured by the flow tests in the wells at Ogachi has a value of 10"
6 to 10-7 cm/sec, and it's not so high compared with that of other sites. And a possibility of the
existence of such faults or open-cracks in contact with the reservoirs cannot completely be
denied . Anyway, we are on the way to solve these problems and have not had certain answers
yet.
On the other hand, the low recovery rate is also resulting from only one production well, but in
our conception mentioned above, four production wells are provided to arrange surrounding one
injection well. So it also involved one of the next tasks to solve how much the recovery rate
increase to be accompanied by adding of the production well around the injection well.

4. NEXT PLAN OF THE OGACHI PROJECT

We are thinking about the next plan of the Ogachi project as follows:
(1). There are three large tasks to solve.
The first one is the development of an effective reservoir evaluation method, especially how to
estimate the situations, the directions and the flowrates of main passages of the injected water in
the invisible deep underground.
The second is the development of an evaluation method of the cooling rate of the hot dry rock
or the reservoir and the change of reservoir character during long term water circulation in
addition to an environmental evaluation.
The third is how to draw an effective prospect for approaching to the realization of a HDR

- 367 -
power plant.
(2). For the purpose of the development of the reservoir evaluation method, we are presenting
next plan with tow phases, the phase-IV and V, at Ogachi.
In the phase-IV starting from the fiscal year of 1996, the developments of an evaluation method
to estimate main fractures or cracks controlling water flow in the reservoir and of a 3D-
simulation program to evaluate water flow in the reservoir are involved, accompanied by making
of a simulation model accounting for main cracks. And, after getting the hydraulic parameters
of each reservoir from the flow test of each reservoir in 1997, a new production well will be
drilled at the distance of a few hundred meters away from the injection well, for the purpose of
confirming the effective utility of these methods.
Furthermore, in the phase-V, a long-term circulation test among one injection well and two
production wells will be conducted for evaluation of the cooling rate of the reservoirs and for the
confirming the availability of these evaluation methods mentioned above from the
correspondence with the results of the test and its prior estimations by these methods.
These plans are shown in the Fig.-8.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

Thanks a lot to Mr.Hori, Mr. Kiho, Dr.Kaieda, Mr. Yamamoto, Dr.Suzuki, Dr.Itoh and other
CREEPI's HDR group members for offering the field data and giving many advices. Essentially,
some member's names of our HDR group should to be arranged as the co-authors of this paper,
but I dared not to do so for taking the responsibility of my poor ability in English writing.

REFERENCES

1) R.H.Hendron,1988,"Hot Dry Rock at Fenton Hill,USA", Preprint of International

workshop on HDR,pp. 1-18.
2) K.Kitano,Y.Hori,I.Motojima, 1993,"Outline of plan and test results of the Ogachi
Project",Preprint of 2nd International HDR Forum,D-l.
3) H.Kaieda,K.Suzuki,Y.Hujimitsu,S.Sasaki,1993,"Fracture Evaluation by AE and Mice-a-
la-masse Method at Ogachi",Preprint.of 2nd International HDR Forum,D-2.
4) D.Duchane,J.N. Albright, 1996,"Overview of Fenton Hill HDR Project"preprint.of 3rd
International HDR Forum,pp.31-33.
5 )H.Kaieda,S. Sasaki, 1996,"AE Hypocenter Distribution during Hydraulic Fracturing and
Water Circulation Tests at Ogachi",Preprint.of 3rd International HDR
 Forum,pp.64-65.
6) K.Kitano,Y.Hori,H.Kaieda, 1996,"Outline of the Ogachi Project in 1995",Preprint.of
3rd International HDR Forum,pp.60-61.
7) T. Yamamoto, Y.Hori,K.Kitano, 1996,"Three-dimensional Simulation for Ogachi HDR
Reservoir",Preprint.of 3rd International HDR Forum,pp.71-72.
8) Y.Hori, 1996,"Development and Application of Measurement Tools for High Temperature
Borehole-Joint Location, Water Temperature and Flow Rate-",Preprint of 3rd
International HDR Forum,pp.62-63.
9) K.Kiho,U.S.Manbo, 1995,"Reservoir Characterization by Geochemical Method at the
Ogachi HDR site,Japan",Proceeedings of W.G.C.,pp.2707-2712.

-369
 Iv-V.vl Volcanic Detritus — Anticlinal Axis

Quaternary Volcanic rocks -jfc— ' Synclinal Axis

I a * a I Tertiary Pyroclastic rocks

Estimated fault
Table-1. MAIN HDR TECHNOLOGIES OF CRIEPI lv v v| Tertiary Intrusive rocks

i-j- -f-l Pre-Tertiary Granitic rocks

1,HDR Heat Source Prospecting Method Simplified from NEDO 1985

(1)CSAMT method [ until I-2km depth } Fig-1. GEOLOGY AROUND OGACHI SITE
(Cotrol sourced audio-frequency magnet tellulic)
(2)TDEM method (more than 5km depth }
(Time domain electromagnetic )
Production
Water w ..
2,Multiple Fracturing Method Injection
(1)CRSP fracturing method Casing Pipe
(Casing reamer-sand plug )

Ground -y
3,Fracture Evaluation Method water T

(1) AE method (accourstic emission )

(2)Mise~a-Ia-masse method
(3)GeochemicaI method Upper
Fracture
(Chemical analysis of fluid,Traser analysis )
(4)High temperature borehole scanner method
(5)Continuous temperature measurement method*
(Temperature measurement at every depth and in one
month by fiber)
Lower
Fracture
4,Reservoir Evaluation Method
(1)Crack structure elaluation method*
(2)HDR reservoir simulation method*
Lap'll I i Crane -
+ + diorite
5, Inproving HDR Reservoir Method
Reduction of injection pressure
Inproving of recovery rate
FIG-2.GENERAL PROFILE OF OGACHI SITE
*: on going

370
- -
 PLAN

N O R T H (m l
,
SO U TH

5
o
,

SOtl 75(1 ISOd

F lo w ra te (l/lt)
D E P T H (m l

F lo w r a te ( t/h )
Fig.-4.AE HYPOCENTER Elapsed clays - date
(A); 1994
DISTRIBUTION

(A) shows the plane view,

(B) shows the N-S cross section

view looking West

(C) shows the E-W cross section

view looking North.

Circles with number are

observation stasions.

Upper shows the upper fracture

Lower shows the lower fracture.

r

Elapsed days - date

(B); 1995

Fig.-5 HYDRAULIC CIRCULATION CONDITIONS

-371-
 100 %
•U 1i2“

Short and Medium Terms STIMULATION of In­

CIRCULATION(1993-1994) jection Mol I (1995)

Fig-7. A CONCEPT OF WATER FLOW AT RESERVOIRS IN 1995 F i g~6 Temperature changes in the production well in 1995

Geothermal Heat Rock Fracturing and CRIEPI

Source Prospecting Fracture Evaluation Meet Source
(2.000m depth) (400m depth. GOt)

IIOR licet Multiple Fracture CRIEPI

Source Prospecting Creation
(5.000m depth) (I, 000m depth)
(228*C)

Moat Extraction

from II D R CRIEPI

(1.000m depth)

(228*0

Designing Optimum CRIEPI

Production Wei la

(I, 000m depth)

(Mu l tipi* Well*)

leal Es treel ion Electric

Power

Establish Prospecting and Designing System

Technical Support for IIOR Demonstration Plant

Fig-8. RESEARCH I*1 .AN OF OOACIH PROJECT

-372-