History of Construction Industry from Ancient Egypt to Present

Assignment Working 1/3
Person BTEC HND in Construction & the Build Environment - Quantity Surveying
Contents
Company Overview ....................................................................................................................................... 3
Our Vision...................................................................................................................................................... 4
Our Mission ................................................................................................................................................... 4
History of Construction Industry................................................................................................................... 5
Egypt and the Pyramids ............................................................................................................................ 5
Greek Influence......................................................................................................................................... 6
The Roman Empire ................................................................................................................................... 6
The Middle Age ........................................................................................................................................ 7
The Renaissance........................................................................................................................................ 7
The Industrial Revolution ......................................................................................................................... 7
After industrial revolution to Present ........................................................................................................ 8
Business Ethos Development ........................................................................................................................ 9
Development of Professionalism ................................................................................................................ 10
Primary Characters...................................................................................................................................... 10
Owners .................................................................................................................................................... 10
Designers ................................................................................................................................................ 11
Architects and Engineers ........................................................................................................................ 11
Architects. ............................................................................................................................................... 12
Engineers ................................................................................................................................................ 12
Quantity Surveyors ................................................................................................................................. 14
Contractors .............................................................................................................................................. 14
Construction Managers ........................................................................................................................... 15
Secondary Characters. ................................................................................................................................ 15
Linkage between the parties in a construction organization ..................................................................... 16
Organization Structures .............................................................................................................................. 16
Functional Organization Structure .......................................................................................................... 17
Project Organization structures ............................................................................................................... 18
ESOFT College of Engineering & TechnologyTo Learn and to Apply for the Betterment of Humanity
Matrix Organization ................................................................................................................................ 19

Organization of Our Company ................................................................................................................ 20
Construction Contracts ............................................................................................................................... 21
References .................................................................................................................................................. 24
Company Overview
Liyanage Constructions is amongst the most well reputed construction companies in Rathnapura
area, with a wealth of diverse experience.
We provide end to end solutions for residential and housing complexes, offices, shopping
complexes, hostels, hotels, hospitals, educational institutes, bridges and other infrastructural
work.
Our dedicated architects, engineers, and quantity surveyors drive the firm’s activities with a team
of multi skilled competent support staff. The company also actively procures the latest
construction technologies to assist its highly skilled workers.
We take our pride in our delivery, thus our clients can always be assured that only the most
experienced and qualified people are serving them, all the time.
Our Vision
To be the most preferred and the best Professional Construction Solution Provider in Sri Lanka.
Our Mission
To provide the highest quality construction Solution at a competitive price, within specific time
frame, using superior technology and dedicated professional service.
History of Construction Industry

The construction industry plays an important role in promoting the growth of the economy in a county,
with establishing the building, infrastructure and factory its will stimulate other sectors to expand. As our
company is going to take a new step we need to understand and educated about the history of the
construction industry as the past helps us to take decisions in the future.
As shelter is a basic need from the beginning of humans from those times the construction has started and
gradually develops to the state that we experiencing today.
The first buildings were huts and shelters constructed by hand or simple tools. With times people started
to live together as groups and the cities grew.
Over time, humans refined their construction practices and started building more permanent structures.
Historians believe what we know as traditional construction began to take shape in Ancient Egypt and
Mesopotamia. As humans abandoned nomadic life, these societies built permanent shelters. The Egyptian
pyramids are some of the first examples of large scale, permanent structures.
As the population grew and urbanization took over, construction quickly became a staple of civilization.
Although this type of construction is a far cry from buildings we see today, this type of activity laid the
foundation for contemporary construction.
Egypt and the Pyramids

There are about 138 Egyptian pyramids. At this age there were no architecture, engineering, etc. These
entirethings were done by a single person- the 'master builder.' The master builder concept would survive
for many years, until the complexity of structures and construction techniques warranted a separation of
disciplines.
First known building code was recorded in this age, developed by the king of Babylonia between 179 and
1750 B.C. Scientists say that the code of Hammurabi includes many harsh punishments, sometimes
demanding the removal of the guilty party's tongue, hands, eyes or ears.
In construction if a builder builds a house, and does not construct it properly and the house falls in and
kills its owner, then that builder shall be put to death.
Greek Influence
Greek architecture provided some of the finest buildings in the entire ancient world. Among those
architectural works Greek Temples are extraordinary. Many of the temples were made out of marble and
limestone.
Greek builders started to organize and utilize small groups of stonemasons. This idea of gathering
workmen around a particular craft represents the beginning of the building trades concept, in which
particular building skill is honed to a level of expertise associated with a master craftsman.
Most of the works were done by unskilled workforce and the skilled workforce was allowed for a finer
detail and design to be applied to the architecture. This is clearly a landmark in Construction history.
The Roman Empire

The roman construction revolution also known as the Concrete Revolution, was the widespread use in
Roman architecture of the previously little used architectural forms of arch, vault, and dome. The
invention of concrete was a turning point of construction industry. This early version consisted of a pasty,
hydrated lime and pozzolan ash mixture made from rock.
They build roads, bridges, dams, theaters, aqueducts etc. The first glass was also in these times and
decorated many roman structures.
Around 40 BC, a roman architect named Marcus Vitruvius Pollio wrote the book "De architectura" which
is identified as the first design and construction handbook. This book contains topics on Landscape
architecture, construction materials, construction process, building styles, water supply, mechanical
engineering, road, bridge, temple design, finishes and colours, acoustics and other building physics.
In Virtruvius' writings explains about the master builder was responsible for both the design and the
supervision of the construction.
The Middle Age

In this age there is nothing more special happens around construction field. In this age they focused on
building churches and in this age many impressive designed structures were built all over the world.
Training for crafting and education was given. The two most important building traders were carpenters
and stonemasons.Three distinct stages of ability were recognized in this age. Those are master,
Journeyman, and apprentice.
The Renaissance
In this period one of the key things of the construction industry was invented. Leone Battista Albertihas
argued that he could create drawings and models as a way to direct master craftsmen without being
involved in the building process. This is most likely what is happening in the industry today. This new
philosophy separate design and construction as distinct functions.
The Industrial Revolution

After renaissance as the architectures are more in to the design side more theoretical concepts involving
mathematics, physics, chemistry were being applied. The organization structure in a construction was
expanded because the architecture moved further away from the building process and the engineers took
on a greater role for overall technical coordination.
Here the general contractors organize and manage the labor force, equipment, and materials on a project.
With the invention of machinery and equipment like steam hammers and pile drivers the construction
was transformed to a modernized industry.
After industrial revolution to Present

After industrial revolution steel and electricity has been produced and cement and reinforced concrete
were invented. High rise buildings were started to build with iron frames.
With this development the organization structure of companies has widely speeded further. Electrical
engineers, Mechanical engineers, Architects, Structural Engineers, Contractors, Sub Contractors,
supervisors etc. were appointed as the building projects gets more complicated.
Invention of elevators, cooling and heating systems make buildings more comfortable.
After world war 2II a massive development in the construction technologies has started. Mechanized
tools, panelized construction and prefabrication inspired a whole new way to view the building process.
Building regulations, standards and specifications are introduced to construction industry for control
quality of materials, methods and service.
With time commercial and industrial developments has started to happen and the new construction issues
such as environment, energy conservation, sustainability, safety, and workforce diversity added the
complexity to the building process .
Information technology has developed and computers began to use for estimating, building design, cost
accounting, quality control, project administration, cost accounting, scheduling and information
transferring etc.
At present day the construction industry has highly developed and it is developing further. Building
Information Modeling is using today for gives architecture, engineering, and construction (AEC)
professionals the insight and tools to more efficiently plan, design, construct, and manage buildings and
infrastructure. More technologies like Global positioning systems (GPS) and computer aided earth
moving systems are using in present construction industry.
From all this history we can see how construction has developed step by step. When thinking about our
company we can modernize our company to a better level through these lessons from the past.
Business Ethos Development

Building trade concept as started in Greek ages. With the development business ethos are developed
within construction structures. The Ethos helps the companies to build its reputation.
As I mentioned above we can see these points have developed with the development of construction
industry.
 Quality
Provide quality construction, technical and management services to clients.
 Client focused relationships
Maintaining of good relationship with clients, based on quality, timely services
and an anticipation of cost effective solutions.
 Communication and collaboration
Understand the value of good communication and working together delivers
optimum solutions, respecting the skills, knowledge and experience of everyone
involving.
 Integrity
Aim to build trust with customers and suppliers, working with transparency and
integrity
 Innovation
Improvement of all aspects of businesses including quality control, presentation
and professionalism.
 Teamwork
As in the past there was a master builder concept and with the time involvement
of different parties makes a construction team.
These are the key things we have to develop as a company to increase our standards. If we follow these
points our company will automatically goes to a new level and it will be open many opportunities for us
as employers. With the new management we can have guidance to achieve our vision.
Development of Professionalism
With the construction history we walked through we can see that with renaissance the individual master
builder method was declined and today there are main parties that should get together to success a
construction project.
As a company it is important to understand the positions and levels of employees. It will be easy for all to
manage and engage in works.
The Responsibility of the project distributed among the organization structure according to their
management levels. It is very important to understand the various roles and responsibilities of these fields
as they influence the construction management process.
When talking about professionalism it is important to understand what professionalism is.Professionalism

does not mean wearing a suit or carrying a briefcase; rather, it means conducting oneself with
responsibility, integrity, accountability, and excellence. It means communicating effectively and
appropriately and always finding a way to be productive.
The roles of different fields in construction industry are divided as primary and secondary. Primary roles
are played by the main characters in construction.
Primary Characters
There are three main characters in any construction project. They are,
1. The Owner
2. The Designers (architects and engineers)
3. The Contractor
These three parties have to connect together to success a project. Each party has their specific roles to
play. The linkage between these parties will affect the flow of construction directly.
To take our company to a new step it is important to understand different roles and specific
accountabilities of various parties within construction process.
Owners
The person in charge of the overall project is usually termed the Owner. In our side the owner is the
client. This is the most important character in construction. Without owner we don't get projects and there
will be no construction company. So for existence of the company owner of the project is the fundamental
character.
Owners have a big role to play more than writing checks.
Owner begins project with a idea and with the connections of engineers and contractors the project starts
to go on.
Following are the responsibilities of the owner.
1. Providing financing for the project.

2. Providing site surveys.
3. Securing and paying for easements.
4. Warranting the plans and specifications.
5. Warranting owner furnished materials.
6. Disclosing superior knowledge.
7. Acting on clarifications and changes.
8. Interpreting the documents.
9. Cooperating with the contractor.
10. Selecting all professionals on the project.
11. Interacting with various governmental bodies.
12. Interacting with real estate professionals to sell the finished project.( based on type of the project)
Owner should have a sharp connection with designers and the contractor
Designers
The construction manager works with both the architect and the engineer on a regular basis throughout
the construction process. Architect works on the owner's idea and he designs the construction according
to owner's wish. He mainly deals with safety issues and aesthetics of the building and Engineers deal with
the systems. These two parties have to be well coordinated to success the owner.
Following are the responsibilities of the Designers
1. Ensure that the client is aware of the client's duties prior to commencing any design work.
2. Ensure that personnel allocated to their design team from internal resources are competent and
adequately resourced.
3. Ensure that any designers or contractors that are engaged on the project are competent and
adequately resourced.
4. Eliminate or reduce safety and health risks to constructors, users, maintainers, repairers,
commissioners, testers, cleaners, demolishers, etc. when preparing the design.
5. Co-operate and communicate with other designers, including temporary works designers, to
ensure adequate co-ordination of the design.
6. Provide information about the risks which cannot be satisfactorily addressed by their designs to
the client, other designers and contractors.
7. Assisting the owner in selecting products to fit the program and the budget.
8. Developing the final building plans, construction details, and specifications.
Architects and Engineers.
The goal of an architect's design is to satisfy the customer's requirements, making the appearance of the
structure to the customer's liking and performing quality work.
Civil, architectural and structural engineers have the responsibility of applying an architect's design and
carrying it through to construction. The goal of these engineers is to satisfy the customer's requirements
and make the design functional and safe. Other engineers that may be involved in building design are
electrical engineers for the lighting systems, mechanical engineers for the elevator, and plumbing
engineers for the plumbing system.
The key difference between an architect and an engineer is that an architect focuses more on the artistry
and design of the building, while the engineer focuses more on the technical and structural side. While the
architect is concerned with making the building aesthetically pleasing, an engineer makes sure that the
building is functional and safe.
Architects.
Architect is someone who loves to design, and is specially trained and licensed to work on the planning
and design of buildings. They get the idea from client and design a visual modal of client's idea.
Architects are not just involved in the design of a building. As a licensed professional they are also
responsible for public safety and overseeing of projects. Their role is important in every stage of the
building's construction, from the initial concept to the opening ceremony when the building is complete.
Architect is involve in the project in stages before construction, during construction and after construction.
Role of Architect
 Assisting the client to prepare a strategic brief.

 Gather requirements, understanding client needs.
 Advising on the need to appoint other professionals to the consultant team, independent client
advisers, specialist designers and specialist contractors.
 Preparing the concept design.
 Preparing the detailed design and specifications.
 Inspecting the works.
 Build a relationship of trust and knowledge with the client.
 Prepare Architectural tender drawings.
 Assist the contractor during construction.
 Check the quality of the work.
Architect's role and responsibilities are very dependent on the agreement with the client. But
normally, the architect will assist the contractor to construct the project as specified in the
construction.
Architect is always keeps connections with the owner, engineers, contractors and quantity surveyors to
make sure his design is done as he wish. Architect connects with the owner in selecting building materials
and sometimes in selecting interior furniture and some contractual works.
Engineers
Structural Engineers
The role of the structural engineer is a key component in the construction process. Part of the
wider discipline of civil engineering, structural engineering is concerned with the design and
physical integrity of buildings and other large structures, like tunnels and bridges. Structural
engineers have wide range of responsibilities. Not least a duty to ensure the safety and durability
of the project on which they are working.
Unlike architects, who must focus on the appearance, shape, size and use of the building,
structural engineers must solve technical problems and help the architect achieve his or her vision
for the project.
They design the foundations, beams, grinders, and columns that make up skeleton of the
structure.
Structural engineers will be required to co-ordinate and consult with other members of their
projects, including engineers, environmental scientists, architects and landscape architects. They
may also be required to assist government bodies in their own inspections relating to the project.
Mechanical Engineers
Mechanical engineering is the discipline that applies engineering, physics, engineering

mathematics, and materials science principles to design, analyze, manufacture, and maintain
mechanical systems.
Mechanical engineers are accountable for designing, building, installing and maintaining all kinds
of mechanical machinery, tools, and components. Constructions just one area mechanical
engineer could work in; others include the power, medical, process industry or manufacturing
industries.
Mechanical engineers are responsible for the implementations and monitoring of all mechanical
related operations at the site as per approved drawings and methods and safety rules. And also
they design the mechanical components of a building, the air and plumbing systems within a
building.
Electrical Engineers.
Electrical engineers design and calculate electrical loads and determine the circuitry, lighting,
motors, transformers, and telecommunications needed for a building.
Civil Engineers.
"London Royal Charter of Institute of Civil Engineers defines civil engineering as the art of
directing the great sources of power in nature for the use and convince of man"
The main scope of civil engineering or the task of civil engineering is planning, designing,
estimating, supervising construction, managing construction, execution and maintenance of
structures like buildings, roads, bridges, dams, etc.
Quantity Surveyors
Quantity Surveyors manage the contractual and cost matters at site level on behalf of the client.
Main tasks of quantity surveyors are,
 Conducting feasibility studies to estimate materials, time and labor costs.

 Preparing, negotiating and analyzing costs for tenders and contracts.
 Coordination of work effort.
 Advising on a range of legal and contractual issues.
 Valuing completed work and arranging for payments.
For Project management all these engineers have to share their engineering details and drawings to make
the building construction go on. So we can see that all these sectors are linked.
Our company has hired new mechanical and, electrical engineers with the recent update. Therefore it is
important to understand their responsibility to the company.
Contractors
A general contractor, also known as the main contractor is an organization or sometimes a person hired by
the client to carry out the work that is required for the completion of the work. A main contractor is
responsible for the overall coordination of a project.
For have a quality service contractor must be a professional one.
Main contractor is responsible for providing all for providing all of the material, labor, equipment and
services necessary.
General contractor have to manage all of the construction operations in to a single, safe coordinated
effort.
In large construction projects contractors have a staff consist of architects, engineers, construction
managers etc. In today normally what contractors were doing was they maintain a management staff and a
field staff as permanent employees. The construction management staff consists of estimators, schedulers,
and purchasing agents, while the field management staff includes supervisors, field engineers etc. The
work of trades is performed under separate subcontractors with various specialty contractors.
Sometimes there may be engineers and architects from both client and contractor. Engineers and
architects on client's side have more power. The role of contractor's engineers is to maintain and make
sure that the construction is going on according to the owner's plan.
Construction Managers
The construction manager represents the owner’s interest and provides oversight over the entire project
directly for the owner. His role is to work with all parties to deliver the project on time, at or under
budget, and to the owner’s expected standard of quality, scope, and function.
Construction managers are uniquely qualified through combined education and experience to work with
the owner, architect, general contractor, and other stakeholders to determine the best possible sequence of
construction operations and develop a detailed schedule and budget, while also establishing plans for
project safety and security and helping the owner manage risk.
Secondary Characters.
Secondary players are the outside parties who are beyond the immediate control of any of the primary
players.
Examples :-
 Building inspectors
Qualified professional delegated by a government agency to do building control.
Building inspectors have the power to halt construction work on a site if it does
not meet the prescribed standards.
 Utility companies
Utilities are generally considered to include: electricity, gas, water and sewage
and communication services.
 Insurance companies
A company that provides and sells insurance.
Insurance is a means of protection from financial loss.
 Labor unions
This is an organized association of workers, often in a profession, formed to
protect and further their rights and interests.
 Suppliers
Suppliers supply materials, equipment, tools needed to the construction project
 Government
 Financial institutions
Linkage between the parties in a construction organization
Organization Structures
There are 7 types of organization structures.
Organization Structure Description
Functional Divided based on their function, suitable for small for small
organizations.
Divisional Structure –Product/ Each Division is dedicated particular product line. Suitable for
Service based organization with multiple products.
Divisional Structure –Market Divisions are based on selling and manufacturing.

based
Project Organization Each member of the team is responsible for a particular task. It is
therefore task oriented.
Process Structure This is based on process based industries.
Matrix Structure Deviate from normal structures, provide more flexible and balanced
decision making.
Circular Structure Top employees are at inner diameter and outer diameter is allocated
for button employees. Center of the circle is executives.
Functional Organization Structure

A functional organization structure is a hierarchical organization structure wherein people are grouped
based on their area of specialization. These people are supervised by a functional manager with expertise
in the field. The expertise helps him to effectively utilize the skills of employees, which ultimately helps
organizations in achieving its objectives.
General Foreman
Foreman Foreman Foreman Foreman
(Concreting) (Form Work) (Steel) (Laborers)
Tunnel Building Road
Project Organization structures

In a projectile environment, the entire company is organized by projects, and the project manager is in
control of the projects. Individuals or employees are assigned to projects and report to a project manager.
One’s the project is over, they need to be assigned to another project.
General Foreman
Foreman Foreman Foreman
(Tunnel) (Building) (Road)
Labourers
Steel Gang
Formwork Gang
Concreting Gang
Labourers
Steel Gang
Formwork Gang
Concreting Gang
Labourers
Steel Gang
Formwork Gang
Concreting Gang
Matrix Organization
This organization structure is a combination of project organization and functional organization .
Employees at these companies are generally divided into different departments but often work with other teams
to complete specific projects.
Organization of Our Company
Construction
Manager
Site Engineer
Assistant
Chief Cleark
Engineer
Foreman Chief Cleark
Accounts
Supervisors
Cleark
Workman Clearks
Time Keeper
Typist
Security
Construction Contracts
In a project client first prepares documents regarding requirements of facilities to be constructed and later
he selects the best proposal submitted by multiple bidders. The type of construction company is based on
the type of contractual works they are involve in.
A construction contract is a multiple or legally bidding agreement between two parties based on policies
and conditions recorded in document form. The two parties involved are one or more owners, and one or
more contractors. The owner has full authority to decide what type of contract should be used for specific
development to be constructed and to set forth the legally-binding terms and conditions in a contractual
agreement.
The construction contracts include,
 Owner - Contractor agreement

 General conditions of contract
 Special conditions
 Drawings
 Specifications
 Addenda
 Modifications
We use contracts to,
 Describe the scope of work

 Establish time frame
 Establish cost and payment provision
 Minimize disputes
 Improve economic and return of investment.
With the new management our company is going towards the design and build contracts as it
will give massive profits and opportunities.
This is how it works,
 Client appoints single contractor to take care of design and construction.

 Basic design concept may be provided by client himself through an independent
agency.
 After basic concepts client calls for tender and selects appropriate agency for
designing, management and construction services.
In this type of contract contractor will be responsible for all of the work on the project.
We have chosen design and build contract method due to following reasons,
o Suitable for competitive bidding

o Insurance and bonding are defined
o System of checks and balances.
o Established legal precedent
Before we used traditional contracts where the employer commissions a design and the
contractor then is to build in accordance with the design prepared by the client. In this type of a
contract the our responsibility is only to construct in accordance with the design.
As employees we should know the other types of contracts in the industry.
Some of those are,
 Lump Sum Contracts

o In lump sum contracts the price for the entire scope of works are fixed.
o Lump sum contacts may come with Bill of Quantities.
o The lump sum may be based on the drawings. In that case, the contractor has to
estimate the quantities involved in order to quote a lump sum.
o Lump sum contracts are good for employers, where the scope of work can be
responsibly ascertained up-front.
 Measure and value contracts.

o A measure and value contracts would determine the rates for works to be
carried out or for supplies.
o Final amount to be paid would be depend on the actual quantity of the works
carried out for the supplies made.
o Such contracts are good for contractors, who will be remunerated based on the
actual quantum of the work carried out.
 Management contracts
o In a management contract, the contracted manager’s role to ensure the
implementation of the contract carried out effectively.
o It is also becoming increasingly common for parties to enter into management
contracts instead of building contracts.
 Cost plus contracts.

o In a cost plus contract, the contractor receives reimbursement of his actual cost
plus a top-up to cover his profit.
o Cost plus contracts are good for employees, if they ensure the cost is fair.
As employees it is so important to manage a well communication process with the management

then only the company can be well develop. So if you have any ideas for development of our
company it will be very useful if you communicate with the management and let them know
your ideas.
References
(“Ancient Egyptian History for Kids: Pyramids,” n.d.)1
(Koutsogiannis, 2017)
(“The Code of Hammurabi and structural engineers,” n.d.)
(Sjøholt, n.d.)
(“The Influence of Ancient Greek Architecture,” n.d.)
(“Vitruvius The Ten Books on Architecture,” n.d.)
Construction management handouts.

History of Construction Industry from Ancient Egypt to Present

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

History of Construction Industry from Ancient Egypt to Present

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Assignment Working 1/3

Matrix Organization ................................................................................................................................ 19

History of Construction Industry

Egypt and the Pyramids

The Roman Empire

The Middle Age

The Industrial Revolution

After industrial revolution to Present

Business Ethos Development

When talking about professionalism it is important to understand what professionalism is.Professionalism

Following are the responsibilities of the owner.

1. Providing financing for the project.

Following are the responsibilities of the Designers

Architects and Engineers.

 Assisting the client to prepare a strategic brief.

Mechanical engineering is the discipline that applies engineering, physics, engineering

Main tasks of quantity surveyors are,

 Conducting feasibility studies to estimate materials, time and labor costs.

For have a quality service contractor must be a professional one.

Linkage between the parties in a construction organization

Organization Structure Description

Divisional Structure –Market Divisions are based on selling and manufacturing.

Process Structure This is based on process based industries.

Functional Organization Structure

Foreman Foreman Foreman Foreman

(Concreting) (Form Work) (Steel) (Laborers)

Tunnel Building Road

Project Organization structures

Foreman Foreman Foreman

(Tunnel) (Building) (Road)

Organization of Our Company

Foreman Chief Cleark

The construction contracts include,

 Owner - Contractor agreement

We use contracts to,

 Describe the scope of work

This is how it works,

 Client appoints single contractor to take care of design and construction.

o Suitable for competitive bidding

As employees we should know the other types of contracts in the industry.

Some of those are,

 Lump Sum Contracts

 Measure and value contracts.

 Cost plus contracts.

As employees it is so important to manage a well communication process with the management

(“Ancient Egyptian History for Kids: Pyramids,” n.d.)1

(“The Code of Hammurabi and structural engineers,” n.d.)

(“The Influence of Ancient Greek Architecture,” n.d.)

(“Vitruvius The Ten Books on Architecture,” n.d.)

Construction management handouts.

You might also like