Module 10

Mathematics in Science, Technology and Engineering

Introduction
The fields of sciences, technology, and engineering naturally use mathematics to solve
real-world problems. In this module, we will discuss how Polya’s heuristics can be used
in solving problems. Polya’s heuristics follow the following steps:

1) Understand the problem – Read and read the problem to recognize what are
given and what is being asked.

2) Devise a plan – Choose a mathematical theory relevant to the problem.

Sometimes, a proper strategy can be of great use.

3) Carry out the plan – Perform the needed computations taking into account the
theory or strategy which you planned.

4) Look back – Once a solution is found, check to see if it is correct, realistic, and
reasonable. Correctness is ascertained by substituting the obtained solution to
the original problem to determine if it satisfies the requirement. Sometimes you
may have to reject negative answers to become realistic. Reasonableness is
usually applied in estimations and approximations.

Let’s learn more about these steps in solving a problem.

Before proceeding with the lesson, you might want to go the link below:
https://study.com/academy/lesson/polyas-four-step-problem-solving-process.html

Learning Outcomes

Upon completing this module, you should be able to:

1) Discuss the role of mathematics in solving real-world problems in the sciences,

technology and engineering;
2) Apply Polya’s heuristics in problem solving; and
3) Solve simple mathematical problems in science and technology, and engineering.

1. Counting Configurations

Counting is one of the main concerns of most real-world problems. The purpose
of this section is to enable you to count in the fastest possible way without the need for
enumeration. To do this, we need the following basic principles of counting.

  1  
Addition principle: If an event A has n possible outcomes and event B has m possible
outcomes, where A and B have no outcome in common, then the total possible
outcomes for A or B is m + n.

For example, if there are 5 available bus trips and 3 available plane trips in going from
one province to another then the total possible trips in going from that province to the
other is 5 + 3 = 8.

Multiplication principle: If an event is composed of two subevents A with n possible

outcomes and B with m possible outcomes, the number of possible outcomes for the
said event is nm.

For example, suppose in going from province A to province B one has to pass through
C. There are 4 possible paths from A to C and 5 possible paths from C to B. The, the
total number of possible paths from A to B via C is 4x5 = 20.

Complementation principle: If event A has n possible outcomes and B is a subevent

of A with m outcomes, then the number of outcomes in A that are not in B is n – m.

We are now ready to use these principles in solving problems involving counting
configurations.

Example 1. How many divisors of 220 are there?

Solution: Let us use the strategy of solving a simpler problem first and make
appropriate observations.

Consider the number 12. The divisors of 12 are 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, and 12. Hence there are 6
divisors of 12.

The prime factorization of 12 is 22x3 and observe that 1 = 2030, 2 = 2130, 3 = 2031, 6 =
2131 and 12 = 223. Thus a divisor of 12 has the form 2a3b where a can be 0, 1 or 2 while
b can either be 0 or 1.

By the multiplication principle, the number of divisors of 12 is 3x2 = 6. Now to solve our
problem, factor 220 = 2251111.

Every divisor of 220 is of the form 2a5b11c where a = 0, 1, 2, b = 0, 1, and c = 0, 1. Thus,

by the multiplication principle 220 has 3x2x2 = 12 divisors.

Generalize this problem to any positive integer n.

Problems of this type are often found in number theory and are applicable in encoding
and decoding.

  2  
Example 2. How many ternary strings of length 10 are there?

Solution: Imagine a string as a row of 10 boxes which can be filled in by either 0, 1, or

2 since it is a ternary string. Hence, each box can be filled in 3 possible ways.

By the multiplication principle, there are 310 ternary strings of length 10.

Generalize this problem to n-ary strings of length m.

You will meet problems similar to this in computer science.

Example 3. How many ways can you arrange n distinct objects in a line?

Solution: The word “arrange”  here will mean order is important. Think of the objects as
lined up in n boxes. The first box can be filled in by any of the n balls. Thus, there are n
ways to do that.

For the second box, only n –  1 objects are available since we have used one already in
the first box. Thus, there are n –  1 ways to fill in the second box.

Similarly, the third box can be filled in n –  2 ways.

This process is continued until we reach the last box and we are left with only one
object to fill in this box. Thus, the number of ways of arranging n distinct objects is

n(n –  1)(n –  2) . . . 3x2x1

This product is conveniently written as n! (read as n factorial).

Thus, for example, to find the number of ways of arranging 10 students in a line is 10!.

Example 4. Suppose only r (0 ≤  r ≤  n) out of n distinct objects will be arranged in a line.
How many ways can this be done?

Solution: As in Example 3, we line up the objects in boxes, but this time only r boxes
will be used. So the first box can be filled in n ways, the second in n –  1 ways, the third
in n – 2 ways and so on. What about the rth box?

Observe that each box can be filled in n minus the box number plus 1. Thus the rth box
can be filled in n –  r + 1. Hence the number of ways of arranging n distinct objects in a
line is n(n - 1)(n –  2) …(n –  r + 1).

Thus,

P(n, n) = n! and P(n, r) = n(n –  1)…(n –  r + 1), where 0 ≤  r ≤  n

For example, if only 4 out of 10 students will be arranged in a line, thee are

  3  
P(10, 4) = 10 x 9 x 8 x 7 ways to do it.

Suppose that A is a set of n distinct objects. An r-combination of set A is a subset of A

with r elements, 0 ≤ r ≤ n. The number of r-combination of a set of size n is denoted by
C(n, r). Clearly, C(n, 0) = C(n, n) = 1.

Example 5. Suppose 10 persons are to be seated in chairs arranged in a row. How

many ways can this be done if
a) there is no restrictions;
b) two particular persons insist that they sit together; and
c) two particular persons never sit together.

Solution:

a) If there are no restrictions, the problem is asking for the number of permutations of
size 10 and this is P(10, 10) = 10!

b) First, consider the two particular persons as once. Hence, the problem becomes
finding the number of permutations of size 9. This number is P(9, 9) = 9!

Then permute the two persons to get 2! = 2. Thus, by the multiplication principle, the
number of ways to seat 10 persons in a row with two particular persons always together
is 9! x 2.

c) From a) and b) and the complementation principle, the number of ways to sit 10
persons in a row such that two particular persons sit together is n! –  9!x2.

In actual problems, “persons” can be replaced by actual objects as long as they are
distinct and they are to be arranged in a line.

Suppose, now, that A is a set of n distinct objects. An r-combination of set A is a subset

of A with r elements, 0 ≤  r ≤  n. The number of r-combination of a set of size n is denoted
by C(n, r). Clearly, C(n, 0) = C(n, n) = 1.

Example 6: Find a formula for C(n, r), where 0 ≤  r ≤  n.

Solution: It should be clear that a permutation is an arrangement of distinct objects and

thus, order is important. On the other hand, a combination is a selection from a set of
distinct objects and thus, order is immaterial. Every permutation is a combination
multiplied by the number of permutations of that size. To find the relation between
permutations and combinations, we consider the following steps:

1) Form an r-combination B from A.

2) Arrange the r objects in a row.

  4  
The first step is simply C(n, r) while the second step is r!. Thus, by the multiplication
principle,
P(n, r) = C(n, r) r!. Hence, C(n, r) = P(n, r)/r!

Thus C(6, 3) = P(6, 3)/3! = (6 –  3 +1)!/3! = 4!/3! = 4. This means a set of size 6 has 4
subsets of size 3.

This will be illustrated in the next example.

Example 7: In how many ways can a committee of 6 members be formed from a group
of 12 people consisting of 5 teachers and 7 students if  —
a) there is no restriction;
b) the committee must include exactly 3 teachers;
c) the committee must include at least 3 teachers; and
d) a particular teacher and a particular student cannot be both in the committee.

Solution:
a) If there is no restriction, then the number of ways is

C(12, 6) = 12x11x…x 7/6! = /6! = 924.

b) First select the 3 teachers from 5 and then (6  –  3) students from 7. The number of
ways is
C(5, 3) C(7, 3) =[ 5x4x3/3!][ 7x6x5/ 3!] = 10x35 = 350.

c) There are 3 cases: either 3 teachers or 4 teachers or 5 teachers. The first case is
solved in b) above while in the second case, the number of ways is
C(5, 4)C(7, 2) = 5x21 = 105.

The number of ways for the last case is

C(5, 5)C(7, 1) = 1x 7 = 7.

By the addition principle, the number of ways is

350 + 105 + 7 = 407.

d) Let T be the particular teacher while S be the particular student.

First, find the number of ways to form a committee of 6 which includes both T and S.
Clearly, there are C(10, 4) since there are 2 members (T and S) already and the other 4
can be chosen from the remaining 10 people.

Hence the number of ways to form a committee of 6 which does not include both T and
S is, by the complementation principle, C(12, 6) –  C(10, 4) = 924 –  210 = 714.

Note that a permutation is an arrangement while a combination is simply a collection.

  5  
For a video presentation please go to this link:
https://ph.search.yahoo.com/yhs/search?hspart=lvs&hsimp=yhs-
awc&type=lvs__webcompa__1_0__ya__ch_WCYID10300_adawarenewtabFF_170407
__yaie&p=permutations%20and%20combinations%20videos

Or perhaps you will enjoy this tutorial:

https://www.khanacademy.org/coach/class/5707702298738688/content
and go to the lessons on permutations and combinations.

EXERCISES:
1. Prove that C(n, r) = n!/r!(n – r)!
2. Between 10000 and 60000, find the number of even integers in which no digit is
repeated.
3. There are 12 students in a party. Four of them are girls. In how many ways can
these 12 students be arranged in a row if
a) there are no restrictions;
b) the 4 girls must be together (forming a block);
c) no two girls are adjacent;
d) between two particular boys A and B, there are no boys but exactly 3 girls.
4. Find the number of ways of arranging the 26 letters of the English alphabet in a
row such that there are exactly 5 letters between x and y.
5. In a group of 15 students, 5 of them are female. If exactly 3 female students are to
be selected, in how many ways can 9 students be chosen from the group
a) to form a committee?
b) to take up 9 different posts in a committee.
6. How many diagonals does an n-gon have?
7. Two sets of parallel lines with p horizontal and q vertical lines intersect. Find the
number of rectangles formed.

2. Optimization
Before going through the lesson, you must recall the following concepts:
1. function evaluation
2. critical number of a function
3. derivative of a function
One of the significant applications of differential calculus is solving problems
involving finding the maximum or minimum value (collectively termed as optimal). Here
is an example of such problems which we will solve as we go on in this topic.

A company produces glass jars in the shape of a right circular cylinder with no
top. The jar has surface area of 3π ft 2 .What height and base radius will maximize the
volume of the jar?

This problem can be reduced to finding the maximum value of some function.

  6  
 Figure 1

In Figure 1 above, we see that the highest point on the graph of the function f on the
interval [−2, 4] as shown in Figure 1 is the point ( −2, 2 ) . In other words, the largest value
of f is f ( −2 ) = 2 . Likewise, the smallest value is f ( 4 ) = −1. We say that 2 is the
absolute maximum of f while −1 is its absolute minimum value on the interval [−2, 4] .
In general, we use the following definitions.

2.1 Absolute Maximum and Minimum

A function f has an absolute maximum value on an interval I if there is some

number c in I such that f ( c ) ≥ f ( x ) for each x in I .
A function f has an absolute minimum value on an interval I if there is some
number c in I such that f ( c ) ≤ f ( x ) for each x in I .

e
a d a b
c b

a) b)

Figure 2

  7  
 In Figure 1, we see the graph of a function which attains its absolute minimum
value and absolute maximum value at the endpoints of the closed interval.
In Figure 2.a), we see the graph of a function which attains its absolute minimum
value on the closed interval [ a, b] at a number c which is between a and b .
In Figure 2.b), we see the graph of a function which has no absolute maximum or
absolute minimum value on the closed interval [ a, b] .
In Figure 2.a), if we consider only values of x near d , say, we restrict values of x
on the open interval ( a, e ) , then the smallest of those values is f ( d ) and is called a
relative minimum value of f . Similarly, f ( e ) is called a relative maximum value of f
since f ( e ) ≥ f ( x ) for all values of x near e , on the open interval ( d , c ) , for instance. In
general, we have the following definition.

2.2 Relative Maximum and Minimum

A function f has a relative maximum at c if f ( c ) ≥ f ( x ) for all x in some open

interval containing c .
A function f has a relative minimum at c if f ( c ) ≤ f ( x ) for all x in some open
interval containing c .

An absolute extremum of a function f on an interval I is either an absolute

maximum value or an absolute minimum value of f on I . Likewise, a relative
extremum of a function f on some open interval I is either a relative maximum value
or a relative minimum value of f on some open interval I .
As we have seen from Figure 2.2.b), a function may or may not have an absolute
extremum on a particular interval.

The following theorem gives conditions under which a function is guaranteed to

possess absolute extrema.

The Extreme Value Theorem

If a function f is continuous on a closed interval then f has an absolute maximum
value and an absolute minimum value on the interval.

Finding Absolute Extrema on Closed Intervals

To find the absolute extrema of a continuous function on a closed interval;
a. Determine the critical number/s of the function.
b. Find the values of the function at the critical numbers and endpoints of the
interval.
c. The largest of the values from Step b is the absolute maximum value and the
smallest of these values is the absolute minimum value.

  8  
Example 8.
⎡ 1 ⎤
Find the absolute extrema of the function given by f ( x ) = x3 − 3x 2 + 1 on ⎢ − , 4 ⎥ .
⎣ 2 ⎦
Solution:
a. For the critical numbers:
f ' ( x ) = 3x 2 − 6 x = 3x ( x − 2 )
The critical numbers are 0 and 2 .

b. For the function values at the critical points and the endpoints:
⎛ 1⎞ 1
f ( 0) = 1 f ( 2 ) = −3 f ⎜− ⎟ = f ( 4) = 17
⎝ 2⎠ 8

c. Comparing the four values from b, we see that

⎡ 1 ⎤
the absolute maximum value of f on ⎢ − , 4 ⎥ is 17 which occurs when x = 4 and
⎣ 2 ⎦
⎡ 1 ⎤
the absolute minimum value of f on ⎢ − , 4 ⎥ is −1 which occurs when x = 2 .
⎣ 2 ⎦
Note that in this example, the absolute maximum occurs at an endpoint, whereas the
absolute minimum occurs at a critical number.

One application of the second derivative is the following test for relative
maximum and minimum values.

The Second Derivative Test

Suppose f '' is continuous near c ,

a. If f ' ( c ) = 0 and f '' ( c ) < 0 , then f has a relative maximum at c .
b. If f ' ( c ) = 0 and f '' ( c ) > 0 , then f has a relative minimum at c .

2.4 Finding Absolute Extrema on Open Intervals

To find the absolute extrema of a continuous function on an open interval;
a. Determine the critical numbers of the function
b. Determine if there is a relative maximum or relative minimum in the critical
number that is in the given interval.
c. If there are no other relative extrema occurring in the interval, then the relative
extremum is the absolute extremum.

Example 9:
Determine the absolute extrema of the function defined by f ( x ) = x3 − 3x + 1 on ( −4, 0 ) .
Solution:
a. For critical numbers:

  9  
 f ' ( x ) = 3x2 − 3 = 3 ( x2 − 1) = 3 ( x − 1)( x + 1) .
The critical number is −1 .
b. f '' ( x ) = 6 x
f '' ( −1) = −6
By the Second Derivative Test, f has a relative maximum at −1 which is
f ( −1) = 3.
c. Since this is the only relative extremum in the interval, then 3 is the absolute
maximum on the interval.

2.5 Solving Optimization Problems

The following are steps in solving optimization problems.
a. Represent the quantities by variables and identify the quantity to be maximized
or minimized.
b. Express that quantity in terms of the other variables. Then eliminate all but one
variable in the expression and write set of all possible values for the remaining
variable.
c. Find the absolute extrema of the function on the indicated set.
d. Form a conclusion.

The next example will illustrate the steps given above.

Example10:

A company produces glass jars in the shape of a right circular cylinder with no top.
The jar has surface area of 3π ft 2 .What height and base radius will maximize the
volume of the jar?

Solution:
a. Let h be the height of the jar
r be the radius of the jar
V be the volume of the jar
Maximize: V

 
Figure 3

b. The volume of a cylinder is given by V = π r 2 h .

The surface area of the bottom of the cylinder is π r 2 . To compute for the
surface area of the side of the cylinder, we vertically cut the cylinder and
unroll it as shown in Figure 3. We then come up with a rectangle whose

  10  
 height is same as that of the cylinder and width that of the circumference of
the bottom of the cylinder.
Hence, the total surface area of the glass jar is 2π rh + π r 2 which is equal to 3π
.
Solving for h in 2π rh + π r 2 = 3π , we have
3π − π r 2
h=
2π r
3 1
h= − r
2r 2
⎛ 3 1 ⎞
Thus, V = π r 2 ⎜ − r ⎟ , r ∈ ( 0, +∞ ) . Clearly, V is continuous on its domain.
⎝ 2r 2 ⎠
3 1
= π r − π r3
2 2

c. For critical numbers:

3 3 3
V ' = π − π r 2 = π (1 − r 2 )
2 2 2
The critical number is 1.

V '' = −3π r
V '' (1) = −3π < 0
By the Second Derivative Test, V has a relative maximum value at 1.
Since it gives the only relative extremum in the interval then it also gives the
absolute maximum in the interval.
1
h=
2

d. To maximize the volume of the cylindrical glass jar, its height and base radius
1
should be ft and 1ft, respectively.
2

Example 11:
There are 50 mango trees in a farm. Each tree produces 800 mangoes. For each
additional tree planted in the farm, the output per tree drops by 10 mangoes. How
many trees should be added to the existing farm in order to maximize the total
output of trees?

Solution:
a. Let x be the additional trees planted in the farm
O be the total output
Maximize: O

b. The total output is given by the product of number of trees and the produce of
each tree as follows
  11  
 O ( x ) = (50 + x )(800 − 10 x ) = 40,000 + 300 x − 10 x2 .
Clearly, the domain of O is [0,80] and O is continuous on its domain.

c. For critical numbers:

O ' ( x ) = 300 − 20 x = 20 (15 − x )
The critical number is 15.
Now evaluating the function on the critical number and on the endpoints of
the interval, we have
O ( 0 ) = 40,000 , O (80 ) = 0 and O (15) = 42, 250 .
Therefore, the absolute maximum value of O in [0,80] is 42, 250 which occurs
when x = 15 .

d. Adding 15 mango trees in the farm will maximize the production of mangoes.

Getting confused? Perhaps you might try this link:

https://www.khanacademy.org/coach/class/5707702298738688/content
and go to the lesson on Optimization.

EXERCISES:

1. Determine the absolute extrema (if any) of the indicated function on the given
interval.
a.
b.
c.

d.
e.

2. Solve the following problems.

a. A door is being built and the bottom is a rectangle and the top is a semi-circle.
If there is of framing materials, what must be the dimensions of the
largest possible door to be built?
b. Find the dimensions of a rectangle with perimeter 1000 meters so that the
area of the rectangle is a maximum.

3. Growth and Decay Problems

Before going through the lesson, you must be able to recall the following concepts:
  12  
 1. properties of exponential and logarithmic functions
2. separation of variables to solve a simple differential equation
3. integral of a constant and a rational function
In many natural phenomena, quantities grow or decay at a rate proportional to
their current size. For instance, in biology, the population of a bacterium grows at a rate
proportional to its initial size. Also, a population in a certain area may increase with a
rate proportional to the current population. In finance, the value of a savings account
with continuously compounded interest increases at a rate proportional to that value. In
nuclear physics, the mass of radioactive substance decays at a rate proportional to the
mass.

In general, if y ( t ) is the value of a quantity y at time t and if the rate of change

of y with respect to t is proportional to its size y ( t ) at any time, then
dy
= ky
dt
where k is a constant.
Let us solve for the general solution of the above differential equation.
dy
= ky Write original equation.
dt
dy
= k dt Separate variables.
y
dy
∫ y = ∫ k dt Integrate.

ln y = kt + C1
y = ekt eC1 Solve for y .
y = Cekt Let C = eC1 .

We summarize the result in the following theorem.

Theorem: Exponential Growth and Decay Model

If y is a differentiable function of t such that y > 0 and y ' = ky for some constant
k , then
y = Cekt
where C is the initial value of y and k is the proportionality constant.

Exponential growth occurs when k > 0 and exponential decay occurs when k < 0 .

3.1. Steps in Solving Exponential Growth and Decay Problems

1. Restate the problem. Find ____ when ____.

  13  
 2. Consider y (t ) = Cekt . Solve for C and k , if possible.

3. Use the complete model to answer the problem.

4. Form a conclusion.

Example 12:

The population of a certain species in Mt. Makiling at a given time is defined by

y (t ) = Ce.0.03t .
a. If the initial population is 500, what is the expected population after 30 yrs?
i. Restatement: Find y ( t ) when t = 30
ii. y (t ) = Ce0.03t , y ( 0 ) = 500
y (t ) = 500e0.03t
So, the model is y (t ) = 500e0.03t .
iii. When t = 30 , y (30 ) = 500e0.03(30) ≈ 1, 229.8 .
iv. Conclusion
After 30 years, the population will be approximately 1, 229 .

b. When will the population double?

i. Find t when y (t ) = 1000 .
ii. y (t ) = 500e0.03t
iii. When y (t ) = 1000
1000 = 500e0.03t
2 = e0.03t
ln 2 = 0.03t
ln 2
t= ≈ 23
0.03
iv. Conclusion
After approximately 23 years, the population will double.

Radioactive decay is measured in terms of half-life, the number of years required

for the atoms in a sample of radioactive material to reduce in half. The decay rate is
proportional to the amount present.

Example 13:

Suppose 10 grams of plutonium isotope were released in a nuclear accident, how long
will it take for the 10 grams to decay to 1 gram if the half-life of plutonium is 24,100
years?

  14  
 Solution:
a. Restatement: Find t when y (t ) = 1 .
b. y (t ) = Cekt
Using the fact that y = 10 when t = 0 , then 10 = Cek (0) and C = 10 .
1 10
When t = 24,100 , y = C = = 5.
2 2
Thus,
5 = 10e24,100 k
1
= e 24,100 k
2
1 1
ln = k
24,100 2
−0.000028761 ≈ k

So the model is, y (t ) = ce−0.000028761t .

c. 1 = 10e−0.000028761t
1 1
ln = t
−0.000028716 10
t ≈ 80,059 years

d. It will take approximately 80,059 years for the 10 grams of plutonium isotope
to reduce to one gram.
For video tutorial, please go to this link:
https://www.khanacademy.org/math/algebra/introduction-to-exponential-
functions/exponential-decay-alg1/v/word-problem-solving-exponential-growth-and-
decay

3.2 Investment and Interest

If a principal amount P is invested at an interest rate of i for t number of years,
then the accumulated value is given by
A (t ) = P (1 + i ) .
t

If the amount is compounded m times a year, then

mt
⎛ i ⎞
A ( t ) = P ⎜1 + ⎟ .
⎝ m⎠

Example 14:
A principal amount of Php 100, 000 for 10 years at an interest rate of 6% .

  15  
 a. What is the accumulated value if the amount is compounded annually?
i. Restatement: Find A (10 ) if m = 1 .
mt
⎛ i ⎞
ii. A ( t ) = P ⎜ 1 + ⎟
⎝ m⎠
P = 100,000 i = .06 t = 10
m(10 )
⎛ 0.06 ⎞
A (10 ) = 100, 000 ⎜1 + ⎟
⎝ m ⎠
iii. When m = 1 ,
A (10) = 100,000 (1 + 0.06) ≈ 179,084.77
10

iv. Conclusion
Therefore, the accumulated value is approximately Php 179,084.77 when the
amount is compounded annually.

b. When will the amount be doubled if it is compounded monthly?

i. Restatement: Find t if m = 12 and A (t ) = 200,000 .
mt
⎛ 0.06 ⎞
ii. A ( t ) = 100, 000 ⎜1 + ⎟
⎝ m ⎠
iii. When m = 12 and A (t ) = 200,000 ,
12 t
⎛ 0.06 ⎞
200, 000 = 100, 000 ⎜1 + ⎟
⎝ 12 ⎠
2 = (1.005)
12t

log1.005 2 = 12t
log1.005 2
t= ≈ 11.58
12

iv. Conclusion
Therefore, the principal amount will double in approximately 11.58 years.

Continuously Compounded Interest

If the amount is compounded continuously, then the accumulated value is given by
A (t ) = Peit .

Example 15:

If Php 1, 000 is invested with continuous compounding interest of 6%, how much will the
investment value be after three years?

Solution:

  16  
 a. Restatement: Find A (t ) when t = 3 .
b. A (t ) = 1000e0.06t
c. When t = 3 ,
A ( 3) = 1000e ( ) = 1,197.22
0.06 3

d. Conclusion
After three years, the investment value will be Php 1,197.22.

A video tutorial can be found in the following link:

https://www.khanacademy.org/economics-finance-domain/core-finance/interest-
tutorial/compound-interest-tutorial/v/introduction-to-compound-interest

EXERCISES:

1. The population of the Philippines is 47.4 million in 1980 and 93.73 in 2010. Assuming
it increases exponentially, find a formula for the population of the country as a function
of time.

2. A bee farm owner in an area discovered that the bees are moving to the nearby farm.
The population of the bees are declining according to the relationship y (t ) = Ce−0.04t
where t is time measured in months. Suppose C = 200, 000

a. Find the population after a month.

b. Estimate the time it will take for the population to reduce to half.

3. A certain radioactive metal is known to decay at a rate proportional to the amount

present. If after one hour it is observed that 10 percent of the material has decayed, find
the half-life of the material.

4. The skull of an animal found in an archeological dig was found to contain

approximately 15% of the original amount of calcium. If the half-life of calcium is 5600
years, approximately when did the animal die?

5. How long will it take an amount of money to increase 5 times its present value when
compounded semi-annually?

  17  
4.0 INSTANTANEOUS VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION
Suppose that you had a 13-km travel from UPLB to Calamba Central Terminal in
a jeepney.

If this travel lasted half an hour, how fast was the jeepney moving from UPLB to
Calamba Central Terminal? What was the velocity of the jeepney?

We know that the average velocity is computed as the total distance travelled
divided by the total travelling time. So to answer our problem, we have the average
velocity as

13  𝑘𝑚
𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒  𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = = 26  𝑘𝑚/ℎ
0.5  ℎ

This means that the jeepney is moving 26 kilometers per hour from UPLB to
Calamba Central Terminal. That was fast! With this computation, it is quite tempting to
think that the jeepney was moving with a constant velocity throughout the travel but we
know that this is not true. By observing the jeepney’s speedometer, we can say that the
velocity is most of the time changing.

  18  
 The velocity of the jeepney at the start of your travel may be different to the
velocity by the time you are 1 km away from your destination. So how do we determine
each velocity? How do we compute for the velocity of the jeepney at a particular time or
instant?

In this lesson, we will learn how to use derivatives to determine instantaneous

velocity as well as the instantaneous acceleration of an object, which are the velocity
and acceleration of the object at a particular time or instant, respectively. But for
simplicity, we consider objects that are moving along a straight line.

Suppose an object moves along a straight line according to an equation of

motion 𝑠 = 𝑓(𝑡), where 𝑠 is the directed distance of the object from the origin at time 𝑡.
The function 𝑓 that describes the movement of the object is called the position
function of the object.

Example 16. Suppose that a ball is thrown vertically upward. If 𝑠 = 80𝑡 − 16𝑡 ! where 𝑠
ft is the height of the ball after 𝑡 seconds,
a. how high is the ball after one second?
b. when will the ball hit the ground?

Solution.
a. After 1 second (when 𝑡 = 1), 𝑠 = 80 1 − 16 1 ! = 64 ft. Thus, after 1 second,
the ball is 64 ft above the ground.
b. Since 𝑠 = 0 on the ground, we need to find the value of 𝑡 when 𝑠 = 0.

0 = 80𝑡 − 16𝑡 !
0 = 𝑡(80 − 16𝑡)
this means that
𝑡 = 0 or 80 − 18𝑡
which yields
!"
𝑡 = 0 or 𝑡 = !
!"
Thus, we can say that after !
seconds, or approximately 4.44 seconds, the ball
will hit the ground.

We can also determine an object’s instantaneous velocity using its position

function.

If 𝑠 = 𝑓(𝑡) is the position function of a moving object, then its instantaneous velocity 𝑣 at
any time 𝑡 is given by
𝑑𝑠
𝑣 = 𝑓! 𝑡 =
𝑑𝑡

  19  
Example17. The position of a particle is given by the equation

𝑠 = 𝑡 − 4𝑡 !

where 𝑡 is measured in seconds and 𝑠 is in meters.

a. Find the velocity of the particle at time 𝑡.

b. What is the initial velocity of the particle?
c. When is the particle at rest?

Solution.
a. The velocity of the particle is given by
𝑑𝑠
𝑣=
𝑑𝑡
Thus, at any time 𝑡 seconds,
𝑣 = 1 − 8𝑡
b. Initially (when 𝑡 = 0),
𝑣 =1−8 0 =1
Hence, the particle started moving with a velocity of 1 meter per second.
c. We all know that at rest, an object has zero velocity. Hence, we need to find 𝑡
when 𝑣 = 0.
0 = 1 − 8𝑡
which yields
1
𝑡=
8
!
Therefore, the particle is at rest after ! or 0.125 seconds.

An object’s instantaneous acceleration can also be computed by using

derivatives and position functions.

If 𝑠 = 𝑓(𝑡) is the position function of a moving object, then its instantaneous acceleration
𝑎 at any time 𝑡 is given by
𝑑 ! 𝑠 𝑑𝑣
𝑎 = 𝑓 !! 𝑡 = ! =
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

Example 18. A particle moves with position function

𝑠 = 𝑡 ! − 4𝑡 ! − 20𝑡

where 𝑡 is measured in seconds and 𝑠 is in meters.

a. What is the particle’s acceleration at time 𝑡?

b. What is the acceleration after 4 seconds?

  20  
 c. When is the velocity not changing?

Solution.
a. From the position function, we have
𝑣 = 3𝑡 ! − 8𝑡 − 20
Hence, the acceleration of the particle at any time 𝑡 is given by
𝑑𝑣
𝑎= = 6𝑡 − 8
𝑑𝑡
b. After 4 seconds (when 𝑡 = 4),
𝑎 = 6 4 − 8 = 16
This means that the acceleration of the particle after 4 seconds is 16 meters per
square second.
c. The velocity is constant if the acceleration is zero, hence, we need to find the
value of 𝑡 when 𝑎 = 0. So,
0 = 6𝑡 − 8
This means that
4
𝑡=
3
!
Therefore, the velocity of the particle is constant after ! or approximately 1.3
seconds.

Example 19. Suppose that an object is moving along a straight line and has
acceleration given by
𝑎 = 3𝑡 + 2
at any time 𝑡.
a. If its initial velocity is −3 centimeters per second, what is its velocity at
any time 𝑡?
b. If its initial directed distance from the origin is 8, determine the object’s
position function.

Solution.
a. We know that
𝑑𝑣
=𝑎
𝑑𝑡
so 𝑣 is an antiderivative of 𝑎. This means that
3
𝑣 = 𝑡 ! + 2𝑡 + 𝐶
2
where 𝐶 is a constant. But since the initial velocity is −3, we know that 𝑣 = −3
when 𝑡 = 0. Thus,
3
−3 = 0 ! + 2 0 + 𝐶
2
This implies that
𝐶 = −3
So that at any time 𝑡, the velocity of the object is given by

  21  
 3
𝑣 = 𝑡 ! + 2𝑡 − 3
2
centimeters per second.
b. We know that
𝑑𝑠
=𝑣
𝑑𝑡
so 𝑠 is an antiderivative of 𝑣. This means that
1
𝑠 = 𝑡 ! + 𝑡 ! − 3𝑡 + 𝐶
2
where 𝐶 is a constant. But since the initial directed distance from the origin is 8,
we know that 𝑠 = 8 when 𝑡 = 0. Thus
1
8= 0 !+ 0 !−3 0 +𝐶
2
This implies that
𝐶=8
So that at the position function of the object is defined by
1
𝑠 = 𝑡 ! + 𝑡 ! − 3𝑡 + 8
2

REMEMBER:

If 𝑠 = 𝑓(𝑡) is the position function of a moving object, then

1. its instantaneous velocity 𝑣 at any time 𝑡 is given by

𝑑𝑠
𝑣 = 𝑓! 𝑡 =
𝑑𝑡

2. its instantaneous acceleration 𝑎 at any time 𝑡 is given by

𝑑 ! 𝑠 𝑑𝑣
𝑎 = 𝑓 !! 𝑡 = ! =
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

Example 20.

The height (in meters) of a projectile shot vertically upward from a point 5 m
above the ground level is

𝑠 = 5 + 24.5𝑡 − 4.9𝑡 !

after 𝑡 seconds.
a. What is the velocity at any time 𝑡 seconds?
b. Find the velocity after 3 seconds.
c. When will the projectile reach its maximum height?

  22  
Solution.
a. At any time 𝑡, the velocity is given by
𝑑𝑠
𝑣=
𝑑𝑡
So,
𝑣 = 24.5 − 9.8𝑡

b. After 3 seconds (when 𝑡 = 3), the projectile’s velocity is

𝑣 = 24.5 − 9.8 3 = −4.9

Therefore, the projectile moves downward at the speed of 4.9 meters per
second after 3 seconds.

c. We know that the projectile is at rest (𝑣 = 0) when it reach its maximum

height. Thus, we need to find 𝑡 when 𝑣 = 0. So

0 = 24.5 − 9.8𝑡

24.5
𝑡=
9.8
!".!
This means that the maximum height is reached after !.!
or approximately
0.1 seconds.

Example 21.
A particle moves with position function

𝑠 = 𝑡 ! − 8𝑡 !

where 𝑡 is measured in seconds and 𝑠 is in meters.

a. What is the acceleration at any time 𝑡 seconds?

b. Find the acceleration after 2 seconds.
c. When is the velocity of the particle decreasing?

Solution.
a. From the position function, we have

𝑣 = 3𝑡 ! − 16𝑡

Therefore, the acceleration of the particle (in meters per square second) is
given by
  23  
 𝑎 = 6𝑡 − 16

b. After 2 seconds (𝑡 = 2),

𝑎 = 6 2 − 16 = −4

Thus, the particles acceleration after 2 seconds is −4 meters per square

second.

c. We know that
𝑑𝑣
𝑎=
𝑑𝑡

This means that the velocity is decreasing when 𝑎 < 0. So we need to find 𝑡
when 𝑎 < 0.
6𝑡 − 16 < 0
8
𝑡<
3

Hence, the velocity decreases from the time the particle starts to move and
!
before ! or approximately 2.7 seconds.

Example 22.
A rock is thrown vertically upward with a velocity of 24 feet per second from the
top of a 500-feet building. Find its height above the ground 𝑡 seconds later.

Solution.
For this solution we set the positive direction to be upward. Hence, the velocity of
the rock must be decreasing and its acceleration is negative. We start with the
acceleration due to gravity
𝑎 = −32
By taking antiderivatives, we have
𝑣 = −32𝑡 + 𝐶
where 𝐶 is a constant. But since the rock’s initial velocity is 24, we have
24 = −32 0 + 𝐶
Thus,
𝐶 = 24
and
𝑣 = −32𝑡 + 24
Similarly taking antiderivatives, yields
𝑠 = −16𝑡 ! + 24𝑡 + 𝐸
where 𝐸 is another constant. From the fact that the rock is thrown from a 500-feet
building, we can say that 𝑠 = 500 when 𝑡 = 0. Thus,
500 = −16 0 ! + 24(0) + 𝐸
and this means that
E = 500
and at any time 𝑡,
  24  
 s = −16t ! + 24t + 500

For video tutorials on velocity and acceleration go to this link:

https://www.khanacademy.org/coach/class/5707702298738688/content
and find the lesson on rectilinear motion.

EXERCISES:

1. If a rock is thrown vertically upward from the surface of an unidentified planet. Its
height 𝑠 after 𝑡 seconds is given by

𝑠 = 15𝑡 − 1.86𝑡 !

a. What is the velocity of the rock at any time 𝑡 seconds?

b. What is the velocity of the rock after 2 seconds? 4 seconds?
c. When will the rock reach its maximum height?
d. When is the rock moving downward?
e. When will the rock reach the ground?

2. The position of a particle is given by the equation

𝑠 = 𝑡 ! − 2𝑡 ! + 6𝑡 !

where 𝑡 is measured in seconds and 𝑠 in feet.

a. What is the acceleration at any time 𝑡 seconds?

b. What is the acceleration after 1 second? 3 seconds?
c. When is the velocity increasing? decreasing? Constant?

3. A ball is dropped from the top of a 450-meter tower.

a. Find the distance of the ball above the ground level at time 𝑡.
b. When will the ball reach the ground?
c. What is the velocity of the ball when it reaches the ground?

  25  
5. AREA OF PLANE REGIONS

Computing area of plane regions started during the time of ancient civilizations.
They used these computations to identify their land area as well as to estimate amount
of materials needed for constructing their homes. In fact, several artifacts show that
people from ancient Egypt were solving area problems for computing area on their
pyramids.

(Egypt’s Moskou Papyrus showing computations of area

of a cross-section of a truncated pyramid)

Evidences also showed that Greeks were computing area of polygons by

subdividing the polygon into triangles and then adding the areas of these triangles.

This method is limited, however, to computing area of polygons. To compute

area of regions with curved edges, Greeks introduced the “method of exhaustion”
wherein polygons are inscribed and circumscribed about the figure

  26  
as the sides of the polygons are increased the computed area of these polygons
becomes closer and closer to the actual area of the figure. However, their method
requires a lot of computations. Fortunately, in our time, we can use integrals to
determine area of any figure.

In this lesson, we will determine area of plane regions by using approaches

similar to the methods introduced by the Greeks. We will also use integrals to determine
exact area of other plane regions with curved edges.

We know that the area of a rectangular plane region is the product of its length
and width while the area of a triangular plane region is half the product of its height and
the length of its base.

We can compute the area of some plane regions by subdividing the region into
rectangular or triangular sub-regions and then adding the areas of these sub-regions.

Example 23. Find the area of the following plane regions.

a.

b.

  27  
Solution.
a. We can subdivide the region into 3 rectangles A, B, and C.

Now, the area of rectangle A is given by 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝐴 = 4 1 = 4. In the same

manner,
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝐵 = 5 2 = 10
and
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝐶 = 1 2 = 2
Therefore, the area of the given plane region is
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝐴 + 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝐵 + 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝐶 = 4 + 10 + 2 = 16
square centimeters.

b. We subdivide the region into 2 rectangles (A and B) and a triangle C.

  28  
 Now, the area of rectangles A and B are
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝐴 = 3 2 = 6
and
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝐵 = 2 2   = 2
On the other hand, the area of triangle 𝐶 is
1 1
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝐶 = 1 1 =
2 2
Therefore, the area of the plane region is
1 17
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝐴 + 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝐵 + 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝐶 = 6 + 2 + =
2 2
square meters.

Example 24: Determine the area of the following region.

Solution.

We subdivide the region into two rectangles (A and B) and a triangle (C).

  29  
The area of the sub-regions are
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝐴 = 2 2 = 4
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝐵 = 2 3 = 6
and
1
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝐶 = 2 2 =2
2
Therefore, the area of the region is
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝐴 + 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝐵 + 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝐶 = 4 + 6 + 2 = 12
square meters.

This method of computing area is unfortunately not applicable for determining the
area of plane regions with curved edges such as the region bounded by the parabola
defined by 𝑦 = 𝑥 ! , the 𝑥-axis, and the line given by 𝑥 = 1.

To find the area of the region, we employ a method similar to the method of
exhaustion introduced by the Greeks. By inscribing rectangles in the figure and getting
the sum of the area of these rectangles, we can get an approximation of the actual area
of the region.

  30  
 Notice that as the number of rectangles increases, the sum of their areas
become closer and closer to the exact value of the area. By the limiting process, we can
use definite integrals to get this exact value.

If 𝑓 is continuous on the closed interval 𝑎, 𝑏 and 𝑓 𝑥 ≥ 0 in the interval, then the area
of the region bounded by the graph of 𝑓, the 𝑥-axis and the lines 𝑥 = 𝑎 and 𝑥 = 𝑏 is
given by
!
𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
!

Example 25. Find the area of the indicated region using integrals
a. below the graph of 𝑓 if 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 ! , the 𝑥-axis, and the lines 𝑥 = 0 and
𝑥=1

b. below the graph of 𝑔 if 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑥, the 𝑥-axis, and the lines 𝑥 = 1 and

𝑥=4

  31  
Solution.
a. The area 𝐴 of the given region is given by
!
𝐴= 𝑥 ! 𝑑𝑥
!
Evaluating the integral yields
!
𝑥! 1 ! 0 ! 1
𝐴= = − =
3 ! 3 3 3
square units.
b. The area 𝐴 of the given region is given by
!
𝐴= 𝑥𝑑𝑥
!
Evaluating the integral yields
! ! !
2 ! 2 ! 2 ! 16 2 14
𝐴= 𝑥 !  𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 ! = 4 ! − 1 ! = − =
! 3 ! 3 3 3 3 3
square units.

Area of plane regions that are bounded above and below by graphs of functions
can also be determined by using integrals.

If 𝑓 and 𝑔 are continuous functions on the interval [𝑎, 𝑏] and 𝑓 𝑥 ≤ 𝑔(𝑥) for all values of
𝑥 in the interval, then the area of the region bounded above by the graph of 𝑓, below by
the graph of 𝑔, and the lines 𝑥 = 𝑎 and 𝑥 = 𝑏 is given by
!
𝑓 𝑥 − 𝑔 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
!

Example 26. Find the area of the indicated region

a. enclosed by the graph of 𝑦 = 𝑥 and the lines given by 𝑦 = 2, 𝑥 = 0,
and 𝑥 = 2

  32  
 b. enclosed by the graphs of 𝑦 = 𝑥 ! and 𝑦 = 𝑥

Solution.
a. The area of the region is

! !
2 ! 2 ! 2 ! 2 !
2 − 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 =   2𝑥 − 𝑥 ! = 2 2 − (2)! − 2 0 − 0 ! =4− 𝑥
! 3 ! 3 3 3

square units.

b. The area of the region is

! !
2 ! 1 ! 2 ! 1 1
𝑥 − 𝑥 ! 𝑑𝑥 =   𝑥! − 𝑥 = (1)! − (1)! =
! 3 3 ! 3 3 3

square units.

  33  
REMEMBER

1. We can compute the area of some plane regions by subdividing the region into
rectangular or triangular sub-regions and then adding the areas of these sub-
regions.

2. If 𝑓 and 𝑔 are continuous functions on the interval [𝑎, 𝑏] and 𝑓 𝑥 ≤ 𝑔(𝑥) for all
values of 𝑥 in the interval, then the area of the region bounded above by the
graph of 𝑓, below by the graph of 𝑔, and the lines 𝑥 = 𝑎 and 𝑥 = 𝑏 is given by
!
𝑓 𝑥 − 𝑔 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
!

Example 27. Find the area of the region enclosed by the graphs of 𝑦 = 𝑥 ! and
𝑦 =𝑥+2

Solution.
The area of the region is

! !
1 ! 1
𝑥 + 2 − 𝑥 ! 𝑑𝑥 =  𝑥 + 2𝑥 − 𝑥 !
!! 2 3 !
1 !
1 !
1 1 10 7 9
= 2 +2 2 − 2 − −1 ! + 2 −1 − −1 ! = − − =
2 3 2 3 3 6 2

For video tutorials on finding areas using integrals go to this link:

https://www.khanacademy.org/coach/class/5707702298738688/content
and look for the topic on areas using integrals.

  34  
EXERCISES

1. Find the area of the indicated region:

2. Find the area of the region enclosed by the graphs of 𝑥 = 𝑦 ! and 𝑦 = 𝑥 − 2

3. Find the area of the region bounded by the graphs of y2 = 4x and the line 2x – y = 12.
4. Find the area of the region bounded by the graphs of y2 = 5 – x and y2 = 4x.

Conclusion
In this module, we discussed the applications of mathematical concepts to science &
technology and engineering. In the process of solving each problem, we employed
Polya’s heuristics. The problems solved dealt with either discrete (counting, geometry)
or continuous mathematics (calculus, differential equations). Note that the problems
illustrated here are simple problems that use accessible mathematics. More advanced
problems will mostly use the basic concepts discussed here. We hope you will study the
examples carefully and use what you have learned in this module in other problems of a
more complex nature.  

  35