PUNCTUATION

The English language contains many punctuation marks: commas, periods, question marks, quotation marks, exclamation
points, parentheses, hyphens, a couple different kinds of dashes....

Note: The four periods at the end of the previous sentence are made up of one ellipsis—three periods in a row— followed
by a regular period to mark the end of a sentence. If you’d put an ellipsis in the middle of a sentence... you’d have just
used three periods.

Punctuation is one of the most important aspects of written English, and yet it is one that is taken the most lightly. It is, in
fact, this feature of writing that gives meaning to the written words… much like pauses and changes in tones of the voice
when speaking. An error in punctuation can convey a completely different meaning to the one that is intended.

Your book, John.

Your book, John?

Although the words are same here, the two sentences mean completely different things because of the period (or full
stop) and the question mark.

The same goes here:

Don’t stop.
Don’t, stop.

The comma after the don’t has made all the difference in the meaning of the words.

Another example of how punctuation can change the meaning of a sentence:

He was bitten by a dog which hurt him.

He was bitten by a dog, which hurt him.

The first sentence means the dog hurt him. The second sentence means the bite hurts him. It’s the comma after
the dog that has completely changed the meaning of the sentence.

Take the sentence A woman without her man is nothing. Now see the difference punctuation makes:

A woman, without her man, is nothing.

A woman: without her, man is nothing.

See how punctuation has made the same sentence mean two exactly opposite things?

It’s very important to know all the punctuation marks, their meanings, and when to use them in order to produce a good
piece of writing – and more importantly, to convey the correct message.

There are four major punctuation marks that can connect sentence parts:

Comma Semicolon Colon Dash

, ; : —
The Comma ,
The comma is the most common punctuation mark, as well as the most difficult to use correctly. It can sometimes serve as a clue,
helping us understand sentence structure. Although there are cases wherein the decision to use a comma or not is more a matter of
style, sometimes commas are mandatory, such as the ones in this sentence.

RIGHT: I don’t like carrot cake as well as chocolate cake.

RIGHT: I don’t like carrot cake, as well as chocolate cake.

These sentences clearly demonstrate where a judgment call is required. The first sentence means that I prefer chocolate cake. The
second sentence means that I don’t like either of them.

The Oxford Comma

Take a look at the list in this sentence.

RIGHT (without the Oxford comma): Please buy eggs, bread and milk.

The comma that many people (including most Americans, as well as test writers) would put after bread is called the serial comma or
the Oxford comma. Experts disagree about its use. For instance, in the GMAT, it’s not tested while in the ACT, it is. To be on the safe
side, use a comma before and in a list.

RIGHT (with the Oxford comma): Please buy eggs, bread, AND milk.

Here’s another example.

Violence, housing and retail segregation, and limited opportunities were still present but were very different in nature.

The comma between “segregation” and “and limited” is the Oxford Comma. While some people say the Oxford Comma is optional or
even wrong (and newspapers, sadly, refuse to use it), this comma is important for providing clarity, regardless of the sentence.

Consider how different and potentially confusing the sentence would be if it were written as follows:

Violence, housing and retail segregation and limited opportunities were still present but were very different in nature.

Even in more “simple” sentences—such as: Classized, racialized, and genderized issues were involved—the Oxford Comma is useful.
Writing should always be about clarity. The Oxford Comma helps be sure readers and writers know which ideas go together.

Series
To avoid confusion, use commas to separate words and word groups with a series of three or more.

Kyle brought his bat, ball, and glove to the game on Sunday.
My $10 million estate is to be split among my husband, daughter, son, and nephew. (Omitting the comma after son would
indicate that the son and nephew would have to split one-third of the estate.)

Dates and Time Zones

Use a comma to set off elements of dates and time zones in sentences.

Dates
Dates can be made up of various elements, including weekday, calendar date, and year. When dates contain more than one element,
the second and succeeding elements are normally set off by commas. Study the following examples:

On January 19 we opened for business. (No comma needed for one element.)
On January 19, 2009, we opened for business. (Two commas set off second element.)
On Monday, January 19, 2009, we opened for business. (Commas set off second and third elements.)
In January 2009 Barack Obama was inaugurated as president of the United States. (Commas are not used with the month and
year only.)

Time Zones
Commas also set off time zones used with clock times.

Our flight leaves Atlanta at 10:50 a.m., EST, and arrives in Salt Lake City at 12:15 p.m., MST.
He placed his online bid at 6:38 p.m., PST, which was two minutes before the auction closed.
Addresses and Geographical Items
When dates, addresses, and geographical items contain more than one element, the second and following elements should be set off
by commas.

Addresses
When addresses are written in sentence form, separate the parts of the address with commas. Do not, however, place a comma
between the city and zip code.

Please send a copy of your passport to Barbara Briggs, Classic Journeys, 7855 Ivanhoe Avenue, Suite 220, La Jolla, California
92037, before your trip. (Commas are used between all elements except the state and zip code, which are considered a single
unit.)

Geographical Items
Use commas to set off a state when it follows the name of a city. Commas are also used to set off the name of a country when it
follows the name of a city.

He moved from Bangor, Maine, to Lexington, Kentucky. (Two commas set off the state unless it appears at the end of the
sentence.)
Our flight from Shanghai, China, to Moscow, Russia, will take 13 hours. (Two commas set off the country unless it appears at
the end of the sentence.)

Some businesses don’t use a comma after the state.

I lived in San Francisco, California for twenty years.

Numerals
Use a comma with numbers. Note: in most cases, numbers that can be spelled with two words or less should not be typed out. Most
importantly, be consistent.

In 1860, there were also 262,000 free Blacks in the South.

Direct Address
Use commas before or surrounding the name or title of a person directly addressed.

Will you, Aisha, do that assignment for me?

Yes, Doctor, I will.

Note:
Capitalize a title when directly addressing someone.

Intervening Words and Phrases

Use commas to set off expressions that interrupt the flow of the sentence.

I am, as you have probably noticed, very nervous about this.

Queen Victoria was, as they say, a formidable woman.
Having demonstrated a decided lack of ethics, the CEO was, needles to say, dismissed from the company.
It does, indeed, look like rain.

This includes interrupters such as however, therefore, and then.

I would be happy, however, to volunteer for the Red Cross.

Because of the United States embargo, however, schools occasionally had trouble acquiring necessary supplies, such as
crayons and paper.
I would, therefore, like a response.
Gone with the Wind, therefore, involves tensions and differences that were much more firmly established in the national
consciousness than in just the Civil War and post-Civil War eras.
This pseudoscience, then, allowed men to justify their elite existence and to explain why women, “savages,” and substandard
European men deserved to be written off as inferior.
Introductory Words
Use a comma after an introductory word to separate it from the independent clause. The introductory word in the sentence will
frequently be an adverb.

Meanwhile, the cat stretched luxuriously in the sunshine.

Furthermore, the educational institution will prosecute those individuals who plagiarize the institution’s written works.
Suddenly, an angry black cat sprang from the shadows.
Quickly, she grabbed the fire extinguisher and doused the flames.
Unfortunately, our elderly neighbor has had to move into a nursing home.

Use a comma when beginning sentences with introductory words such as well, now, yes, or no.

Yes, I do need that report.

Well, I never thought I’d live to see the day . . .
Now, we should head back home because the baby needs a nap.

Introductory Verbal and Prepositional Phrases

Use a comma after phrases of more than three words that begin a sentence. If the phrase has fewer than three words, the comma is
optional.

To apply for this job, you must have previous experience.

Bombarded by questions from reporters, the congressman fled the lobby .
On February 14 many couples give each other candy or flowers.
OR
On February 14, many couples give each other candy or flowers.

Prepositional phrases in other positions do not require commas when they are essential and do not interrupt the flow of the sentence.

We have installed in our Chicago office a centralized telecommunications system. (No commas are needed around the
prepositional phrase because it answers the question Where? and does not interrupt the flow of the sentence.)

The announcement about our fall promotion will be made next week. (No commas are needed because the prepositional
phrase answers the question Which one? and does not interrupt the flow of the sentence.)

Independent Clauses
Use a comma to separate two strong clauses joined by a coordinating (FANBOYS) conjunction—for, and, nor, but, or, yet, and so.

Castro had defeated Fulgencio Batista’s regime, and he replaced it with his own regime.
Russell provides an interesting and revealing account, but his arguments would be better and more accurate if supported by
additional examples and numerical analysis.
I have already painted the entire house, so he is now working on sanding the doors.

You can omit the comma if the clauses are both short.

I paint and he writes.

If the subject does not appear in front of the second verb, do not use a comma.

WRONG: Earl walked to school, AND later ate his lunch.

RIGHT: Earl walked to school AND later ate his lunch.
RIGHT: Earl walked to school, AND HE later ate his lunch.

Use the comma to separate two sentences if it will help avoid confusion.

I chose the colors red and green, and blue was his first choice.
A comma splice is an error caused by joining two strong clauses with only a comma instead of separating the clauses with a
conjunction, a semicolon, or a period. A run-on sentence, which is incorrect, is created by joining two strong clauses without any
punctuation.

WRONG: Time flies when we are having fun, we are always having fun. (Comma splice)
WRONG: Time flies when we are having fun we are always having fun. (Run-on sentence)
RIGHT: Time flies when we are having fun; we are always having fun.
OR
RIGHT: Time flies when we are having fun, and we are always having fun. (Comma is optional because both strong clauses
are short.)
OR
RIGHT: Time flies when we are having fun. We are always having fun.

A strange kind of two-part sentence is legal: The bigger they are, the harder they fall. Use a comma here.

Dependent Clauses
When starting a sentence with a weak clause, use a comma after it. Conversely, do not use a comma when the sentence starts with a
strong clause followed by a weak clause.

If you are not sure about this, let me know now.

Let me know now if you are not sure about this.

Essential and Non-essential Relative Clauses and Appositives

If something or someone is sufficiently identified, the description following it is considered nonessential and should be surrounded by
commas.

Freddy, who has a limp, was in an auto accident. Freddy is named, so the description is not essential.
The boy who has a limp was in an auto accident. We do not know which boy is being referred to without further description;
therefore, no commas are used.

Martha, yawning with exhaustion, sat down at her desk to finish her last paper.
A girl yawning with exhaustion sat down at her desk to finish her last paper.

My red car, the one with the flat tire, is pulled over to the side of the road.
The red car with the flat tire is pulled over to the side of the road.

Correlative Conjunctions
Correlative conjunctions include words such as either…or, neither…nor, not…but…, not only…but also…, both…and…, between…and….
Do not use a comma with correlative conjunctions.

Either the blue shirt or the red sweater will look good with your jeans.
I can’t decide whether to have pizza or cheeseburger.

Exception: If two commas are around a non-essential clause, they may be used between correlative conjunctions.

Neither the job as a cashier, which only paid minimum wage, nor the washroom attendant’s job interested the woman with
two PhDs.

Adjectives
Use a comma to separate two adjectives when the word and can be inserted between them, meaning these adjectives equally modify
or describe a noun. These are called independent or coordinate adjectives.

He is a strong, healthy man.

We stayed at an expensive summer resort. (You would not say expensive and summer resort, so no comma.)

Use a comma when an -ly adjective is used with other adjectives.

Note:
To test whether an -ly word is an adjective, see if it can be used alone with the noun. If it can, use the comma.

Felix was a lonely, young boy.

I get headaches in brightly lit rooms. Brightly is not an adjective because it cannot be used alone with rooms; therefore, no
comma is used between brightly and lit.
Degrees and Abbreviations
Use commas to surround degrees or titles used with names. Commas are no longer required around Jr. and Sr. Commas never set off
II, III, and so forth.

Al Mooney, M.D., knew Sam Sunny Jr. and Charles Starr III.

Use a comma with company abbreviations such as Inc. and Ltd. only if the company’s legal name includes the commas.

Lucasfilm Ltd. is probably best known for its Star Wars films. (The legal name does not include a comma before Ltd.)

Contrasting Words
Use a comma to separate contrasting parts of a sentence.

That is my money, not yours, so please give it back.

Mary, unlike Ann, is very organized.
Tea should be steeped, never boiled.
Most people will continue wanting, but rarely needing, more and more material objects.

Omitted Words
Use a comma to show the omission of words that are understood.

Last summer we hired 12 interns; this summer, only 3 interns. (Comma shows omission of we hired after summer.)

Clarity
Use a comma to separate words repeated for emphasis and words that may be misread if not separated.

It will be a very, very long time before Kendra is able to return to South Asia.
Whoever goes, goes at his or her own expense.
No matter what, you know you have our support.
In business, time is money.

Tag Questions
When we have a statement which we want someone to agree with, we add a few words on the end, turning it into a question. These
few words are called question tags. These are words like isn’t it/he/she, or right, or even yes or no. Use a comma to separate the
statement from the question.

I can go, can’t I?

Those willow trees are beautiful, aren’t they?
The citizens of the world all want clean water to drink, do they not?
Legends about werewolves, vampires, and other monsters are considered some of the scariest stories, no?
That movie was really good, yeah?

Sometimes there will be a linguistically unintelligible question tag. These tend to differ from country to country. These are not likely
to be used in formal writing, but they should still be considered when writing informally. Here’s an example that is purely Canadian:

Do you wanna go snowboarding today, eh?

Short Direct Quotations

Use commas to introduce or interrupt direct quotations shorter than three lines. American convention generally places
commas outside opening quotation marks and inside closing quotation marks.

I don’t care,” he said.

He actually said, ‘‘I do not care.’’
‘‘Why,’’ I asked, ‘‘do you always forget to do it?’’