Maqam: Middle Eastern Modal Melody

The maqam system is the basis for the melodic composition and improvisation of the
Middle East. The closest Western equivalent for the term “maqam” is mode. A Middle
Eastern melodic mode is more than a just a scale. It is a combination of many
characteristics that enable musicians to create the particular moods associated with a
maqam. These characteristics may include:

1 A hierarchy of pitches that include a finalis, or ending note—usually also the tonic;
secondary tonics for modulation and internal cadences; “witness” notes that are
emphasized during various stages of melodic development; passing notes between more
important notes; and “changing” notes that are raised or lowered depending on melodic
direction.

2. A customary order of melodic development, or “sayir,” that governs movement to

secondary tonics and witness notes, and also dictates choice of temporary modulations to
other closely related maqams. The most common sayir is to explore the area around the
lower tonic; cadence, then move to the third; cadence again; move to the fifth; cadence
again; then build to a climax at the upper tonic, perhaps in a contrasting mode; then
resolve the tension by returning to a cadence on the lower tonic. Other sayirs include
maqams than start at the upper tonic and work down to cadence on the lower tonic.
Another pattern includes maqams that start in the middle, go up a little bit, then cadence
eventually at the lower tonic. These basic melodic schemes enable musicians to create a
range of genres, from simple songs to extended concert suites.

3. Maqam scales are built by combining basic tetrachords, “jins” (Arabic). In the course
of performance melodies usually center around one tetrachord at a time, fully exploring a
limited number of pitches (3 to 5) before cadencing and moving other tetrachords within
the maqam. The boundary notes of these tetrachords are also the pivot notes for
modulation into other maqams by moving to closely related tetrachords.

4. Most maqams have characteristic melodic motifs associated with them. The most
important of these are standard cadential figures and easily recognized tunes that are used
as a model for improvised variations and new compositions. Some maqams closely
resemble Western scales, while others with more strongly defined melodic content are
much more like “tune families” and single complex songs. Middle Eastern musicians
learn the maqams primarily by memorizing repertoire.

5. Maqams usually have a characteristic mood and are associated with particular genres.
Arab Bayati is often used in a meditative mood and is used regular for Qur’an recitation
and other religious genres. Arab rast, on the other hand, has a rowdy character and is
associated with dance music. Hijaz has a likewise festive character. Arab Saba evokes
rustic associations and is used in movies to create a “down home” mood.
6. Melodic development in Middle Eastern music is overwhelmingly stepwise, with leaps
of more than a fourth relatively rare. Mid-20th century Egyptian film composer
Muhammad Abdel Wahhab introduced the use of triad arpeggios and Western melodic
motifs into Arab mainstream music, but even today these devices have remained
peripheral. The most common device is sequence, with each melodic step being treated
much like the use of harmonic rhythm in Western music. Florid embellishment of
accented and held notes is standard practice and idiosyncratic to each instrument.

6. There are many different regional maqam systems, with wide variation on the
principles outlined above. The Persian “dastgah” system or “radif” and the closely
related Azerbaijani “mugam” have many clearly defined melodies and are used mainly
for improvisation with very little use of Western notation. The Central Asian
“Shasmaqom” and the Andalusian “Nuba” are largely suites of instrumental pieces and
songs created by developing a basic melodic outline through a standard series of
rhythmic variations. Contemporary Arab and Turkish musicians treat the maqams more
like Western musicians use scales, including the widespread of use of Western notation in
pedagogy and performance. Iraqi Arabs have their maqam system, which shares features
of the Arab-Turkish maqam and the Persian radif. There are many “folk” maqams
associated a particular region or genres like storytelling or dervish music. In general
these vernacular maqams resemble the classical maqams, but have less elaborate
conventions. The distance between art music, folk music, and commercial popular
music is much less than in the West, and cross influences and are very common.

7. Contemporary Middle Eastern musicians often use Western triadic harmony,

particularly in popular dance music. Harmonic minor progressions are common ( Im,
IVm, V,I- etc.). “ Spanish Phrygian “also is common (IVm, bIII, bII, I). Likewise
Phrygian harmony is common ( Im, bII, bVIIm Im, etc.). Most Middle Eastern use of
harmony is decorative and modal, meaning that the melody dictates harmonic choices
and functional progressions with Cycle 5 root motion are not common. Even in the
music of jazz influenced fusion artists like Marcel Khalife, Rabih Abou Khalil, Simon
Saheen, and Anwar Braheem the use of Western harmony is mostly of the simple triadic
variety. Harmonic patterns characteristic of Spanish Flamenco music have made major
inroads into the repertoires of contemporary pop stars like Amr Diab, Souad Massi, and
Natacha Altas. Rai music of Algeria is heavily influenced by reggae and other
Caribbean styles. Turkish pop has strong rock influences.