Agricultural Structures 2019

Agricultural Structures
Structural Design Lectures

By
Mr. Rwakatiwana
Agricultural Structures CUAE 306 Lecture notes © P. Rwakatiwana 1

Why Farm Structures?

Why Farm Structures?
Farm
Mechanisation
Irrigation & Crop

Drainage Production
Farm
Structures
Soil and Food

Water Processing
Conservation & Storage

What is Structural Design?
• Structural design involves determining the
most suitable proportions of a structure and
the dimensions of the structural element as
well as the details of which it is composed.

Structural Design Process
• The establishment of loading & other design considerations

1
• Analysis or computation of internal gross forces

• [thrust, shear, bending moment, stress intensities, strains, deflections & reactions
2 produced by the load, temperature & other design conditions]
• Proportioning and selection of materials of the members & connections

• The criteria used to judge whether particular proportions will result in the desired
behaviour reflect accumulated knowledge (theory, model tests, field tests &
3 practical experience) intuition & judgement

Principles of Structural Design
Elastic Design/Permissible Stress Method
• Past design Practice

Service Loadings & other
• Basis: Design Considerations
Allowable
stress
intensities
• It is sometimes called the permissible stress method

because the allowable stress intensities are chosen on
the basis that stress or strain corresponding to the yield
point of a material should not be exceeded at the most
highly stressed point of the structure.
Principles of Structural Design Cont.
• Disadvantages of Elastic Design
• Not readily applicable to a semi-plastic material
δ
Steel
Reinforced
Concrete
ε
• It is not suitable when deformations are not
proportional to the loads e.g. in a slender column
• Unsafe when dealing with the stability of
structures that are subject to overturning forces
Current design approach
• This design approach is based on the ultimate
strength and the serviceability of the structure
with the allowable stress approach serving as
an alternative
Current
Design
Approach
Limit State
Plastic Design
Design

Advantages of Current design approach
• The limit state design method is more realistic
because it more accurately provide a margin
of strength over the anticipated service
conditions
• The method takes account of non-elastic and
non-linear effects that are more significant
closer to the ultimate behaviour

Limit States
Ultimate Limit State
• Structure withstands the loads for which it is
designed with an acceptable safety factor to
resist collapse and/or buckling, overturning or
internal explosions
Serviceability Limit State

Vibration
Durability Fatigue
Cracking Fire
Deflections
Farm Others
Structure

Thank You
Figure Stresses in a concrete lintel

Modes of structural failure
• This is failure of a structure due to insufficient
strength to resist the loads and other effects
imposed on it.
• Collapse may be triggered by any of the following
modes of failure:
i. Rupture in a ductile manner
– This is preceded by such large strains that excessive
deflections become apparent.
– Under normal types of loading there will be
opportunities to relieve the structure either by
unloading it partially or by strengthening it
temporarily. 13
Agricultural Structures CUAE 306 Lecture notes © P. Rwakatiwana
Modes of structural failure cont.
– In catastrophic conditions such as earthquakes there
will be no opportunity to relieve the structure.
ii. Brittle rupture
– This is more likely to trigger the collapse of a
structure than ductile failure.
– In a reinforced concrete structure, brittle behaviour
can occur when portions are over reinforced e.g.
more steel bars than needed or if the diagonal
tension reinforcement is inadequate (because the
compressive strength of the concrete is reached
before significant yielding occurs in the steel bars).

Modes of structural failure cont.
iii. Buckling
– This may occur locally in a manner that may or may
not trigger the collapse of the entire structure.
– Beams which are compression members may buckle
as individual members or the whole structure may
buckle.
iv. Fatigue
– This seldom occurs in structures but when heavy
dynamic loads or severe vibrations are involved, the
possibility of fatigue failure must be considered.

Structural forms / Elements
• Structures are designed to obtain a suitable
probability that they will not collapse or become
unserviceable.
• This is achieved by analysing the behaviour of the
various forms or elements under load.
• If the theory is inadequate for such predictions,
evaluation and design decisions could be based
on modelling and field tests.
• There are two types of structural forms based on
dominant stress conditions under the design
loads.
Structural forms / Elements cont.
1. Uniform stress forms
– This is the case in which the stress is uniform over the
depth or thickness of a member e.g. cables, arches
and truss members.
2. Varying stress forms
– This is the case in which the stress varies over the
depth or thickness usually from a maximum tensile
stress on one surface to a maximum compressive
stress at the other, e.g. beams, slabs, rigid frames etc.
• The most suitable structural form is the one
which satisfies the functional, economic, social,
aesthetic, and other requirements.
a. Cables
– These are flexible with limited resistance to bending.
– They are the most efficient of all structural elements
because they allow every fibre of the cross-section to
resist the applied load.
– However, they can only be used in tension.
b. Rods
– These are used to resist tensile and compressive
loads.
c. Columns
– These are rods or bars under compression.
– Columns are the basis of vertical structural elements.
– They are used to transfer load effects from beams,
slabs and roof trusses to the foundations.
d. Ties and Struts
– Bars are connected with pin joints.
– The resulting structure is called a truss.
– Bars in tension – ties
– Bars in compression – struts

e. Beams
– These are perpendicular members used to resist a
load acting along their longitudinal axis by
transferring the effect over distances between
supports called spans.
f. Arches
– These are shaped such that all their sections are
under compression with no bending for a given
loading system.

Analysis of structural behaviour
• Structural analysis involves analysing the stress,
strain and deflection characteristics of structural
members.
• Three basic aspects of concern are:
i. Stress, strain and deflection characteristics under
static loading or deformation conditions.
ii. Resistance and vibrational characteristics under
dynamic loading conditions.
iii. Buckling characteristics.

Stages of structural design
• A functional structure must have sufficient
strength and rigidity and it must also be economic
and of good appearance.
• The complete design of a structure is likely to
involve the following five stages:
1. Establish the general layout to fit the functional
requirements of the structure.
2. Consider several possible solutions that may satisfy
the functional requirements.
3. Prepare preliminary structural designs of various
possible solutions.
Stages of structural design cont.
4. Select the most satisfactory solution considering
economic, functional and aesthetic comparison of
various possible solutions.
5. Prepare a detailed structural design of the most
satisfactory solution.
• Steps 3 and 5 may be divided into 3 broad
phases:
i. Determine loads acting on the structure.
ii. Analysis of the maximum stress in the members, and
connections of the structure.
iii. Determine the makeup of each part of the structure i.e.
dimensions of members and connections.
Loading systems
1. DEAD LOADS – acting on a structure consist of the
weight of the structure itself and of any other
immovable loads that are constant in magnitude
and permanently attached to the structure.
2. LIVE LOADS – As opposed to dead loads which
remain static in both magnitude and location it is
usually necessary to consider live loads.
– They are usually classified as movable and moving
loads.
– Could also include forces of nature e.g. winds and
earthquakes but these are generally treated
differently.
Structural analysis of a beam
• A beam must have sufficient strength to satisfy
the bending moment and shear forces.
• It must be stiff enough so that deflection must be
within the allowable limit.
1
Allowable Limit of Deflection   Span of the beam
325
• The beam must also be of adequate dimension to
withstand lateral buckling.

Bending moment in beams
• Bending moments due to the loads a beam has to
carry cause bending stresses in the material
which are small at the neutral axis and much
larger at the extreme fibres.
• Continuous loading increases the bending

moments until the beam fails either by crushing
of the extreme fibres in compression or by
tearing of extreme fibres in tension.

Factors affecting bending moments
1. Material of the beam: this is determined by material
fibre yield stress.
2. Shape of the cross-section of the beam: beams of
equal cross-sectional areas but different shapes have
different resistances to bending moment.
3. Depth of beam resisting bending.
4. The load: the amount of loading, how it is applied
and how the beam is supported.
5. Span of the beam.

Shear forces in beams
• Vertical and horizontal shear stresses are
developed in beams under loading.
• If beams are made from materials commonly
used in agricultural buildings and they are big
enough to resist bending stresses then they are
usually strong enough to resist vertical shear
stresses as well.
• For horizontal shear, if the material is weak in
compression it can fail by crushing whilst if weak
in tension it fails by cracking.

Deflection in beams
• Beams tend to deflect when loaded.
• If the deflection under the calculated safe load is
excessive the structure will crack resulting in
unsightly appearance and a feeling of insecurity.
• The amount of deflection in beams is a function
of factors that affect bending moments (given
above).

Sideways buckling in beams
• The deepest beam is the most suitable to resist a
given bending moment and also to keep
deflection small, however, if the depth is made
too large in proportion to the width, the beam
may buckle sideways due to a column effect as a
result of compressive stresses in the top fibres.

Concrete beams
Concrete under compressive load
• Develops vertical stress and split sideways
• To prevent failure you should prevent splitting by
containing concrete using links.
Concrete under a moment
• Concrete cracks at the base due to tensile stress
because it can not contain appreciable tension.
• To prevent failure reinforce concrete
longitudinally in the tensile zone.

Concrete under shear
• Concrete cracks under diagonal tensile stress.
• To prevent failure reinforce the concrete across
the tensile zone.
• DDD
• DDD
• Reinforcement (a) is better than (b) because only
a component of the vertical steel is acting across
the failure zone but this type of reinforcement is
not practical so reinforcement (b) is used.
Safety Factors
Charateristic Strengh
Deseign Strength 
m
1.15 for steel 
Where γm is the material safety factor   
1.25 - 1.5 for concre
Design Load  Characteristic Load   f
dead and wind loads  1.4 for adverse conditions 
1.2 for a combination of the two 
 
Where  f  Load factor i.e.  
 1.6 for live loads 
1.2 for earth pressure 
Yield Stress
Permissible Stress 
Fs
3 for concrete 
Where Fs  Factor of safety i.e.  
1.75 - 2.0 for steel 
DESIGN OF BEAMS
[Singley Reinforced Concrete]
• The behaviour of structural concrete is
represented by parabolic stress-strain relationship
up to a strain ε0 from which point the strain
increases while the stress remains constant.
• DDdd
• DDD
• DDD
• DDD

• Strain, ε0 is a function of characteristic strength of
the concrete, fcu.
• The ultimate design stress is given by:
0.67 f cu
Ultimate Design Stress 
m
0.67 f cu

1 .5
 0.447 f cu
 0.45 f cu
• The factor of 0.67 allows for the difference
between the bending strength and the cube
crushing strength of concrete.
• ϒm = 1.5 is the usual partial safety factor for the
strength of concrete when design members are
cast in situ.
• The ultimate strain of 0.0035 is typical for all
grades of concrete.

Reinforcing Steel
• Behaviour of steel is identical in tension and
compression being linear in the elastic range
upto the design yield stress of f y
γ m
Where: fy = characteristic yield stress

ϒm = partial factor of safety
Stress
(N/m2 )
fy
γm
Tension and Compression
Strain
• Within the elastic range the relationship
between stress and strain is:
Stress  Elastic Modulus x Strain
  Es s
• So that the design yield strain is:
 fy 
 
 m 
 Es
where Es  20010 N / m
3 2

Distribution of strains and stresses
across a reinforced section
• The theory of reinforced concrete assumes
that the concrete will crack in regions of
tensile strains and that after cracking all the
tension is carried by the reinforcement.
• It is also assumed that plain sections of a
structural member remain plain after straining
so that across the section there must be a
linear distribution of strains.

Design for bending
• Dd
The figure shows a cross-section of a reinforced

member subjected to bending and the resultant
strain diagram together with three different
stress distributions in concrete.
The Triangular Stress Block
• The triangular stress distribution applies when
the stresses are very nearly proportional to
the strains which generally occurs at the
loading levels encountered under working
conditions and is therefore used as the
serviceability limit state.
Rectangular Parabolic Stress Block
• This represents the distribution at failure
when compressive strains are within the
plastic range and it is associated with the
design for the ultimate limit state.
Equivalent Rectangular Stress Block
• This is a simplified alternative to the
rectangular parabolic stress distribution.
Under Vs Over Reinforcement
• When a beam section is bend the strain
distribution increases under increasing
moments. There are two limiting strains:
εy – yield strain of steel
εcu – ultimate strain of concrete = 0.0035

Under Reinforced Section
• As the load increase both εt and εc will increase.

• In an under reinforced section the steel has yielded and
further loading will cause cracking in the tensile zone.
• εt can exceed εy and subsequent loading will gradually
increase εc until εcu is reached.
Over Reinforced Section
• In an over-reinforced section εc reaches εcu before εt

reaches εy.
• The concrete will fail as εc = εcu.
• The section will collapse with no sign (little) of cracking
in the tensile zone.
• The collapse may be sudden and explosive, therefore,
design under-reinforced sections.
Design based on the triangular stress block
• A beam section may be reinforced with an
amount of steel such that when the most distant
concrete fibre in the compression zone reaches
the allowable stress in compression the tensile
stress in the reinforcement reaches the allowable
stress in steel.
• The section so reinforced is known as a
balanced / economic / critical section.
• The neutral axis corresponding to this is called
the critical neutral axis, yc.
 M 
yc   d
M r
Where : d  depth to the reinforcement
Et
M  Modular ratio 
Ec
Et  modulus of elasticityof steel
Ec  modulus of elasticityof concrete
ft
r  steel ratio 
fc
Where : f t  allowable stress in steel
f c  allowable stress in conrete.
• There are usually 3 types of problems in concrete design.
a) Given: - dimensions of the section (b x h)

- Permissible stresses (fc, ft)
- Modular ratio, M.
Required: - Find the moment of resistance of the

section.
Procedure for Solution:
1. Determine position of the actual neutral axis by
equating the moment of concrete area in
compression about the neutral axis to the
moment of equivalent tension area about the
neutral axis.
Find y from :
 y
by   MAt d  y 
2
Where At  cross sectional area of reinforcement
2. Find the position of the critical neutral axis
corresponding to the given safe stresses in
concrete and steel:  M 
yc   d
M r
 
 
  M d
 ft  
  M   
  f c  
3. Ascertain whether the section is under or over
reinforced. If the actual neutral axis lies above the
critical neutral axis, y < yc, then the section is
under-reinforced. In this case use the tension area
to find the moment of resistance of the section.
 y
BM  At . f t  d  
 3
4. If the section is over-reinforced then we use the

compression area to find the moment of
resistance of the section.
b. y. f c  y
BM  d  
2  3
b) Given: - dimension of the section
- area of reinforcement
- bending moment
- modular ratio
Required: - stresses in concrete and steel.

1. Determine the position of the actual neutral
axis using:  y
by   MAt d  y 
2
2. Find the stress in concrete by equating moment
of resistance of the compression area to the
given bending moment.
b. y. f c  y
BM  d  
2  3
Find f c from above.
3. Find the stress in steel by using the relationship:
Mf t y y
 i.e. Mr 
fc dy dy
c) Given: - Permissible stresses in concrete
and steel.
- Bending moment, BM
- modular ratio
- width of the section, b
Required: - Design the section

1. Determine the depth of the critical neutral axis
in terms of d using:
Mf t yc

fc d  yc
 M 
OR yc   d
M r
2. Equate the moment of resistance of the
compression area to the given bending moment
and find d.
b. y. f c  y
 d    BM
2  3
54
Agricultural Structures CUAE 306 Lecture notes © P. Rwakatiwana
3. Find the area of steel by equating the total
compression on the beam section to the total
tension on the beam section.
b. y. f c
 At . f t
2
If b is not given choose your own b and proceed
from 2.

Design using a Simplified
Rectangular Stress Block
1. Design for a singly reinforced section in

bending:
Bending of section will induce a resultant tensile
force, Ft in the reinforcing steel and a resultant
compressive force in the concrete, Fc which acts
through the centroid of the effective area of the
concrete in compression.
For equilibrium the ultimate design moment, BM

must be balanced by the moment of resistance of
the section so that:
BM  Fc  Z  Ft  Z  (1)
Where Z is the lever arm between the resultant Fc
and Ft
Fc  Stress  Effective area
0.67 f cu  b.s

m
Fc  0.45 f cu  b.s .................... (2)
s
Z  d  .............................(3)
2
Substituti ng (2) in (1)
BM  0.45 f cu  b.s  Z
Reversing s from equation (3)
BM  0.9 f cu b(d  Z ) Z ...............(4)
BM
Rearranging (4) and substituti ng for k 
f cu bd 2
2
Z Z k
    0
 d   d  0 .9
  k 
Z  d 0.5   0.25   ....................(5)
  0.9  
This is the equation for the lever arm of a singley

reinforced section.
fy
Ft  At ,  m  1.15 for steel
m
 Ft  0.87 f y At
From (1)
BM  Ft  Z
 BM  0.87 f y At  Z
BM
 At  .................. (6)
0.87 f y Z
NB: Check that the area of steel actually provided is
within the limits required i.e:
100 At
4 BS Standard 
bh
At
 percentage of steel.
bh
The upper limit of Z is given by: Z  0.95d
The lower limit is given by: Z  0.775d , which is
d
when the depth of neutral axis y  that is the
2
maximum allowed by the code BS 8110 for a singley
reinforced section in order to provide a ductile
section which has a gradual tension type failure.

With Z  0.775d , from equation (4)
BM  0.9 f cu bd  0.775d  0.775d
BM  0.156 f cu bd .................. (7) 2
BM
If
2
 k is greater than 0.156 then
bd f cu
compression reinforcement is also required to
supplement the moment of resistance of the
concrete.
For a singley reinforced beam:
BM  0.156  f cu bd 2

Design for Shear
• Shear forces accompany the change in BM in
beams and give rise to diagonal tension in the
concrete and bond stresses between the
reinforcement and the concrete.
• Shear in a reinforced concrete beam without
shear reinforcement causes cracks on inclined
planes near the support. The cracks are caused by
diagonal tensile stress.
• The following 3 actions form the mechanism
resisting shear in a beam:
i. Shear stress in compression zone with a parabolic distribution.
Design for Shear cont.
ii. Aggregate interlock along the cracks.
iii. Dowel action in the bars where the concrete between the cracks
transmits shear force into the bars.
• The distribution of shear along a beam is given by

the shear force diagram.
• If V is the shear force at a section, then the shear
stress is given by:
V
 , Where : is the shear stress.
bd
Shear stress must never exceed the lesser of 0.8 f cu or 5N/mm 2
• Shear reinforcement will take a form of vertical stirr-
ups or a combination of that and bend up bars.
Vertical Stirr-ups
• The usual form of stirr-ups is a closed link.
• This helps to make a rigid cage of the beam
reinforcement and is essential if there is any
compression steel present.
• All of the tension reinforcements must be
enclosed by the links.
• The spacing of the links should be such that every
potential crack is caused by at least one link.
• To ensure that the spacing is limited to 0.75d into
the direction of the span.
Design for Shear cont.
Calculations
1. Find shear stress, ʋ, where V is obtained from
the shear force diagram.
2. Find percentage steel (% As) from the bending
calculations.
3. Find ʋc , the ultimate shear stress obtained from
tables.
4. The size and spacing of stirr-ups should be such
that: Asv b   c 

Sv 0.87 f yv
Where : Asv  cross sectional area of the legs of the stirr - ups
S v  spacing of the stirr ups
b  width of the beam
V
  shear stress 
bd
 c  ultimate shear stress
f yv  characteristic strength of the link reinforcement
Asv
Values of for various stirr - up sizes and spacings are usually tabulated.
Sv
• The calculation for the above is carried out at the

critical section, which is usually a distance, d,
from the face of the support.

Sizing of a beam
• The layout and sizes of members are often
controlled by architectural details and clearances
for machinery and equipment.
• The engineer must either check that the beam
sizes are adequate to carry the loading or
alternatively decide on sizes that are adequate.
• Beam dimensions required are:
1. Cover to the reinforcements
2. The width, b
3. Effective depth, d
4. Overall depth, h
• Adequate concrete cover is required to protect
reinforcements from corrosion and damage.
• The necessary cover depends on the grade of
concrete, fire resistance and exposure of the
beam.
• Suitable dimensions for b and d can be decided
by field trial calculations.
1. For no compression reinforcement
BM
2
 0.156
f cu bd

V
2.   where   0.8 f cu or 5 N/mm 2
bd
Span
3.  20, for no excessive deflections
Effective depth
4. h  d  Cover  t
• Where t = established distance from the outside

of the link to the centre of the tension bars.
• For example, find t for nominal sized 12 mm links
with a layer of 32 mm tension bars.
Solution
 t  12  32   28 mm
1
2

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Agricultural Structures

Structural Design Lectures

Agricultural Structures CUAE 306 Lecture notes © P. Rwakatiwana 1

Agricultural Structures CUAE 306 Lecture notes © P. Rwakatiwana 2

Irrigation & Crop

Soil and Food

Agricultural Structures CUAE 306 Lecture notes © P. Rwakatiwana 3

Agricultural Structures CUAE 306 Lecture notes © P. Rwakatiwana 4

• The establishment of loading & other design considerations

• Analysis or computation of internal gross forces

• Proportioning and selection of materials of the members & connections

Agricultural Structures CUAE 306 Lecture notes © P. Rwakatiwana 5

• Past design Practice

• It is sometimes called the permissible stress method

Agricultural Structures CUAE 306 Lecture notes © P. Rwakatiwana 8

Agricultural Structures CUAE 306 Lecture notes © P. Rwakatiwana 9

Agricultural Structures CUAE 306 Lecture notes © P. Rwakatiwana 10

Agricultural Structures CUAE 306 Lecture notes © P. Rwakatiwana 11

Figure Stresses in a concrete lintel

Agricultural Structures CUAE 306 Lecture notes © P. Rwakatiwana 12

Agricultural Structures CUAE 306 Lecture notes © P. Rwakatiwana 14

Agricultural Structures CUAE 306 Lecture notes © P. Rwakatiwana 15

Agricultural Structures CUAE 306 Lecture notes © P. Rwakatiwana 19

Agricultural Structures CUAE 306 Lecture notes © P. Rwakatiwana 20

Agricultural Structures CUAE 306 Lecture notes © P. Rwakatiwana 21

Agricultural Structures CUAE 306 Lecture notes © P. Rwakatiwana 25

• Continuous loading increases the bending

Agricultural Structures CUAE 306 Lecture notes © P. Rwakatiwana 26

Agricultural Structures CUAE 306 Lecture notes © P. Rwakatiwana 27

Agricultural Structures CUAE 306 Lecture notes © P. Rwakatiwana 28

Agricultural Structures CUAE 306 Lecture notes © P. Rwakatiwana 29

Agricultural Structures CUAE 306 Lecture notes © P. Rwakatiwana 30

Agricultural Structures CUAE 306 Lecture notes © P. Rwakatiwana 31

Agricultural Structures CUAE 306 Lecture notes © P. Rwakatiwana 34

Agricultural Structures CUAE 306 Lecture notes © P. Rwakatiwana 36

Where: fy = characteristic yield stress

Tension and Compression

Agricultural Structures CUAE 306 Lecture notes © P. Rwakatiwana 38

Agricultural Structures CUAE 306 Lecture notes © P. Rwakatiwana 39

The figure shows a cross-section of a reinforced

Agricultural Structures CUAE 306 Lecture notes © P. Rwakatiwana 42

• As the load increase both εt and εc will increase.

• In an over-reinforced section εc reaches εcu before εt

a) Given: - dimensions of the section (b x h)

Required: - Find the moment of resistance of the

4. If the section is over-reinforced then we use the

Procedure for Solution:

Required: - Design the section

Procedure for Solution:

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1. Design for a singly reinforced section in

For equilibrium the ultimate design moment, BM

This is the equation for the lever arm of a singley

The lower limit is given by: Z  0.775d , which is

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• The distribution of shear along a beam is given by

• The calculation for the above is carried out at the

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• Where t = established distance from the outside

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