Automotive Innovation (2018) 1:95–113

https://doi.org/10.1007/s42154-018-0020-1

Recent Progress in Automotive Gasoline Direct Injection Engine

Technology
Shijin Shuai1 · Xiao Ma1 · Yanfei Li1 · Yunliang Qi1 · Hongming Xu1

Received: 1 September 2017 / Accepted: 4 January 2018 / Published online: 21 June 2018
© Society of Automotive Engineers of China (SAE-China) 2018

Abstract
Gasoline direct injection (GDI) engines are currently the dominant powertrains for passenger cars. With the implementation of
increasingly stringent fuel consumption and emission regulations worldwide, GDI engines are facing challenges owing to high
particulate matter emissions and a tendency to knock, leading to a change in the research and design (R&D) issues compared
with those in the twentieth century. This paper reviews the progress in research regarding GDI engine technologies over the
past 20 years, focusing on combustion system configurations, and also highlights common issues in GDI R&D, including pre-
ignition and deto-knock, soot formation and PM emissions, injector deposits and gasoline compression ignition (GCI). First,
an overview of recent developments in the field as driven by regulations is provided, following which progress in injection and
combustion systems is examined. Third, the review addresses the occurrence and mechanism of deto-knock and considers
means of suppressing this phenomenon. The fourth section discusses soot formation mechanisms and particulate matter
emission characteristics of GDI engines and describes the application of gasoline particulate filter (GPF) after-treatment.
The subsequent section summarizes studies regarding injector deposit formation, as well as pioneering research into GCI
combustion modes. Finally, a summary and future prospects for GDI engine technologies are provided.

Keywords Gasoline direction injection · Combustion system · Pre-ignition · Particulate matter · Injector deposit · Gasoline
compression ignition

Abbreviations GCI Gasoline compression ignition

AI Artificial intelligence GDCI Gasoline direct compression ignition
BDC Bottom dead center GDI Gasoline direct injection
BMEP Brake mean effective pressure GPF Gasoline particulate filter
BSFC Brake specific fuel consumption HCCI Homogeneous charge compression ignition
BTE Brake thermal efficiency ITE Indicated thermal efficiency
CAFC Corporate average fuel consumption LIVC Late intake valve closing
CGPF Coated gasoline particulate filter LSPI Low-speed pre-ignition
CTE Coefficient of thermal expansion MPCI Multiple premixed compression ignition
COV Coefficient of variance MPI Multiple point injection
CR Compression ratio NA Natural aspirated
DI Direct injection NEDC New European driving cycle
DISI Direct injection spark ignition PFI Port fuel injection
DPF Diesel particulate filter PM Particulate matter
EGR Exhaust gas recirculation PN Particle number
EIVC Early intake valve closing PPCI Partially premixed compression ignition
RCM Rapid compression machine
B Shijin Shuai RON Research octane number
sjshuai@tsinghua.edu.cn SMD Sauter mean diameter
SPCCI Spark-controlled compression ignition
1 State Key Laboratory of Automotive Safety and Energy, TDC Top dead center
Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China

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96
THC Total hydrocarbon
TWC Three way catalyst
VCR Variable compression ratio
VVT Variable valve timing
1 Introduction
At present, automotive powertrains are undergoing diversi-
fication and electrification in response to concerns regarding
energy supply security and air pollution. The production of
purely electric vehicles has grown rapidly in recent years,
especially in China. However, internal combustion engine
vehicles, including hybrids, are still predicted to account
for over 90% of the total light-duty vehicle powertrains in
2030 [1]. Gasoline direct injection (GDI) engines can pro-
vide benefits related to high thermal efficiency and potential
reductions of HCs and NOx emissions and will likely become
dominant among passenger cars [2]. The global proportion
of GDI engines involving stoichiometric fuel mixtures is
expected to overtake that of port fuel injection (PFI) engines
by 2020 due to the implementation of increasingly stringent
fuel consumption regulations [3].
In Europe, the major light-duty vehicle markets are mov-
ing toward a CO2 emission target of 95 g/km by 2020. In
the USA, the average annual reductions in CO2 emissions
from 2017 to 2021 and 2022 to 2025 will be 3.5 and 5%,
respectively. In China, the corporate average fuel consump-
tion (CAFC) standards for passenger cars for 2020, 2025 and
2030 are 5.0, 4.0 and 3.2 L/100 km respectively [4]. In addi-
tion, the Euro 6 and China 6 emission regulations require
much lower particulate matter emissions, especially parti-
cle number (PN) emissions [5]. Therefore, more advanced
GDI engines have been developed to meet these new regula-
tions, such as the Mazda SKYACTIV [6]. In Japan, industry
and academia have initiated the Research Association of
Automotive Internal Combustion Engines, with the goal of
improving gasoline engine thermal efficiency to an unprece-
dented level of 50% for GDI engines by 2020 [7]. In 2016,
the US Department of Energy began the Co-Optimization
of Fuels and Engines (Co-Optima) project [8], which com-
bines biofuel and combustion R&D and aims to increase
automotive fuel efficiency to 50% (15% greater than the cur-
rent level). Gasoline compression ignition (GCI) technology
has also been intensively investigated in recent years. Delphi
Technologies [9] has developed a system known as gasoline
direct compression ignition (GDCI) and has launched a third
generation GCI engine that has a thermal efficiency compa-
rable to that of conventional diesel engines but with great
potential for PM reduction.
To achieve enhanced thermal efficiency in newly devel-
oped GDI engines, a high degree of exhaust gas recirculation
(EGR) has been combined with increased tumble flow to
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S. Shuai et al.
suppress knocking associated with turbo-charging and high
compression ratio (CR), thus reducing heat losses in asso-
ciation with low temperature combustion. Over-expansion
cycles resulting from variable valve timing (VVT) systems,
which are especially applicable to dedicated hybrid gasoline
engines, have also been widely applied. However, because
GDI engines produce much more PM and PN emissions than
PFI engines, there are concerns regarding the particulate mat-
ter emissions output of these engines.
It is evident that GDI engine technologies have sig-
nificantly evolved and yet still have significant potential
to realize additional energy efficiency improvements and
emission reductions. Thus, it is helpful to examine the devel-
opment of GDI engines over the past 20 years and to consider
the state of the art, following a prior review by Zhao et al. [2].
This paper first introduces the latest developments in com-
bustion systems and fuel mixture formulation in modern GDI
engines in Sect. 2. Subsequently, several important tropics are
presented in detail, including deto-knock in Sect. 3, soot and
particulate matter in Sect. 4, and injector deposits in Sect. 5.
Section 6 describes the recent development of GCI engines.
Finally, the outlook for the future development of next gen-
eration GDI engines is delivered.
2 GDI Combustion Systems
This section introduces the latest developments in combus-
tion systems in modern GDI engines. Several important
common features of the recent GDI combustion systems are
reviewed separately.
2.1 Development of GDI Combustion Systems
Among the three types of typical GDI combustion systems
[10], the wall-guided configuration is the least used in recent
engine production due to concerns regarding fuel impinge-
ment and high THC and particle emissions [11]. However,
the wall-guided configuration is still employed and is com-
bined with the air-guided configuration to reduce costs in
some systems [12]. Recent studies [13–15] have shown that
GDI combustion systems tend to consist of a combination
of air-guided and spray-guided configurations. Spray guid-
ing is used as part of a stratified strategy incorporating late
injections to eliminate impingement, while the in-cylinder
air motion and turbulence are emphasized in the combustion
system designs [16].
Figure 1 shows the typical configurations of side-mounted
and central-mounted injectors. Other investigations [17–19]
have shown that, compared with central-mounted injectors,
side-mounted injectors exhibit better performance in terms
of enhanced tumble motion, thermal load reduction, pre-
ignition suppression and thermal efficiency improvement.
Recent Progress in Automotive Gasoline Direct Injection Engine Technology
Fig. 1 Typical GDI
configurations (Courtesy to SAE
International). a Side-mounted
injector [19], b central-mounted
injector [20]
Fig. 2 A GDI/PFI dual injection system [22] (Courtesy to SAE Inter-
national)
However, it is more difficult for a side-mounted injector
to realize spray-guided operation due to the potential for
impingement. In contrast, central-mounted injectors are sit-
uated closer to the spark plug, such that the spray can easily
approach the spark area in the stratified mode. This simplifies
the combustion chamber design and offers flexibility when
attempting to reduce PM/PN by avoiding wall-wetting. In
addition, piezo injectors in GDI engines [20,21] are normally
central-mounted to maximize the performance by using mul-
tiple injection in association with short intervals during fuel
mixture preparation. The central-mounted design may also
be the best option for future GDCI concepts [9].
Another important trend in GDI combustion systems is the
use of dual injection systems that combine direction injection
(DI) and PFI, as shown in Fig. 2 First proposed by Ikoma et
al. [22], such systems provide more flexibility in terms of
control, particle reduction and knock suppression [23–26]
and are currently used in GDI engines [14].
High thermal efficiency is the main goal when develop-
ing combustion systems such as GDI engines. Increasing the
compression ratio (CR) and lowering heat losses are both
effective approaches to meeting this goal. Figure 3 plots
compression ratio values as functions of the maximum brake
mean effective pressure (BMEP) based on data obtained from
gasoline engines in 2015 and 2016. The CR values of tur-
bocharged GDI engines are primarily in the range from 9.5
97
Fig. 3 Relationship between the geometric compression ratio and max-
imum BMEP [33] (Courtesy to SAE International)
to 11.0 [19,27–30]. In the case of recently developed natural
aspirated (NA) GDI engines, the CR normally ranges from
11.0 to 13.0 [16,31,32], while the highest CR reported in
the development stage is 15.0 [31]. The CR in a high boost
design is limited by knocking; therefore, NA systems are
able to take advantage of peak thermal efficiencies [31]. To
increase the CR above 13.0, most such engines have to incor-
porate variable compression ratio (VCR) [28] or VVT for
over-expansion cycles (such as the Atkinson or Miller cycles)
[29,31], and over-expansion cycles are discussed in Sect. 2.5.
Asthana et al. [34] described seven types of VCR con-
figurations, the majority of which have challenges related
to high-speed adaptability, reliability and cost. The Nissan
corporation has reported a series of studies regarding VCR
systems [35–38] and announced a production-ready gasoline
engine with a VCR turbo system in 2017 [28]. This system
uses a multilink rod crank and a servo motor to allow con-
tinuous variation of the CR between 8.0 and 14.0. Both AVL
and FEV [33,39] have adopted a different design concept
in which the rod length is varied in proof-of-concept GDI
engines, while Honda [40] uses a dual piston system. It has
been reported that the VCR system can reduce brake specific
fuel consumption (BSFC) by up to 8% [33,39].
A previous study has determined that a high tumble ratio is
important in GDI engine downsizing [16], because it results
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98
Fig. 4 Spray structures of outward-opening, multi-hole [21] and slit nozzles [43] (Courtesy to SAE International). a Piezo-driven injector, b
multi-hole injector, c fan-shaped slit injector
Fig. 5 PM and PN emissions from different combustion strategies (Courtesy to SAE International). a Results from Ref. [50], b results from Ref. [47]
in faster fuel mixing and increased turbulence that improve
the burning velocity, reduce PM/PN and suppress knocking.
Typically, the tumble ratios in recent combustion systems
have been in the range of 1.93 to 2.8 [27,41,42], although
there has been a report of a prototype engine with a ratio of
approximately 3.4 [16].
2.2 Fuel Injection Systems
Figure 4 shows the structures of typical sprays generated
by multi-hole, outward-opening and slit nozzles. Currently,
multi-hole nozzles are widely used due to the ability to con-
trol jet orientation. However, Toyota uses slit nozzles to
generate a fan-shaped spray that exhibits wider dispersion
and better atomization quality [43]. Piezo-driven injectors
show much faster responses and higher control accuracy
than solenoid-driven multi-hole injectors [44], although the
high cost of piezo injectors has restricted their applications.
In recent years, outward-opening piezo-driven nozzles have
been utilized [45] in stratified charge models. These nozzles
123
S. Shuai et al.
can provide a relatively short spray penetration length that
reduces wall-wetting [46]. In addition, the flow velocity in
the vortex is lower than that in the spray mainstream, con-
tributing to ignition stability.
2.3 Lean Burn Strategy
There has been continuous research regarding lean strati-
fied strategies, although high engine-out NOx levels and low
exhaust temperatures remain as challenges associated with
after-treatment. Recent studies [47,48] have indicated that,
compared with conventional stoichiometric gasoline engines,
lean burn strategies can effectively reduce BSFC while reduc-
ing the COV and knocking. Iida et al. [49] employed a
high-energy ignition system and an increased tumble ratio
(up to 2.5) to achieve super-lean burning (λ = 1.92) and
obtained an indicated thermal efficiency (ITE) as high as
46% in a single-cylinder engine.
However, lean burn GDI engines with stratified charging
also tend to produce significant PM/PN emissions. Previous
Recent Progress in Automotive Gasoline Direct Injection Engine Technology
studies [47,50] have shown that the particle concentrations
generated by lean stratified combustion may be an order of
magnitude higher than those produced by lean homogenous
and stoichiometric combustion and that lean homogenous
engines produce the least PN and soot (Fig. 5).
NOx emissions remain an important issue in lean burn
research, and it has been determined that very lean combus-
tion may suppress NOx generation due to the low combustion
temperature. Even so, high λ combustion has to address
the problem of high combustion phasing sensibility and
increased COV values [48].
2.4 Cooled and Hot EGR
Engines using cooled EGR have the advantage of a high
intake density, resulting in superior volumetric efficiency.
This technique also decreases the combustion temperature
in the engine, resulting in NOx reduction and knock sup-
pression, particularly at high load. In contrast, hot EGR
increases the intake temperature so that volumetric efficiency
is reduced, but results in low HC emissions at cold start and
low load conditions.
It has been reported [51] that, compared with cooled EGR,
hot EGR shows pronounced COV tolerance and has a signif-
icant effect on combustion duration and thermal efficiency.
Studies [52,53] have shown that cooled EGR can reduce NOx
and CO by up to over 90 and 50%, respectively, and lower
BSFC values by more than 11%, although THC emissions
are significantly increased. The NOx emissions from a hot
EGR can be four times higher than those from a cooled EGR,
while the THC emissions from a cooled EGR can be 1.5 times
higher than those from a hot EGR [54]. It is also evident that
larger particles (> 50 nm) can be reduced by increasing the
cooled EGR ratio. However, smaller particles (< 10 nm) are
not as sensitive to the ratio [53,55].
2.5 Over-Expansion Cycles
Over-expansion cycles are widely used and can be combined
with VCR to achieve high BTE values in GDI combustion
systems, such as in the case of an early IVC (EIVC) known as
the Miller cycle or a late IVC (LIVC) referred to as the Atkin-
son cycle [33,56]. The EIVC mode results in stable engine
performance over a wide range of engine speeds, while the
advantage of LIVC in conjunction with BTE is only evident
at high speeds [57]. However, it has been demonstrated that
EIVC leads to considerable power loss at wide open throttle
(WOT) conditions, especially at high speeds [58,59], such
that a higher intake boost pressure is needed to compensate
[60]. Previous studies [61,62] found that LIVC effectively
suppresses knocking and reduces BSFC by up to 6.9% along
with a significant increase in the low BSFC operating region
[63,64]. In contrast, the EIVC mode only achieves a BSFC
99
reduction of 2.0% compared with the base cam [65]. It is
worth noting that the ideal efficiency is higher in the case
of EIVC because of the lower compression work compared
with LIVC [60,66]. However, detailed investigations have
determined that EIVC has an adverse effect on in-cylinder
charge motion and requires sophisticated optimization of
the combustion system [33,67,68]. Therefore, LIVC is more
applicable to GDI engines
3 Pre-ignition and Deto-Knock
This section addresses the occurrence and mechanism of
deto-knock and considers means of suppressing this phe-
nomenon. The effect of pre-ignition is discussed, and the
requirements on fuels, lubricant oils and engine designs for
suppressing deto-knock are reviewed.
3.1 Characteristics of Deto-Knock
Downsizing, high boost and direct injection are all effec-
tive approaches to enhancing the power density and fuel
economy of gasoline engines. However, increasing the boost
ratio tends to induce a new engine knock mode in conjunc-
tion with a pressure rise more than one order of magnitude
higher than that associated with conventional knocking. One
study has shown a pressure exceeding 1000 bar during a
cycle, which is sufficient to damage the engine [69]. This
new knock mode has been termed unwanted pre-ignition by
VW, Chao-ji knock [70] and deto-knock by Tsinghua in 2006
and 2016, respectively, super-knock by Shell in 2009, mega
knock by AVL in 2009 and low-speed pre-ignition (LSPI) by
SWRI in 2001 [69]. In the event of deto-knock, the cylinder
pressure rises before the normal spark timing, indicating that
pre-ignition occurs in the cylinder. After a period of smooth
pressure rise, the pressure trace starts to oscillate, accom-
panied by a very high amplitude. Although deto-knock is
triggered by pre-ignition, in contrast to self-sustaining and
runaway surface pre-ignition [71], deto-knock occurs rarely,
randomly and alternately with normal combustion, then dis-
appears naturally. Deto-knock is normally rated using the
occurrence rate within a certain number of cycles. Typically,
the frequency is lower than one in thousands [69], which
makes it difficult to investigate the associated mechanism.
3.2 The Deto-Knock Mechanism
3.2.1 Combustion Modes Associated with Deto-Knock
The deto-knock mechanism was first elucidated by Wang et
al. in 2015 [72] using synchronous high-speed direct pho-
tography and pressure measurements in a rapid compression
machine (RCM). The results demonstrated that the mech-
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100 S. Shuai et al.

3) Pressure oscillation
m) n) o) w)

2) Detonation 12
l)

t=0.09ms 10

pressure (MPa)
1) Deflagration
8
a) e) j) k)
6
Pressure
sensor pressure distinunity 4
1.26MPa
2
5.16ms 6.99ms
0
5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 7.0 7.5 8.0 8.5
time (ms)
(a) (b)

Fig. 6 A random pre-ignition induced deto-knock combustion process [72]. a An image showing pre-ignition, deflagration and detonation, b a
pressure trace with synchronous images

anism involves an initial hotspot-induced deflagration to
produce a secondary hotspot-induced detonation, as shown
in Fig. 6. A detonation wave initiated in the near-wall end-
gas area is clearly observed in this figure, generating a sharp
rise and discontinuity in the pressure trace. It should be noted
that the deflagration (pre-ignition) triggered by the first hot
spot does not self-accelerate to detonation. Instead, it is the
second hot spot located in the unburned end-gas that initiates
the detonation.
3.2.2 Pre-ignition-Sources
Pre-ignition is an essential condition for deto-knock to occur.
Lubricant oil contains long-chain alkanes that are prone to
auto-ignition [73] and are assumed to act as the pre-ignition
source. This has been verified by directly injecting a small
amount of oil into the cylinder [74]. The results showed that
the injected oil droplets could induce pre-ignition and deto-
knock just in that injection cycle. Dahnz et al. [71] postulated
that the most probable manner in which oil droplets enter
the combustion chamber is the spray wetting and dilution
of the oil film on the liner wall, such that the diluted oil
accumulates in the piston crevices. Because gasoline dilution
reduces the viscosity and surface tension of the oil, the droplet
is likely to be released from the crevice because of the inertial
forces during deceleration of the piston just before it reaches
TDC. Currently, this explanation regarding the ingress of oil
into the combustion chamber is widely accepted [72,75]. The
release of oil droplets from the piston crevice at the end of
the compression stroke has also been observed by Kassai et
al. [76]
Lauer et al. [77] confirmed that pre-ignition frequently
leads to follow-up events. Their optical results suggested that
the first pre-ignition is triggered by oil/fuel droplets while
subsequent events are initiated by hot particles. One plausi-
ble scenario is that the first event causes pressure oscillations
that detach deposits from the combustion chamber walls.
These deposits persist and are heated during the following
cycle to serve as ignition sources. Similar findings have been
reported by other researchers [78,79]. Wang et al. [80] used
heated carbon particles as surrogates for detached deposits
to initiate pre-ignition. The results indicated that hot solid
particles must be sufficiently large to initiate a pre-ignition
event, since the incipient flame must reach a critical radius
before it becomes self-sustaining [81].
After the accumulated and diluted oil is released from
the piston crevice or the deposits are detached from the com-
bustion chamber wall, considerable time is required for these
materials to accumulate again. Therefore, pre-ignition occurs
very occasionally and rarely.
3.3 Suppression of Pre-ignition and Deto-Knock
Because pre-ignition causes deto-knock, the most direct and
effective means of suppressing deto-knock is to prevent
pre-ignition. The main factors affecting pre-ignition are oil
ingress into the combustion chamber, deposit formation and
mixture reactivity. Therefore, specific, practical approaches
are related to improving oil properties, fuel properties, engine
design factors and operating parameters.
3.3.1 Oil Properties
1. Base Stocks
In general, less reactive base stocks, i.e., those with
long ignition delays, appear to have the lowest igni-

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Recent Progress in Automotive Gasoline Direct Injection Engine Technology
tion tendency [82]. This is supported by the work of
Takeuchi et al. [83], who found that a tendency toward
LSPI correlates well with the auto-ignition temperatures
of lubricants. Among the various physical and chemi-
cal properties of base stocks, viscosity shows the highest
correlation with pre-ignition events. Andrews et al. [84]
found that engine oils formulated with the most vis-
cous base stocks produced the highest frequency of LSPI
events. In addition to viscosity, volatility may also play
a role in the occurrence of pre-ignition. Morikawa et
al. [85] presented that oils with higher distillation tem-
peratures led to more frequent pre-ignitions.
2. Additives
Among the metal-based oil additives, Ca is widely con-
sidered to work as a pre-ignition promoter [86–93],
independent of the type of Ca used in the detergent
[92]. Ca-based additives act in almost direct proportion
to the concentration of Ca contained in the formulation,
although the effect of Ca on pre-ignition also depends on
the fuel type. Kassai et al. [86] observed that Ca additives
only had an effect in premixed PRF/air mixtures, espe-
cially with lower research octane number (RON) values,
while no noticeable effect was observed with a premixed
methane/air mixture.
In contrast to Ca, Zn and Mo added to the oil in
the form of zinc dialkyldithiophosphate (ZnDTP) and
molybdenum dialkyldithiocarbamate (MoDTC), respec-
tively, are regarded as pre-ignition inhibitors [83,86,88,
89,91–94]. However, Hayakawa et al. [95] reported that
adding ZnDTP and MoDTC up to 800 and 980 ppm to
the fuel had no effect on fuel auto-ignition.
Other metals, such as Mg and Na, are reported not
to show any remarkable effect on pre-ignition [87,90,92].
However, in the presence of Ca, Na can also function as a
pre-ignition promoter and appears to be more active than
Ca alone [92].
In addition to typical additives, wear metals can
also affect pre-ignition. Hirano et al. [88] found that the
addition of Fe and Cu compounds clearly modified the
pre-ignition frequency, which was explained by the cat-
alytic effect of these metals.
3.3.2 Fuel Properties
Fuel composition and properties have been shown to have
a relatively large impact on the frequency of pre-ignition
occurrence [75,96–99]. It is clearly evident and well estab-
lished that aromatic content has a large positive correlation
with the pre-ignition frequency [96,99], although the associ-
ated mechanism is not well understood. Mansfield et al. [99]
speculated that poor vaporization and incomplete combus-
tion of low-reactivity aromatic compounds could result in
101
the increase in deposits and soot formation, providing local
ignition sites.
Higher volatility was confirmed to be helpful in terms
of reducing the pre-ignition frequency in previous research
[94,100–102]. Chapman et al. [100] demonstrated that pre-
ignition is well correlated with both T50 and T70 of the fuel.
Fuels that had a low evaporation percentage within the dis-
tillation range of 120–130 ◦ C were associated with a high
pre-ignition frequency. This temperature range is close to
the estimated range of the piston crevice metal temperature.
Therefore, more fuel would be accumulated in the piston
crevice in the case of fuels with lower evaporation percent-
ages, leading to a higher pre-ignition frequency. A similar
finding was reported by Mayer et al. [102], who demonstrated
that the pre-ignition frequency exhibits a very good correla-
tion with the final boiling point.
3.3.3 Engine Design Factors and Operational Parameters
Because pre-ignition is induced by the auto-ignition of
fuel-diluted oil droplets released from the piston crevices,
reducing the spray wetting that forms oil films on the liner
wall and limiting the accumulation of oil in the crevices can
prevent pre-ignition.
Zahdeh et al. [97] found that piston wetting significantly
reduced the pre-ignition frequency compared with liner wet-
ting. Furthermore, when piston wetting was combined with a
flat top piston, no pre-ignition was observed at different injec-
tion start and fuel pressure values while varying the spark
timing in conjunction with double injection. These results
suggest that avoiding liner wetting is the most effective means
of preventing pre-ignition. Increasing the in-cylinder charge
motion can offset liner wetting because it reduces the spray
penetration depth and removes droplets near the liner [101].
Another approach to limiting spray wetting is to adjust the
injection timing and use split injection, which reduces the
fuel-oil interactions by shortening the spray penetration [97,
101,102]. Furthermore, optimizing the split injection timing
and ratio for a double-injection strategy, Wang et al. [103]
effectively reduced the pre-ignition frequency. In addition,
the fuel consumption rate, exhaust temperature and emissions
were not deteriorated, as shown in Fig. 7.
Lowering the in-cylinder mixture reactivity (i.e., by reduc-
ing the pressure, temperature and composition in the cylin-
der) and thus inhibiting auto-ignition is also an effective
means of reducing pre-ignition. Increasing the intake pres-
sure will further increase the pre-ignition frequency [97,104],
therefore boosting due to downsizing faces the problem of
pre-ignition and deto-knock. The effect of the intake temper-
ature on pre-ignition is not as significant as that of pressure.
An investigation by Zaccardi et al. [75] showed that, when
using a low RON fuel with a minimal concentration of heavy
components, the pre-ignition frequency increased along with
123
102 S. Shuai et al.

Fig. 7 Deto-knock frequency, 350

exhaust temperature and fuel 300 SOI 1
8 EOI 1
consumption values for different Compression stroke 940
SOI 2
injection strategies [103] 340
200 EOI 2

Exhaust temperature / (°C)

SOI 1 (°CA ATDC)
Deto-knock number
6 330

BSFC / (g/kWh)
100 920
Intake Stroke
320
4 3 3.33 Deto-knock number
0
Exhaust temperature 900
BSFC 310

2 -100
0.68 0.68 300
0.33 0.33 880
-200
0 0
290
1 2 3 4 5 6 7

intake temperature. However, in the case of a high RON fuel,
the pre-ignition frequency did not show an obvious correla-
tion with the intake temperature and could even increase at
lower temperatures. To summarize [75], a higher intake tem-
perature may promote auto-ignition, but the same effect can
also be experimentally observed when lowering the intake
temperature. Low temperatures have a positive effect on igni-
tion delay for pure gaseous mixtures, but can also promote
the formation of liquid films and rich gas mixtures, thus pro-
ducing significant local decreases in ignition delay.
EGR can effectively reduce the occurrence of pre-ignition
and deto-knock because of combustion cooling. Amann et
al. [105] and Zaccardi and Escudié [75] observed that even
small amounts of cooled EGR (10%) could significantly
reduce the likelihood of pre-ignition and the intensity of deto-
knock. It was also demonstrated that adding EGR allows
BMEP to be increased substantially while maintaining or
reducing the level of pre-ignition risk. Increasing fueling
rates by 15% and BMEP by 17% was possible by operat-
ing an engine with 10% EGR, while reducing pre-ignition
frequency by roughly 80% and deto-knock intensity by
approximately 30% over the baseline, non-EGR condition
[105].
Scavenging is another practical method for cooling com-
bustion chamber walls. In boosted GDI engines, the scaveng-
ing process can be controlled using VVT technology. Luo
et al. [106] and Wang et al. [103] demonstrated the effective-
ness of scavenging at high load in a turbocharged GDI engine
using appropriate control of VVT parameters. It is also evi-
dent that deto-knock can be mitigated even when pre-ignition
events are not eliminated completely.
Varying the coolant temperature to suppress pre-ignition
has a different or even opposite effect. Dahnz et al. [71] and
Zahdeh et al. [97] showed that the pre-ignition frequency
decreases with the increase in the coolant temperature. On
the contrary, Amann et al. [96] reported that pre-ignition fre-
quency increases at higher coolant temperatures. The key to
the effect of coolant temperature on suppressing pre-ignition
is whether the coolant plays a dominant role in defining the
in-cylinder temperature or in the evaporation of the fuel.
In summary, there are many factors affecting pre-ignition
and deto-knock. For different engines, the cause of pre-
ignition may not be identical, so there may not be common
factors and suppression measures. The key parameters must
therefore be considered on an engine-by-engine or even
cylinder-by-cylinder basis [75].
4 Soot and Particulate Matter
This section reviews the studies on in-cylinder soot formation
and particle emissions in the exhaust of GDI engines. The
application of gasoline particle filter (GPF) after-treatment
system is discussed.
4.1 In-Cylinder Soot Formation and Reduction
The chemical and physical processes involved with soot for-
mation are complicated and quite constant regardless of the
flame or fuel types [107]. These processes include the for-
mation of soot precursors, such as C2 H2 and polyaromatics
hydrocarbons (PAHs), the nucleation or inception of par-
ticles, the formation of large primary particles by surface
growth or coalescence, the formation of agglomerates, and
soot oxidation [108]. In GDI engines, soot generation stems
largely from three sources. (1) Pool fire because of spray
impingement on the piston or wall [109], (2) imperfect mix-
ing during stratified charge combustion [110,111], and 3)
diffusion combustion of liquid fuel droplets near the injector
[112]. Figure 8 shows the pool fire and diffusion combustion
in a GDI engine. The main soot source in the homogenous
mode is pool fire, while in the stratified mode the sources are

123
Recent Progress in Automotive Gasoline Direct Injection Engine Technology
Fig. 8 a Soot generated by pool
fire [109], b diffusion
combustion [112] (Courtesy to
SAE International)
Fig. 9 Effect of injection pressure on droplet size [113] (Courtesy to
SAE International)
the locally rich mixture and pool fire. The soot generated by
the pool fire may persist until late in the cycle, while the oxi-
dation reactants such as OH are consumed during the exhaust
stroke, leading to a slow oxidation rate.
There are many measures that can reduce soot formation in
the cylinder. High-quality fuel and air mixing is regarded as a
fundamental strategy to reduce soot generation. To improve
the atomization quality, high injection pressures up to 35 MPa
have been utilized in modern GDI engines. Hoffmann et
al. [113] showed that the Sauter mean diameter (SMD, D32)
continually decreases with increases in the injection pressure,
as shown in Fig. 9. However, there is also a report [114] indi-
cating that the effect of reducing the SMD is much less when
the injection pressure exceeds 20 MPa. The injector design
may have different effects in this regard and more in-depth
research is required.
4.2 Particulate Matter Emissions
The number concentration, mass concentration and mass
fraction of particles emitted from GDI engines all vary
remarkably under the different conditions. In 2007, the Japan
Petroleum Energy Center and other agencies measured the
particle number size distributions in different engines and
vehicles with varying after-treatment technologies, and ana-
lyzed the PN size distribution curves, as presented in Fig. 10
103
Fig. 10 PN size distributions of different engines and vehicles [115]
(Courtesy to SAE International)
[115]. It can be seen that the PN size distribution obtained
from direct injection spark ignition (DISI) gasoline vehicles
is unimodal with a peak particle size of approximately 85 nm.
Due to the fuel rich zone in lean burn DISI engines, the PN
is approximately 10 times higher than that of stoichiometric
DISI engines and much higher than that produced by multi-
point injection (MPI) gasoline and diesel particulate filter
(DPF) vehicles.
The authors studied the PN size distribution of particulate
matter emitted from a GDI engine and a PFI engine operating
at 2000 r/min and at different loads (25, 50 and 75%) [116],
with the results presented in Fig. 11. These data indicate that
the PN size distribution of the GDI engine had a bimodal
distribution. In addition, the nuclei particle matter size was
generally less than 30 nm while the PN peak value was in the
range of 10–20 nm. The accumulated particle size was nor-
mally between 30 and 110 nm, with a PN peak value between
60 and 90 nm. The PN concentration of the PFI engine was
much less than that of the GDI engine, but the PN peak value
was in the range of 125–132 nm, larger than that of the GDI
engine.
In 2007, Price et al. [117] studied the composition and
microscopic morphology of particulates emitted from a GDI
engine (see Fig. 12) using a fast particle mobility size spec-
123
104 S. Shuai et al.

Fig. 11 Comparison of PN size

distributions between GDI and
PFI engines [116]

Fig. 12 Morphologies of different particulate matters [117] (Courtesy to SAE International). a Microstructures of nuclei particles, b microstructures
of accumulated particles

trometer (DMS500) and transmission electron microscopy

(TEM). It was found that the nuclei particle diameters were
in the range of 30–50 nm, and consisted of smaller, 5–10 nm
particles. The accumulated particles were in the range from
200 to 500 nm and were composed of 30–80 nm particles.

4.3 GPF After-treatment for PM Reduction

4.3.1 Layouts of GPF with TWC

Gasoline particulate filters (GPFs) and three way catalysts

(TWCs) are two indispensable after-treatment technologies
for GDI engines intending to meet Euro 6/China 6 emissions
regulations. A GPF can be located in a closed coupled or
underfloor position, as shown in Fig. 13 [118]. Bare GPFs
are often placed underfloor, while coated GPFs are primar-
ily located in the closed coupled position after the TWC. In
extreme cases, a traditional TWC may be directly replaced by
a coated GPF, but this is rare at present. The GPF position can
affect the particulate matter filtration efficiency, and a GPF
positioned underfloor will have a filtration efficiency about
15% higher than that in a closed coupled position. This is due
to the lower volumetric gas flow rate caused by the reduced
exhaust temperature [119].
Generally, the PN emissions limit of 6 × 1011 #/km in the
Euro 6/China 6 regulations for GDI engines can be readily
attained with the application of a closed coupled GPF in asso-
Fig. 13 Possible layouts of a GPF and TWC [118] (Courtesy to Asso-
ciation for Emission Control by Catalyst)
ciation with both the new European driving cycle (NEDC)
and high dynamic aggressive driving cycles [120]. However,
the tailpipe gas emissions may tend to increase over the life-
time of the vehicle due to the aging effect of the close-coupled
TWC. Applying a coating to a GPF installed in the under-
floor position results in both additional catalytic activity to
assist in the conversion of gases and improvements in the PN
filtration efficiency [121]. A study [122] with a coated GPF
(CGPF) using two different GDI vehicles demonstrated that
a TWC and CGPF after-treatment system improved tailpipe

123
Recent Progress in Automotive Gasoline Direct Injection Engine Technology 105

Fig. 14 PM filtration
mechanism (left-GPF;
right-DPF) [119] (Courtesy to
SAE International)

gas emissions, especially the NOx emissions. Even though

CGPF has the same function as TWC and can reduce gaseous
emissions such as THC, CO and NOx, a TWC is still indis-
pensable [123] because CGPF leads to a significantly delayed
light-off during cold start operation compared with conven-
tional TWC.

4.3.2 Differences Between GPF and DPF

The development of GPF technology is based on diesel par-

ticulate filters (DPFs), which have been widely used since
1990s in the USA. Although the structure and principle of a
GPF is similar to that of a DPF, differences in the raw partic-
ulate matter emissions and exhaust conditions between GDI
and diesel engines result in different filtration and pressure
drop performances. GDI engines have lower engine-out PM
emissions than diesel engines, and much less soot is accu-
mulated in conjunction with higher exhaust temperatures and
flow rates in the GPF, as seen in Fig. 14 [119]. This leads to
lower particle filtration efficiency and a higher pressure drop
in the GPF.
Because the exhaust temperature of a GDI engine is gener-
ally much higher than that of diesel engines with dynamical
exhaust temperature heating and cooling, a GPF material
must be chosen considering coefficient of thermal expansion Fig. 15 Results of fuel cut experiments with a vehicle incorporating
a TWC-coated GPF in a close-coupled position [125] (Courtesy to
(CTE) and thermal shock resistance performance. Currently, Springer)
cordierite, silicon carbide (SiC) and aluminum titanate are
the most common materials used in ceramic wall flow DPFs
for heavy duty diesel engines [124]. Among these three more favorable for soot oxidation [125]. Figure 15 shows
ceramics, SiC has a higher CTE but inferior thermal shock a typical passive regeneration of a GPF resulting from a
performance compared with cordierite, while aluminum fuel cut during deceleration, as well as the consumption of
titanate may decompose at high temperatures. Therefore, oxygen due to soot oxidation. Soot regeneration can occur
cordierite is most frequently used as a substrate for GPFs. at exhaust gas temperatures in the vicinity of 500 ◦ C even
with little available oxygen content in the exhaust [126,127].
4.3.3 PM Filtration and Regeneration in GPFs The GPF location has a minimal effect, and the particu-
late matter regeneration can be expected during fuel cut at
Because of the high exhaust temperature in GDI engines, the closed coupled and underfloor positions during NEDC
the passive regeneration of GPFs will likely occur during [119]. Although the passive regeneration of GPFs can be
deceleration in conjunction with a fuel cut strategy, result- accomplished utilizing the fuel cut strategy, there is still some
ing in an oxygen concentration of approximately 20% in the concern as to whether active regeneration is needed because
exhaust. Passive soot oxidation involves conditions under of the relatively low temperatures during the most common
which soot is oxidized during normal engine operation with- moderate city driving conditions [128]. Due to this issue,
out an active change in the engine control to create conditions some GPF control strategies include the use of soot estima-

123
106
tion algorithms, regeneration assistance and GPF protection
to meet the regeneration requirements [129]. The estimation
of GPF soot load relies on a combination of open loop soot
estimation, which is based on regressions involving engine
coolant temperatures and total fuel quantities, and pressure
drop-based soot estimation, which requires a pressure sen-
sor in the GPF exhaust system. The regeneration assistance
approach can involve a spark retard to increase the exhaust
temperature, while GPF protection controls the oxygen flow
to limit the soot burn rate.
5 Injector Deposits
A review by Xu et al. [130] in 2015 summarized the existing
literatures on GDI injector deposits, including the formation
mechanism and factors affecting deposits, their effects on
engine performance and emissions and approaches to miti-
gating deposits. However, due to increasing concerns regard-
ing PN emissions, many additional studies have been carried
out recently. Therefore, the main focus herein is on recent
studies regarding GDI deposits, including optical and numer-
ical characterization of spray and mixture formation, engine
performance and emissions using deposited GDI injectors.
5.1 Regions and Characteristics of Injector Deposits
Typical terms of reference for injector deposits by scan-
ning electron microscope (SEM) are shown in Fig. 16 [131],
including the internal hole, external hole (counter bore), ball,
seat and tip outer surface. Film-like deposits with a crystalline
structure are formed at the needle seat and ball. In addition,
deposits have been observed in both internal and external
injector holes, with deposits at the counter bore axially dis-
tributed and tending to increase in density along one side of
the hole. The deposits at the injector outer surface tend to
exhibit a smooth topography, and deposits accumulate more
readily at the injector counter bore rather than the internal
hole. Increasingly, the research focus is on the tip deposits
due to tip wetting because these are a key factor determining
whether the latest emission regulations can be met.
5.2 Effect of Injector Deposits on Engine
Performance
The positions where the deposits form will determine the
impact on the spray process. Deposits inside the GDI injector
nozzle can modify the surface roughness of the internal hole
and decrease the actual injector hole diameter, which in turn
affects the flow area and increases the length/diameter ratio.
Song et al. [132] investigated the spray behavior of a six-
hole GDI injector with internal deposits and found that the
flow rate of the coked injector was decreased by about 10%
123
S. Shuai et al.
Fig. 16 Terms of reference for injector deposits [131] (Courtesy to SAE
International)
due to the deposits. They further reported that the presence
of deposits could reduce the penetration length and increase
the spray cone angle. Jiang et al. [133] demonstrated that
deposits were primarily located in the counter bore, while
very few were formed inside the hole. A decrease in 2.21%
in the fuel flow rate at a 150 bar injection pressure was
observed. In addition, Jiang’s work found that the penetration
length and mean droplet size of each jet were increased sig-
nificantly, in contrast to Song’s observations. An increased
penetration length was also observed by Henkei et al. [134].
Wang et al. [69] indicated that deposits inside the counter
bore could restrict air recirculation and entrainment, lead-
ing to lower exiting turbulent kinetic energy of the spray
from a coked injector and producing a larger mean droplet
size. Wang et al. [135] studied the effect of injection strategy
on the spray behavior of a fouled GDI injector. The results
showed that deposits led to a smaller cone angle and longer
penetration, as well as degraded atomization in conjunction
with a single-injection strategy. With a split injection strat-
egy, the potential for fuel-wall impingement was reduced
but the atomization quality was further degraded. How-
ever, under strong flash boiling conditions, this reduction
in atomization quality was nearly eliminated. It should be
noted that the deposit location was not well described in
Ref. [135].
GDI deposits can also significantly affect engine perfor-
mance and emissions. Joedicke et al. [136] performed an
accelerated deposit accumulation test at 5 bar BMEP and
2000 rpm engine speed for 55 h, and the results showed that
the injector pulse width, fuel consumption rate and HC and
CO emissions were increased by 23.5, 2.45, 20 and 93%,
respectively. Results obtained by Wen et al. [137] with a GDI
vehicle having a mileage of 13,000 km showed that particu-
late mass and fuel consumption were increased by 376 and
3.02%, respectively, compared with the values obtained using
fresh injectors. In addition, gaseous emissions such as THC,
non-methane hydrocarbon (NMHC) and NOx increased by
17.1, 24.5 and 23.4%, respectively, and PN emissions could
be increased by several orders of magnitude [133,134]. The
fuel stored in the fouled injector tip deposits during injection
Recent Progress in Automotive Gasoline Direct Injection Engine Technology
and then released later caused diffusive combustion events
and thus increased PM and PN emissions [112].
5.3 Deposits Mitigation
According to the mechanism by which GDI deposits are
formed, these deposits can be mitigated by several means.
One approach involves using a fuel detergent. Zhang et
al. [138] measured engine emissions before (base fuel) and
after using detergent (additivated fuel) and found that the
detergent greatly reduced the particle emissions, especially
at high engine loads. Reducing the tip temperature is also
effective. However, lowering the injector tip temperature may
have a negative effect on the spray pattern and combustion
stability [139]. Injector designs that lower the sac volume
or use valve covered orifices (VCOs) provide benefits in
terms of controlling the residual fuel [140,141]. In addition,
a step hole or counter bore in the outlet side can decrease
the effects of deposit formation on the spray process [141].
Increasing the fuel injection pressure has also been proven
to be an effective approach reducing deposit formation by
increasing the deposit removal rate [142]. The formation of
GDI injector deposits is dependent on the environment to
which the injectors are exposed, including tip temperature
and air motion. Thus, a typical spray-guided GDI system
will show more significant injector tip wetting due to the
relatively low air motion near the injector tip, in contrast to
air-guided GDI systems [2]. Additional optimization of com-
bustion systems could therefore also be beneficial in terms
of removing deposits.
6 Gasoline Compression Ignition
This section introduces the latest researches on gasoline com-
pression ignition (GCI) mode with different octane number
fuels and the application of GCI modes in engines.
6.1 Motivation
GCI based on fuel direct injection, which is a promising com-
bustion mode, has been widely investigated in recent years
to improve thermal efficiencies. Gasoline readily forms suit-
able pre-mixtures prior to ignition, which tends to reduce
soot emissions. Gasoline homogeneous charge compression
ignition (HCCI) has been considered to represent an ideal
compression ignition mode since the 1970s [143]. How-
ever, the difficulty in controlling the combustion phase and
high combustion noise at high loads has limited the appli-
cation of HCCI in actual engines [144]. In recent years,
most studies have examined stratified charge compression
ignition as a means of extending the engine load. Kalghatgi
proposed a partially premixed compression ignition (PPCI)
107
Fig. 17 Injection strategies for HCCI, PPCI and MPCI
mode in 2006 [145]. In this process, an in-cylinder stratified
charge is used to reduce the pressure rise rate by inject-
ing fuel near TDC [146]. Even so, the combustion noise
remains high at high loads, and a significant amount of
EGR is required to suppress NOx emissions. To mitigate
these shortcomings, Yang et al. proposed a multi-injection
strategy to achieve a process based on “spray-combustion-
spray-combustion” referred to as multiple premixed com-
pression ignition (MPCI), as shown in Fig. 17 [147]. It
has been demonstrated that MPCI involves both temporal
multistage combustion with different injection timings and
spatial multi-zone combustion [148]. The first stage combus-
tion involves premixed low temperature combustion, while
the second is based on quasi-premixed high-temperature
combustion. MPCI results in lower combustion tempera-
tures and reduced pressure rise rates compared with PPCI,
leading to lower NOx emissions and less dependency on
EGR.
6.2 Low Octane Fuels for GCI
Kalghatgi [149] pointed out that the realization of premixed
combustion is quite difficult if the ignition delay of the fuel
(e.g., conventional diesel) is short. In contrast, if the fuel has a
long ignition delay (e.g., conventional gasoline), combustion
is difficult to initiate under certain operating conditions, such
as cold starts. Therefore, fuels with reactivity higher than
that of gasoline but lower than that of diesel are desired. The
ideal fuel for compression ignition appears to be a low octane
number gasoline with a research octane number (RON) value
between 70 and 85 [149].
There are two viable means of obtaining low octane num-
ber fuels. The first is to blend market gasoline and diesel
fuels. These two fuels can be blended offline in the tank
and are also referred to as wide distillation fuels [150] or
“dieseline” [151,152]. Algunaibet et al. found that a blend
of 20% (v/v) gasoline with diesel was sufficient to reduce
the flash point below 40 ◦ C and that diesel addition below
50% (v/v) had a slight effect on the vapor pressure of gaso-
line [153]. Therefore, gasoline can be safely blended with
diesel at lower ratios. The second approach involves the use
of low octane number gasoline-like fuels, such as naphtha.
Naphtha fuels normally have a 60–85 RON value and are
123
108
Fig. 18 Combustion and injection systems in third generation GDCI engines [155] (Courtesy to SAE International)
mainly composed of straight-chain paraffins and naphthene,
with a distillation range similar to that of gasoline (from
approximately 20 to 200 ◦ C) [154]. The use of naphtha also
simplifies the oil refining process, leading to a less expensive,
more environmental-friendly system.
6.3 Application of GCI
6.3.1 Delphi GDCI Engines
Delphi and partners have developed three generations of
multi-cylinder gasoline direct injection compression igni-
tion (GDCI) engines using US market gasoline since 2011
(see Fig. 18) [155]. All three generations are operated in
the PPCI mode with a precisely optimized injection strategy
using RON91 E10 gasoline.
Compared with the first two generations, the third gener-
ation of engines increases the piston stroke from 85.2 to 105
mm, thus achieving a long stroke-bore ratio (S/B = 1.28)
to increase TDC clearance. In addition, the use of compres-
sion ratios from 15 to 16 improves the part-load combustion.
The injector is central-mounted and the injection pressure
can be greater than 350 bar. The piston bowl geometry is
carefully matched with the spray characteristics to ensure a
wet-less injection process. While the intake valve train lift
is fixed, the exhaust valve train has variable lift and tim-
ing to control exhaust rebreathing, which is beneficial for
part loads. In addition, a thermal management system and
an air system including a variable nozzle turbocharger, a
supercharger and a two-path cooled EGR system have been
carefully designed. Based on these systems and the reduction
in engine-out NOx and soot emissions by incorporating an
after-treatment system, a minimum BSFC of 205 g/kWh was
achieved at a BMEP of 10 bar. This engine thus exhibits better
fuel economy than the first two generations and approaches
that of diesel engines, as shown in Fig. 19.
6.3.2 Mazda SKYACTIV-X-Engine
In 2017, Mazda launched the SKYACTIV-X engine featuring
spark-controlled compression ignition (SPCCI), thus com-
bining the benefits of spark and compression ignition. The
main SPCCI concept is presented in Fig. 20. In this system,
123
S. Shuai et al.
Fig. 19 BSFC variations in GDCI engines [155] (Courtesy to SAE
International)
the geometric compression ratio is set such that the air-fuel
mixture is at the ignition boundary when the piston is at
TDC. The spark plug works under all conditions to create an
expanding fireball upon spark ignition that increases the local
pressure and temperature to initiate compression ignition.
Hence, by controlling the spark ignition timing, the com-
pression ignition process can be tuned. Based on seamless
switching between spark and compression ignition, a HCCI
combustion mode could be very widely applied.
This system allows a double-injection strategy in conjunc-
tion with a high-pressure injection system operating at 500
bar and an injector mounted at the center of the combustion
chamber. A lean mixture for compression ignition is initially
generated inside the cylinder during the intake stroke, after
which a sufficiently rich air-fuel mixture forms around the
spark plug for spark ignition. A strong swirling motion is
also produced in the cylinder to enhance fuel vaporization.
The piston crown has a volcano-shaped bowl to tumble the
rich mixture near the spark plug. Based on the low exhaust
energy, a supercharger with a clutched belt drive is used,
which is capable of switching between natural aspirated and
boosted operation. The EGR can be cooled using a coolant
heat exchanger and the application of VVT enables overlap
at the end of the exhaust stroke to scavenge hot gases from
the cylinder. When necessary, the Miller cycle can be applied
by closing the intake valves after BDC.
Recent Progress in Automotive Gasoline Direct Injection Engine Technology
Fig. 20 Combustion concept and fuel consumption reduction for the Mazda SCCI [157] (Courtesy to Mazda)
The current prototype engine can reach 133 kW and
230 N·m at 6000 r/min using regular gasoline. The fuel econ-
omy is improved by approximately 20% compared with
SKYACTIV-G, the new Mazda gasoline engine, and even
equals or exceeds that of Mazda’s latest diesel engine, the
SKYACTIV-D under some conditions [156].
7 Summary and Outlook
Over the past 20 years, GDI engines have been improved to
become highly efficient and to offer clean combustion, as a
result of high tumble flow design, cooled EGR, high com-
pression ratios, over-expansion cycles with VVT, boosting,
high-pressure injection and other design features. Improv-
ing the fuel/oil properties and optimizing the combustion
system have been found to represent the most effective
approaches to suppressing deto-knock, and in-cylinder soot
formation has been primarily attributed to fuel impinge-
ment and pool fire phenomena. Research has shown that
high injection pressures and optimized mixture formation
can greatly reduce soot formation in the cylinder, and that
the PM/PN levels in GDI engine exhaust are much higher
than those generated by PFI engines, particularly during cold
starts. GPF combined with TWC is evidently essential to
meeting upcoming emissions regulations. Deposits on GDI
injectors have been confirmed to have a significant impact
on PM/PN emissions, and fuel quality plays an important
role in the formation of deposits. Reducing the injector tip
temperature, using proper additives, increasing the injection
pressure and optimizing the injector design have all been
found to be effective in reducing deposits. Thus, comprehen-
sive co-optimization involving fuel reforming, combustion
system and after-treatment design has the potential to further
increase thermal efficiency and decrease emissions.
It is clear that hybrid systems will represent the future of
light-duty power trains as fuel economy regulations become
more and more stringent and that GDI engines with stoi-
chiometric combustion will be widely employed in hybrid
passenger vehicles. The BTE values of hybrid GDI engines
can be further enhanced by over 40% based on adopting
109
a simpler structure that also lowers cost due to its narrow
operational region and reduced power output compared with
conventional GDI engines.
GCI with lean burn and high CR values offers signifi-
cant advantages with regard to fuel economy. It is believed
that, in the case of future engines with peak BTE values in
the range of 45–50%, the diluted lean burn GCI combustion
strategy will be a viable option. Difficulties related to the
control of GCI engines are eliminated in GCI engine hybrids
incorporating electric motors. The after-treatment for GCI
engines is evidently quite complicated and may require an
integrated system involving an oxidation catalyst, selective
catalytic reduction of NOx or a lean NOx trap and GPF to
meet future emissions regulations.
In future, connected vehicles powered by GDI engines
will be smart, resulting in a 10 to 20% reduction in fuel con-
sumption and much fewer harmful emissions under actual
driving conditions [158]. Research is underway to develop
artificial intelligence (AI)-based engine calibration and con-
trol [159,160]. This development will move forward in three
steps: (1) from manual calibration to AI-based calibration,
(2) from map-based to model-based prediction control, and
(3) from model-predictive control to model-free machine
learning-based control. This development trend will progress
in concert with the advent of V2X (vehicle to everything)
technology involving big data and cloud computing.
Acknowledgements The authors acknowledge the China National Nat-
ural Science Foundation Project “Formation and Evolution of PM from
GDI Engines: From Primary Particles to Secondary Aerosols” (Grant
No. 51636003), and the National Key R&D Plan Project “Integration
Technology of PM Capture and Clean Emissions for GDI Vehicles”
(Grant No. 2017YFC02110004). The authors also wish to thank their
colleagues Prof. Jianxin Wang and Prof. Zhi Wang as well as Ph.D.
students Shuai Liang, Zhou Zhang, Wenbin Zhang, Zexian Guo and
Hengjie Guo for their contributions to this review.
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