LOKNAYAK JAI PRAKASH INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

TWO-WAY RADIO
The Future of Professional

ALOK ANAND
5/11/2019

PARTICIPANT

NAME ROLL NUMBER REGISTRATION NUMBER

LAXMI KANT 15-E-18 15103117159
DIGVIJAY KUMAR 15-E-17 15103117134
NADEEM ASLAM 15-E-36 15103117145
ALOK ANAND 15-E-30 15103117162
PRAKASH KUMAR GUPTA 15-E-19 15103117169

The radio project has been written to introduce popular subject of communication through radio. The
project will look at tuning circuits along with modulation and signal amplification. The work is suitable for
EEE students. Emphasis has been placed on providing a means to a quality design outcome.
 Project Completion Certificate

This is to certify that the project titled “RADIO (two way communications)”

is the bona fide work carried out by ALOK ANAND, a student of B Tech (EEE) of Loknayak

Jai Prakash Institute of Technology (CHAPRA) affiliated to Aryabhatta Knowledge University

(PATNA)

During the academic session 2015-19, in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of
the degree of

Bachelor of Technology (Electronic and Electrical Engineering) and that the project has not
formed the basis for

the award previously of any other degree, diploma, fellowship or any other similar title.

Signature of the Guide

Place:

Date:

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We express our deep sense of gratitude to our respected and learned guides,

Prof. KRISHNAKANT CHAUBEY for their valuable help and guidance, we are thankful
to them for the encouragement they have given us in completing the project. We are also grateful
to respected

Prof. RISHIKESH CHAUDHARY and to our respected Director Dr. ANIL KUMAR
SINGH, (L.N.J.P.I.T, CHAPRA) for permitting us to utilize all the necessary facilities of the
institution. We are also thankful to the other entire faculty & staff members of our department
for their kind co-operation and help. Lastly, we would like to express our deep apperception
towards our classmates and our indebtedness to our parents for providing us the moral support
and encouragement.

ALOK ANAND

15103117162

15-E-30

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RAJIV GANDHI'S LEGACY TO THE NATION DEVELOPMENT
It would not be an exaggeration to mention that during the end of the 20th century India
witnessed the advent of many luminaries. Among them Rajiv Gandhi was the most radiant one.
He became the Prime Minister of India at the age of 43, and left a deep imprint and impact in the
world politics

Rajiv Gandhi is hailed as the 'Father of Information Technology and Telecom Revolution of
India'. He is rightfully known as the architect of digital India.

It was under his rule that Centre for Development of Telematics (C-DOT) was established in
August 1984 to develop state-of-the-art telecommunication technology and meet the needs of the
Indian telecommunication network.

C-DOT revolutionized the communication network in the towns and even villages of India.
Because of Rajiv Gandhi's efforts, the PCO (public call office) revolution took place. PCO booth
connected even the rural areas to the world outside.

In 1986, MTNL (Mahanagar Telephone Nigam Limited) was established which helped in the
spread of telephone network. With Sam Pitroda as an advisor to the then Prime Minister Rajiv
Gandhi, six technology missions related to telecommunications, water, literacy, immunization,
dairy and oil seeds were established.

The former Prime Minister pulled out all stops in an effort to promote amateur radio in the
country. “Rajiv Gandhi received his ham license in 1975. In those early days, he used a Racal
transceiver. He was absolutely fascinated with the idea of communicating over wireless.

A true dreamer weaver, he proved his abilities to realize those dreams for his people and leading
them in the changing times. Today the achievements of science and technology, Information
Technology revolution, telecommunication, inclusive development and a resilient effort towards
social justice is Rajiv Gandhi’s legacy to the developing India

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4
 ABSTRACT

The first archaic radio transmitter were made by German physicist “HEINRICH HERTZ” in year
1887. They produced radio waves by a high voltage spark in between two metals
(conductor).The objective of the project is to design the miniaturize low –power FM
transmitter/Receiver, and used it in different application. For example hearing aid for the tour
guiding system, security of small areas, and for entertainment purpose. FM transmitter has many
merits over the AM (Amplitude modulation). It protects the signal from interference and
unwanted signal i.e. noise. It provides high S/N (signal to noise) than AM. A FM transmitter is
an electronic circuit, which converts electric power from battery into radio frequency alternating
current (AC). The energy by a such rapidly reversing current radiate off the antenna as EM
waves (Electromagnetic waves).

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When designers are given a problem to solve, they often break the problem up into a number of
smaller activities. This is to make sure that they do not forget any important information that
might affect the design.

Situation:

 The situation will give us a general description of the background to the problem.
 An electronics company wish to market a new range of low cost portable radios
 Development of FM transmitter and FM receiver.
 Prototype HAM radio at affordable rate.

Design Brief:

The design brief is a summary statement that clearly states the aim of the design project and in a
few words states the kind of thing that is needed. For example, “Design a case” is not very
helpful to a designer. “Design a case to hold a small radio circuit” gives the designer a clearer
focus without applying restrictions.

Investigation:

 Before designing we must find out as much as we can about the situation. Investigation
therefore involves collecting information from a variety of sources. When you investigate
a situation, it is important for you to think about all the things that might affect your
product.
 To enhance communication system in both directions, a communication system may
transmit information in one direction such as TV and radio (simplex), two directions.
 Low cost radio for disaster area, Communication Is the Key to Disaster Management.
 Affordable radio for poor people for their development.

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Specification:

Once we have a clear understanding of the problem, we can work out the specification for our
Radio project. A specification is a list of things that the final design must do. A good
specification will list the important features in order of importance.

Task

 Write a specification for our Radio.

 Make a list of all the features you need to include in the design.
 Place them in the correct order of importance.

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 INTRODUCTION

This Project Report has full information regarding FM Radio, FM Radio Receiver, Radio
Antenna, Ham radio and Apparatus required for FM Radio Receiver etc.

A FM Receiver is a low power FM radio receiver, which allows listening music or any other
audio message from CD player, portable media player or any other audio system which is used to
be played by a nearby FM radio. Because of low cost of the equipment’s for an FM receiver,
leads to rapid growth in the year of world war II.

Due to crowding in AM broadcast and failure of basic AM receiver to remove noise.FM

Transmission helped us to overcome from these detriments and therefore, can be used to transmit
music or audio signals and this may leads to raising the number of auditors to famous as well as
classical music, by which FM station draw the higher audience ratings as compared to AM
stations. FM transmitter consist of mice from where an audio signal is transmitted to different
section of transmitter, after processing the signal from these section it will transmit

Through antenna and these signal catch by receiver side antenna.

Antenna

A theoretical study of radiation from a linear antenna (length l)

Power radiated a (p/l) 2

This implies that for the same antenna length, the power radiated by short wavelength or high
frequency signal would be large. Hence the effective power radiated by long wavelength base
band signal would be small for a good transmission; we need high power hence, this also point
out to be need of using high frequency transmission.

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 Motivation of Research

Owing to the excessive demands of multiple applications in single device and space constrain,
implementation of a FM receiver for a multi-standard wireless system is very challenging task.
The motivation underneath for the proposed research work comes from the need of compact,
multiple frequencies, highly e client with large gain, low pro le FM

Receiver for wideband operation. Several designs are proposed using commercially Available
RF IC and that could be successfully implemented to make an ordable the Superior technology
for more common applications.

Wide used in advanced Robotics field.

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FM receiver

A radio or FM receiver is an electronic device that receives radio waves and converts the
information carried by them to a usable form. An antenna is used to catch the desired frequency
waves. The receiver uses electronic filters to separate the desired radio frequency signal from all
the other signals picked up by the antenna, an electronic amplifier to increase the power of the
signal for further processing, and finally recovers the desired information through demodulation.

Of the radio waves, FM is the most popular one. Frequency modulation is widely used for FM
radio broadcasting. It is also used in telemetry, radar, seismic prospecting, and monitoring
newborns for seizures via EEG, two-way radio systems, music synthesis, magnetic tape-
recording systems and some video-transmission systems. An advantage of frequency modulation
is that it has a larger signal-to-noise ratio and therefore rejects radio frequency interference better
than an equal power amplitude modulation (AM) signal.

FM frequency ranges

Frequency modulation is used in a radio broadcast in the 88-108MHz VHF band. This bandwidth
range is marked as FM on the band scales of radio receivers, and the devices that are able to
receive such signals are called FM receivers. The FM radio transmitter has a 200kHz wide
channel. The maximum audio frequency transmitted in FM is 15 kHz as compared to 4.5 kHz in
AM. This allows a much larger range of frequencies to be transferred in FM and thus the quality
of FM transmission is significantly higher than of AM transmission. Presented below is an
electronics circuit for FM receiver along with its full explanation.

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FM Radio Circuit Principle:

Radio is the reception of electromagnetic wave through air. The main principle of this circuit is
to tune the circuit to the nearest frequency using the tank circuit. Data to be transmitted is
frequency modulated at the transmission and is demodulated at the receiver side. Modulation is
nothing but changing the property of the message signal with the respect to the carrier frequency.
Frequency range of FM signal is 87.5MHz to 108.0MHz. The output can be heard using
speaker.

FM Receiver Circuit Explanation

Here’s a simple FM receiver with minimum components for local FM reception. Transistor
BF495 (T2), together with a 10k resistor (R1), coil L, 22pF variable capacitor (VC), and internal
capacitances of transistor BF494 (T1), comprises the Colpitts oscillator. The resonance
frequency of this oscillator is set by trimmer VC to the frequency of the transmitting station that
we wish to listen. That is, it has to be tuned between 88 and 108 MHz. The information signal
used in the transmitter to perform the modulation is extracted on resistor R1 and fed to the audio
amplifier over a 220nF coupling capacitor (C1).

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We should be able to change the capacitance of the variable capacitor from a couple of Pico
farads to about 20 pF. So, a 22pF trimmer is a good choice to be used as VC in the circuit. It is
readily available in the market. If you are using some other capacitor that has a larger
capacitance and are unable to receive the full FM bandwidth (88-108 MHz), try changing the
value of VC. Its capacitance is to be determined experimentally.

The self-supporting coil L has four turns of 22 SWG enamelled copper wire, with air core having
a 4mm internal diameter. It can be constructed on any cylindrical object, such as a pencil or pen,
having a diameter of 4 mm. When the required number of turns of the coil has reached, the coil
is taken off the cylinder and stretched a little so that the turns don’t touch each other.

Capacitors C3 (100nF) and C10 (100µF, 25V), together with R3 (1k), comprise a band-pass filter
for very low frequencies, which is used to separate the low-frequency signal from the high-
frequency signal in the receiver.

Design

The FM Radio circuit mainly consists of LM386 IC. This is a low voltage audio power amplifier.
It has 8 pins. It operates at a supply voltage of 4-12 volts. It has an op-amp internally, which acts
as an amplifier. The non-inverting pin is connected to the variable resistor of 10KOhms.
Inverting pin of the LM386 IC is connected to the ground. Sixth pin is connected to the VCC.
Fourth pin is connected to the ground. Fifth pin is output and is connected to the capacitor which
is connected to the speaker or microphone. Another capacitor is connected to ground pin. Sixth
pin is the supply pin connected to the supply voltage. This amplifies the incoming frequency
modulated signal.

BF494 is an NPN RF transistor. Initially it is open circuited. It starts conducting only when base
gets the required cut off voltage. Base of the transistor is connected to the base of the variable
resistor through a capacitor of 0.22uF. Emitter pin is connected to the ground. Collector is
connected to the tank circuit. Base of transistor Q2 is connected to the tank circuit. Emitter pin is
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connected to the ground and collector is connected to the supply through a resistor of 22K ohms.
The variable resistor controls the volume to the input amplifier. These transistors are used for
detecting the frequency modulated signals.

Output of the IC is connected to the headphones or Mylar speaker through a capacitor of 220uf
25v rated. The head phone or speaker will have two wires out. One is connected to the output of
the capacitor and the other pin is connected to the ground pin.

Tank circuit consists of a coil and a variable capacitor .This is connected to the antenna. This is
the main part of the circuit as it tunes the radio to the required local frequency. In this tank circuit
coil plays a main role. Coil is a copper wire wind into fixed number of turns.

How to Operate FM Radio Circuit?

To operate the FM Radio circuit following steps are to be followed:

 Initially connect the circuit as shown in the figure.

 Connect the power supply to the circuit
 Now press the switch.
 Now adjust the frequency of the circuit by varying the trim pot (variable capacitor) of the
tank circuit.
 Thus the circuit starts tuning to the nearest frequency.
 When the frequency of incoming signal is matched sound can be heard through the
headphone or speaker.
 Now tune the circuit to the another frequency using tank circuit.
 You can listen another sound incoming at that particular frequency.
 Adjust the variable resistor to increase or decrease the volume.

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Radio receivers

Radio receivers are essential components of all systems that use radio.Radio receivers are used in
a huge variety of electronic systems in modern technology. They can be a separate piece of
equipment (a radio), or a subsystem incorporated into other electronic devices. A transceiver is a
transmitter and receiver combined in one unit. Below is a list of a few of the most common
types, organized by function

Broadcast television reception - Televisions receive a video signal representing a moving image,
composed of a sequence of still images, and a synchronized audio signal representing the
associated sound. The television channel received by a TV occupies a wider bandwidth than an
audio signal, from 600 kHz to 6 MHz.

Terrestrial television receiver, broadcast television or just television (TV) - Televisions contains
an integral receiver (TV tuner) which receives free broadcast television from local television
stations on TV channels in the VHF and UHF bands.

Satellite TV receiver - a set-top box which receives subscription direct-broadcast satellite

television, and displays it on an ordinary television. A rooftop satellite dish receives many
channels all modulated on a Ku band microwave downlink signal from a geostationary direct
broadcast satellite 22,000 miles (35,000 km) above the Earth, and the signal is converted to a
lower intermediate frequency and transported to the box through a coaxial cable. The subscriber
pays a monthly fee.

Two-way voice communications - A two-way radio is an audio transceiver, a receiver and

transmitter in the same device, used for bidirectional person-to-person voice communication.
The radio link may be half-duplex, using a single radio channel in which only one radio can
transmit at a time. so different users take turns talking, pressing a push to talk button on their
radio which switches on the transmitter. Or the radio link may be full duplex, a bidirectional link
using two radio channels so both people can talk at the same time, as in a cell phone.

Cellphone - a portable telephone that is connected to the telephone network by radio signals
exchanged with a local antenna called a cell tower. Cellphones have highly automated digital

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receivers working in the UHF and microwave band that receive the incoming side of the duplex
voice channel, as well as a control channel that handles dialing calls and switching the phone
between cell towers. They usually also have several other receivers that connect them with other
networks: a WiFi modem, a bluetooth modem, and a GPS receiver. The cell tower has
sophisticated multichannel receivers that receive the signals from many cell phones
simultaneously.

Cordless phone - a landline telephone in which the handset is portable and communicates with
the rest of the phone by a short range duplex radio link, instead of being attached by a cord. Both
the handset and the base station have radio receivers operating in the UHF band that receive the
short range bidirectional duplex radio link.

Citizens band radio - a two-way half-duplex radio operating in the 27 MHz band that can be used
without a license. They are often installed in vehicles and used by truckers and delivery services.

Walkie-talkie - a handheld short range half-duplex two-way radio.

Handheld scanner

Scanner - a receiver that continuously monitors multiple frequencies or radio channels by

stepping through the channels repeatedly, listening briefly to each channel for a transmission.
When a transmitter is found the receiver stops at that channel. Scanners are used to monitor
emergency police, fire, and ambulance frequencies, as well as other two way radio frequencies
such as citizens band. Scanning capabilities have also become a standard feature in
communications receivers, walkie-talkies, and other two-way radios.

Modern communications receiver, ICOM RC-9500

Communications receiver or shortwave receiver - a general purpose audio receiver covering the
LF, MF, shortwave (HF), and VHF bands. Used mostly with a separate shortwave transmitter for
two-way voice communication in communication stations, amateur radio stations, and for
shortwave listening.

One-way (simplex) voice communications

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Wireless microphone receiver - these receive the short range signal from wireless microphones
used onstage by musical artists, public speakers, and television personalities.

Baby monitor. The receiver is on the left

Baby monitor - this is a cribside appliance for mothers of infants that transmits the baby's sounds
to a receiver carried by the mother, so she can monitor the baby while she is in other parts of the
house. Many baby monitors now have video cameras to show a picture of the baby.

Data communications

Wireless (WiFi) modem - an automated short range digital data transmitter and receiver on a
portable wireless device that communicates by microwaves with a nearby access point, a router
or gateway, connecting the portable device with a local computer network (WLAN) to exchange
data with other devices.

Bluetooth modem - a very short range (up to 10 m) 2.4-2.83 GHz data transceiver on a portable
wireless device used as a substitute for a wire or cable connection, mainly to exchange files
between portable devices and connect cellphones and music players with wireless earphones.

Microwave relay - a long distance high bandwidth point-to-point data transmission link
consisting of a dish antenna and transmitter that transmits a beam of microwaves to another dish
antenna and receiver. Since the antennas must be in line-of-sight, distances are limited by the
visual horizon to 30–40 miles. Microwave links are used for private business data, wide area
computer networks (WANs), and by telephone companies to transmit distance phone calls and
television signals between cities.

Satellite communications - Communication satellites are used for data transmission between
widely separated points on Earth. Other satellites are used for search and rescue, remote sensing,
weather reporting and scientific research. Radio communication with satellites and spacecraft
can involve very long path lengths, from 35,786 km (22,236 mi) for geosynchronous satellites to
billions of kilometers for interplanetary spacecraft. This and the limited power available to a
spacecraft transmitter mean very sensitive receivers must be used.

Satellite transponder - A receiver and transmitter in a communications satellite that receives

multiple data channels carrying long distance telephone calls, television signals. or internet
traffic on a microwave uplink signal from a satellite ground station and retransmits the data to
another ground station on a different downlink frequency. In a direct broadcast satellite the

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transponder broadcasts a stronger signal directly to satellite radio or satellite television receivers
in consumer's homes.

Satellite ground station receiver - communication satellite ground stations receive data from
communications satellites orbiting the Earth. Deep space ground stations such as those of the
NASA Deep Space Network receive the weak signals from distant scientific spacecraft on
interplanetary exploration missions. These have large dish antennas around 85 ft (25 m) in
diameter, and extremely sensitive radio receivers similar to radio telescopes. The RF front end of
the receiver is often cryogenically cooled to −195.79 °C (−320 °F) by liquid nitrogen to reduce
radio noise in the circuit.

Remote control - Remote control receivers receive digital commands that control a device, which
may be as complex as a space vehicle or unmanned aerial vehicle, or as simple as a garage door
opener. Remote control systems often also incorporate a telemetry channel to transmit data on
the state of the controlled device back to the controller. Radio controlled model and other models
include multichannel receivers in model cars, boats, airplanes, and helicopters. A short-range
radio system is used in keyless entry systems.

Radiolocation - This is the use of radio waves to determine the location or direction of an object.

Radar - a device that transmits a narrow beam of microwaves which reflect from a target back to
a receiver, used to locate objects such as aircraft, spacecraft, missiles, ships or land vehicles. The
reflected waves from the target are received by a receiver usually connected to the same antenna,
indicating the direction to the target. Widely used in aviation, shipping, navigation, weather
forecasting, space flight, vehicle collision avoidance systems, and the military.

Global navigation satellite system (GNSS) receiver, such as a GPS receiver used with the US
Global Positioning System - the most widely used electronic navigation device. An automated
digital receiver that receives simultaneous data signals from several satellites in low Earth orbit.
Using extremely precise time signals it calculates the distance to the satellites, and from this the
receiver's location on Earth. GNSS receivers are sold as portable devices, and are also
incorporated in cell phones, vehicles and weapons, even artillery shells.

VOR receiver - navigational instrument on an aircraft that uses the VHF signal from VOR
navigational beacons between 108 and 117.95 MHz to determine the direction to the beacon very
accurately, for air navigation.

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Wild animal tracking receiver - a receiver with a directional antenna used to track wild animals
which have been tagged with a small VHF transmitter, for wildlife management purposes.

Other

Telemetry receiver - this receives data signals to monitor conditions of a process. Telemetry is
used to monitor missile and spacecraft in flight, well logging during oil and gas drilling, and
unmanned scientific instruments in remote locations.

Measuring receiver - a calibrated, laboratory grade radio receiver used to measure the
characteristics of radio signals. Often incorporates a spectrum analyzer.

Radio telescope - specialized antenna and radio receiver used as a scientific instrument to study
weak radio waves from astronomical radio sources in space like stars, nebulas and galaxies in
radio astronomy. They are the most sensitive radio receivers that exist, having large parabolic
(dish) antennas up to 500 meters in diameter, and extremely sensitive radio circuits. The RF front
end of the receiver is often cryogenically cooled by liquid nitrogen to reduce radio noise.

How receivers work

A radio receiver is connected to an antenna which converts some of the energy from the
incoming radio wave into a tiny radio frequency AC voltage which is applied to the receiver's
input. An antenna typically consists of an arrangement of metal conductors. The oscillating
electric and magnetic fields of the radio wave push the electrons in the antenna back and forth,
creating an oscillating voltage.

The antenna may be enclosed inside the receiver's case, as with the ferrite loop antennas of AM
radios and the flat inverted F antenna of cell phones; attached to the outside of the receiver, as

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with whip antennas used on FM radios, or mounted separately and connected to the receiver by a
cable, as with rooftop television antennas and satellite dishes.

Filtering, amplification, and demodulation

Practical radio receivers perform three basic functions on the signal from the antenna: filtering,
amplification, and demodulation:[5]

Symbol for a band pass filter used in block diagrams of radio receivers

• Band pass filtering: Radio waves from many transmitters pass through the air
simultaneously without interfering with each other. These can be separated in the receiver
because they have different frequencies; that is, the radio wave from each transmitter oscillates at
a different rate. To separate out the desired radio signal, the bandpass filter allows the frequency
of the desired radio transmission to pass through, and blocks signals at all other frequencies.

The bandpass filter consists of one or more resonant circuits (tuned circuits). The resonant circuit
is connected between the antenna input and ground. When the incoming radio signal is at the
resonant frequency, the resonant circuit has high impedance and the radio signal from the desired
station is passed on to the following stages of the receiver. At all other frequencies the resonant
circuit has low impedance, so signals at these frequencies are conducted to ground.

o Bandwidth and selectivity: See graphs. The information (modulation) in a radio

transmission is contained in two narrow bands of frequencies called sidebands (SB) on either
side of the carrier frequency (C), so the filter has to pass a band of frequencies, not just a single
frequency. The band of frequencies received by the receiver is called its passband (PB), and the
width of the passband in kilohertz is called the bandwidth (BW). The bandwidth of the filter
must be wide enough to allow the sidebands through without distortion, but narrow enough to
block any interfering transmissions on adjacent frequencies (such as S2 in the diagram). The
ability of the receiver to reject unwanted radio stations near in frequency to the desired station is
an important parameter called selectivity determined by the filter. In modern receivers quartz
crystal, ceramic resonator, or surface acoustic wave (SAW) filters are often used which have
sharper selectivity compared to networks of capacitor-inductor tuned circuits.
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o Tuning: To select a particular station the radio is "tuned" to the frequency of the desired
transmitter. The radio has a dial or digital display showing the frequency it is tuned to. Tuning is
adjusting the frequency of the receiver's passband to the frequency of the desired radio
transmitter. Turning the tuning knob changes the resonant frequency of the tuned circuit. When
the resonant frequency is equal to the radio transmitter's frequency the tuned circuit oscillates in
sympathy, passing the signal on to the rest of the receiver.

The frequency spectrum of a typical radio signal from an AM or FM radio transmitter. It consists
of a strong component (C) at the carrier wave frequency fC, with the modulation contained in
narrow frequency bands called sidebands (SB) just above and below the carrier.

(right graph) How the bandpass filter selects a single radio signal S1 from all the radio signals
received by the antenna. From top, the graphs show the voltage from the antenna applied to the
filter Vin, the transfer function of the filter T, and the voltage at the output of the filter Vout as a
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function of frequency f. The transfer function T is the amount of signal that gets through the
filter at each frequency:

Symbol for an amplifier

• Amplification: The power of the radio waves picked up by a receiving antenna decreases
with the square of its distance from the transmitting antenna. Even with the powerful transmitters
used in radio broadcasting stations, if the receiver is more than a few miles from the transmitter
the power intercepted by the receiver's antenna is very small, perhaps as low as picowatts. To
increase the power of the recovered signal, an amplifier circuit uses electric power from batteries
or the wall plug to increase the amplitude (voltage or current) of the signal. In most modern
receivers, the electronic components which do the actual amplifying are transistors.

Receivers usually have several stages of amplification: the radio signal from the bandpass filter
is amplified to make it powerful enough to drive the demodulator, then the audio signal from the
demodulator is amplified to make it powerful enough to operate the speaker. The degree of
amplification of a radio receiver is measured by a parameter called its sensitivity, which is the
minimum signal strength of a station at the antenna, measured in microvolts, necessary to receive
the signal clearly, with a certain signal-to-noise ratio. Since it is easy to amplify a signal to any
desired degree, the limit to the sensitivity of many modern receivers is not the degree of
amplification but random electronic noise present in the circuit, which can drown out a weak
radio signal.

Symbol for a demodulator

• Demodulation: After the radio signal is filtered and amplified, the receiver must extract
the information-bearing modulation signal from the modulated radio frequency carrier wave.
This is done by a circuit called a demodulator (detector). Each type of modulation requires a
different type of demodulator

 an AM receiver that receives an (amplitude modulated) radio signal uses an AM

demodulator
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  an FM receiver that receives a frequency modulated signal uses an FM demodulator
 an FSK receiver which receives frequency shift keying (used to transmit digital data in
wireless devices) uses an FSK demodulator

Many other types of modulation are also used for specialized purposes.

The modulation signal output by the demodulator is usually amplified to increase its strength,
then the information is converted back to a human-usable form by some type of transducer. An
audio signal, representing sound, as in a broadcast radio, is converted to sound waves by an
earphone or loudspeaker. A video signal, representing moving images, as in a television receiver,
is converted to light by a display. Digital data, as in a wireless modem, is applied as input to a
computer or microprocessor, which interacts with human users.

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Tuning

"Tuning" means adjusting the frequency of the receiver to the frequency of the desired radio
transmission. The first receivers had no tuned circuit, the detector was connected directly
between the antenna and ground. Due to the lack of any frequency selective components besides
the antenna, the bandwidth of the receiver was equal to the broad bandwidth of the antenna. This
was acceptable and even necessary because the first Hertzian spark transmitters also lacked a
tuned circuit. Due to the impulsive nature of the spark, the energy of the radio waves was spread
over a very wide band of frequencies. To receive enough energy from this wideband signal the
receiver had to have a wide bandwidth also.

When more than one spark transmitter was radiating in a given area, their frequencies
overlapped, so their signals interfered with each other, resulting in garbled reception. Some
method was needed to allow the receiver to select which transmitter's signal to receive. Multiple
wavelengths produced by a poorly tuned transmitter caused the signal to "dampen", or die down,
greatly reducing the power and range of transmission. In 1892, William Crookes gave a lecture
on radio in which he suggested using resonance to reduce the bandwidth of transmitters and
receivers. Different transmitters could then be "tuned" to transmit on different frequencies so
they didn't interfere. The receiver would also have a resonant circuit (tuned circuit), and could
receive a particular transmission by "tuning" its resonant circuit to the same frequency as the
transmitter, analogously to tuning a musical instrument to resonance with another. This is the
system used in all modern radio.

Tuning was used in Hertz's original experiments and practical application of tuning showed up in
the early to mid-1890s in wireless systems not specifically designed for radio communication.
Nikola Tesla's March 1893 lecture demonstrating the wireless transmission of power for lighting
(mainly by what he thought was ground conduction) included elements of tuning. The wireless
lighting system consisted of a spark-excited grounded resonant transformer with a wire antenna
which transmitted power across the room to another resonant transformer tuned to the frequency
of the transmitter, which lighted a Geissler tube. Use of tuning in free space "Hertzian waves"

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(radio) was explained and demonstrated in Oliver Lodge's 1894 lectures on Hertz's work. At the
time Lodge was demonstrating the physics and optical qualities of radio waves instead of
attempting to build a communication system but he would go on to develop methods (patented in
1897) of tuning radio (what he called "syntony"), including using variable inductance to tune
antennas.

By 1897 the advantages of tuned systems had become clear, and Marconi and the other wireless
researchers had incorporated tuned circuits, consisting of capacitors and inductorsconnected
together, into their transmitters and receivers. The tuned circuit acted like an electrical analog of
a tuning fork. It had a high impedance at its resonant frequency, but a low impedance at all other
frequencies. Connected between the antenna and the detector it served as a bandpass filter,
passing the signal of the desired station to the detector, but routing all other signals to
ground.[26] The frequency of the station received f was determined by the capacitance C and
inductance L in the tuned circuit:

Inductive coupling

In order to reject radio noise and interference from other transmitters near in frequency to the
desired station, the bandpass filter (tuned circuit) in the receiver has to have a narrow bandwidth,
allowing only a narrow band of frequencies through. The form of bandpass filter that was used in
the first receivers, which has continued to be used in receivers until recently, was the double-
tuned inductively-coupled circuit, or resonant transformer (oscillation transformer or RF
transformer). The antenna and ground were connected to a coil of wire, which was magnetically
coupled to a second coil with a capacitor across it, which was connected to the detector. The RF
alternating current from the antenna through the primary coil created a magnetic field which
induced a current in the secondary coil which fed the detector. Both primary and secondary were
tuned circuits; the primary coil resonated with the capacitance of the antenna, while the
secondary coil resonated with the capacitor across it. Both were adjusted to the same resonant
frequency.

This circuit had two advantages. One was that by using the correct turns ratio, the impedance of
the antenna could be matched to the impedance of the receiver, to transfer maximum RF power
to the receiver. Impedance matching was important to achieve maximum receiving range in the
unamplified receivers of this era. The coils usually had taps which could be selected by a
multiposition switch. The second advantage was that due to "loose coupling" it had a much
narrower bandwidth than a simple tuned circuit, and the bandwidth could be adjusted. Unlike in

24
an ordinary transformer, the two coils were "loosely coupled"; separated physically so not all the
magnetic field from the primary passed through the secondary, reducing the mutual inductance.
This gave the coupled tuned circuits much "sharper" tuning, a narrower bandwidth than a single
tuned circuit. In the "Navy type" loose coupler, widely used with crystal receivers, the smaller
secondary coil was mounted on a rack which could be slid in or out of the primary coil, to vary
the mutual inductance between the coils. When the operator encountered an interfering signal at
a nearby frequency, the secondary could be slid further out of the primary, reducing the coupling,
which narrowed the bandwidth, rejecting the interfering signal. A disadvantage was that all three
adjustments in the loose coupler - primary tuning, secondary tuning, and coupling - were
interactive; changing one changed the others. So tuning in a new station was a process of
successive adjustments.

Selectivity became more important as spark transmitters were replaced by continuous wave
transmitters which transmitted on a narrow band of frequencies, and broadcasting led to a
proliferation of closely spaced radio stations crowding the radio spectrum. Resonant transformers
continued to be used as the band pass filter in vacuum tube radios, and new forms such as the
variometer were invented. Another advantage of the double-tuned transformer for AM reception
was that when properly adjusted it had a "flat top" frequency response curve as opposed to the
"peaked" response of a single tuned circuit. This allowed it to pass the sidebands of AM
modulation on either side of the carrier with little distortion, unlike a single tuned circuit which
attenuated the higher audio frequencies. Until recently the bandpass filters in the
superheterodyne circuit used in all modern receivers were made with resonant transformers,
called IF transformers.

The super heterodyne design

Block diagram of a super heterodyne receiver. The dotted line indicates that the RF filter and
local oscillator must be tuned in tandem.

25
The superheterodyne receiver, invented in 1918 by Edwin Armstrong is the design used in
almost all modern receivers except a few specialized applications.

In the superheterodyne, the radio frequency signal from the antenna is shifted down to a lower
"intermediate frequency" (IF), before it is processed. The incoming radio frequency signal from
the antenna is mixed with an unmodulated signal generated by a local oscillator (LO) in the
receiver. The mixing is done in a nonlinear circuit called the "mixer". The result at the output of
the mixer is a heterodyne or beat frequency at the difference between these two frequencies. The
process is similar to the way two musical notes at different frequencies played together produce a
beat note. This lower frequency is called the intermediate frequency (IF). The IF signal also has
all the information that was present in the original RF signal. The IF signal passes through filter
and amplifier stages, then is demodulated in a detector, recovering the original modulation.

The receiver is easy to tune; to receive a different frequency it is only necessary to change the
local oscillator frequency. The stages of the receiver after the mixer operates at the fixed
intermediate frequency (IF) so the IF bandpass filter does not have to be adjusted to different
frequencies. The fixed frequency allows modern receivers to use sophisticated quartz crystal,
ceramic resonator, or surface acoustic wave (SAW) IF filters that have very high Q factors, to
improve selectivity.

The RF filter on the front end of the receiver is needed to prevent interference from any radio
signals at the image frequency. Without an input filter the receiver can receive incoming RF
signals at two different frequencies, the receiver can be designed to receive on either of these two
frequencies; if the receiver is designed to receive on one, any other radio station or radio noise on
the other frequency may pass through and interfere with the desired signal. A single tunable RF
filter stage rejects the image frequency; since these are relatively far from the desired frequency,
a simple filter provides adequate rejection. Rejection of interfering signals much closer in
frequency to the desired signal is handled by the multiple sharply-tuned stages of the
intermediate frequency amplifiers, which do no need to change their tuning. This filter does not
need great selectivity, but as the receiver is tuned to different frequencies it must "track" in
tandem with the local oscillator. The RF filter also serves to limit the bandwidth applied to the
RF amplifier, preventing it from being overloaded by strong out-of-band signals.

26
Block diagram of a dual-conversion superheterodyne receiver

To achieve both good image rejection and selectivity, many modern superset receivers use two
intermediate frequencies; this is called a dual-conversion or double-conversion superheterodyne.
The incoming RF signal is first mixed with one local oscillator signal in the first mixer to convert
it to a high IF frequency, to allow efficient filtering out of the image frequency, then this first IF
is mixed with a second local oscillator signal in a second mixer to convert it to a low IF
frequency for good bandpass filtering. Some receivers even use triple-conversion.

At the cost of the extra stages, the superheterodyne receiver provides the advantage of greater
selectivity than can be achieved with a TRF design. Where very high frequencies are in use, only
the initial stage of the receiver needs to operate at the highest frequencies; the remaining stages
can provide much of the receiver gain at lower frequencies which may be easier to manage.
Tuning is simplified compared to a multi-stage TRF design, and only two stages need to track
over the tuning range. The total amplification of the receiver is divided between three amplifiers
at different frequencies; the RF, IF, and audio amplifier. This reduces problems with feedback
and parasitic oscillations that are encountered in receivers where most of the amplifier stages
operate at the same frequency, as in the TRF receiver.

The most important advantage is that better selectivity can be achieved by doing the filtering at
the lower intermediate frequency. One of the most important parameters of a receiver is its
bandwidth, the band of frequencies it accepts. In order to reject nearby interfering stations or
noise, a narrow bandwidth is required. In all known filtering techniques, the bandwidth of the
filter increases in proportion with the frequency, so by performing the filtering at the lower ,
rather than the frequency of the original radio signal , a narrower bandwidth can be achieved.
Modern FM and television broadcasting, cellphones and other communications services, with
their narrow channel widths, would be impossible without the superheterodyne.

27
Automatic gain control (AGC)

The signal strength (amplitude) of the radio signal from a receiver's antenna varies drastically, by
orders of magnitude, depending on how far away the radio transmitter is, how powerful it is, and
propagation conditions along the path of the radio waves. The strength of the signal received
from a given transmitter varies with time due to changing propagation conditions of the path
through which the radio wave passes, such as multipath interference; this is called fading. In an
AM receiver the amplitude of the audio signal from the detector, and the sound volume, is
proportional to the amplitude of the radio signal, so fading causes variations in the volume. In
addition as the receiver is tuned between strong and weak stations, the volume of the sound from
the speaker would vary drastically. Without an automatic system to handle it, in an AM receiver
constant adjustment of the volume control would be required.

With other types of modulation like FM or FSK the amplitude of the modulation does not vary
with the radio signal strength, but in all types the demodulator requires a certain range of signal
amplitude to operate properly. Insufficient signal amplitude will cause an increase of noise in the
demodulator, while excessive signal amplitude will cause amplifier stages to overload (saturate),
causing distortion (clipping) of the signal.

Therefore, almost all modern receivers include a feedback control system which monitors the
average level of the radio signal at the detector, and adjusts the gain of the amplifiers to give the
optimum signal level for demodulation. This is called automatic gain control (AGC). AGC can
be compared to the dark adaptation mechanism in the human eye; on entering a dark room the
gain of the eye is increased by the iris opening. In its simplest form an AGC system consists of a
rectifier which converts the RF signal to a varying DC level, a lowpass filter to smooth the
variations and produce an average level. This is applied as a control signal to an earlier amplifier
stage, to control its gain. In a superheterodyne receiver AGC is usually applied to the IF
amplifier, and there may be a second AGC loop to control the gain of the RF amplifier to prevent
it from overloading, too.

28
In certain receiver designs such as modern digital receivers, a related problem is DC offset of the
signal. This is corrected by a similar feedback system.

Fundamental considerations

Design of a radio receiver must consider several fundamental criteria to produce a practical
result. The main criteria are gain, selectivity, sensitivity, and stability. The receiver must contain
a detector to recover the information initially impressed on the radio carrier signal, a process
called modulation.

Gain is required because the signal intercepted by an antenna will have a very low power level,
on the order of femtowatts. To produce an audible signal in a pair of headphones requires this
signal to be amplified a trillion-fold or more. The magnitudes of the required gain are so great
that the logarithmic unit decibel is preferred - a gain of 1 trillion times the power is 120 decibels,
which is a value achieved by many common receivers. Gain is provided by one or more
amplifier stages in a receiver design; some of the gain is applied at the radio-frequency part of
the system, and the rest at the frequencies used by the recovered information (audio, video, or
data signals).

Selectivity is the ability to "tune in" to just one station of the many that may be transmitting at
any given time. An adjustable bandpass filter is a typical stage of a receiver. A receiver may
include several stages of bandpass filters to provide sufficient selectivity. Additionally, the
receiver design must provide immunity from spurious signals that may be generated within the
receiver that would interfere with the desired signal. Broadcasting transmitters in any given area
are assigned frequencies so that receivers can properly select the desired transmission; this is a
key factor limiting the number of transmitting stations that can operate in a given area.

Sensitivity is the ability to recover the signal from the background noise. Noise is generated in
the path between transmitter and receiver, but is also significantly generated in the receiver's own
circuits. Inherently, any circuit above absolute zero generates some random noise that adds to the
desired signals. In some cases, atmospheric noise is far greater than that produced in the
receiver's own circuits, but in some designs, measures such as cryogenic cooling are applied to
some stages of the receiver, to prevent signals from being obscured by thermal noise. A very

29
good receiver design may have a noise figure of only a few times the theoretical minimum for
the operating temperature and desired signal bandwidth. The objective is to produce a signal-to-
noise ratio of the recovered signal sufficient for the intended purpose. This ratio is also often
expressed in decibels. A signal-to-noise ratio of 10 dB (signal 10 times as powerful as noise)
might be usable for voice communications by experienced operators, but a receiver intended for
high-fidelity music reproduction might require 50 dB or higher signal-to-noise ratio.

Stability is required in at least two senses. Frequency stability; the receiver must stay "tuned" to
the incoming radio signal and must not "drift" with time or temperature. Additionally, the great
magnitude of gain generated must be carefully controlled so that spurious emissions are not
produced within the receiver. These would lead to distortion of the recovered information, or, at
worst, may radiate signals that interfere with other receivers.

The detector stage recovers the information from the radio-frequency signal, and produces the
sound, video, or data that was impressed on the carrier wave initially. Detectors may be as
simple as an "envelope" detector for amplitude modulation, or may be more complex circuits for
more recently developed techniques such as frequency-hopping spread spectrum.

While not fundamental to a receiver, automatic gain control is a great convenience to the user,
since it automatically compensates for changing received signal levels or different levels
produced by different transmitters.

Many different approaches and fundamental receiver "block diagrams" have developed to
address these several, sometimes contradictory, factors. Once these technical objectives have
been achieved, the remaining design process is still complicated by considerations of economics,
patent rights, and even fashion.

NOTE:

The performance of this tiny receiver depends on several factors such as quality and turns of coil
L, aerial type, and distance from FM transmitter. IC LM386 is an audio power amplifier
designed for use in low-voltage consumer applications. It provides 1 to 2 watts, which is enough
to drive any small-size speaker. The 22k volume control (VR) is a logarithmic potentiometer that
is connected to pin 3 and the amplified output is obtained at pin 5 of IC LM386. The receiver can
be operated off a 6V-9V battery.

30
What is an FM Transmitter?

The FM transmitter is a low power transmitter and it uses FM waves for transmitting the sound,
this transmitter transmits the audio signals through the carrier wave by the difference of
frequency. The carrier wave frequency is equivalent to the audio signal of the amplitude and the
FM transmitter produce VHF band of 88 to 108MHZ

Transmitter

Commercial FM broadcastingtransmitter at radio station WDET-FM, Wayne State University,

Detroit, USA. It broadcasts at 101.9 MHz with a radiated power of 48 kW.

In electronics and telecommunications, a transmitter or radio transmitter is an electronic device

which produces radio waves with an antenna. The transmitter itself generates a radio frequency
alternating current, which is applied to the antenna. When excited by this alternating current, the
antenna radiates radio waves.

Transmitters are necessary component parts of all electronic devices that communicate by radio,
such as radio and television broadcasting stations, cell phones, walkie-talkies, wireless computer
networks, Bluetooth enabled devices, garage door openers, two-way radios in aircraft, ships,
spacecraft, radar sets and navigational beacons. The term transmitter is usually limited to
equipment that generates radio waves for communication purposes; or radiolocation, such as
radar and navigational transmitters. Generators of radio waves for heating or industrial purposes,
31
such as microwave ovens or diathermy equipment, are not usually called transmitters, even
though they often have similar circuits.

The term is popularly used more specifically to refer to a broadcast transmitter, a transmitter
used in broadcasting, as in FM radio transmitteror television transmitter. This usage typically
includes both the transmitter proper, the antenna, and often the building it is housed in.

Description

A radio transmitter is usually part of a radio communication system which uses electromagnetic
waves(radio waves) to transport information (in this case sound) over a distance.

A transmitter can be a separate piece of electronic equipment, or an electrical circuit within

another electronic device. A transmitter and a receiver combined in one unit is called a
transceiver. The term transmitter is often abbreviated "XMTR" or "TX" in technical documents.
The purpose of most transmitters is radio communication of information over a distance. The
information is provided to the transmitter in the form of an electronic signal, such as an audio
(sound) signal from a microphone, a video (TV) signal from a video camera, or in wireless
networking devices, a digital signal from a computer. The transmitter combines the information
signal to be carried with the radio frequency signal which generates the radio waves, which is
called the carrier signal. This process is called modulation. The information can be added to the
carrier in several different ways, in different types of transmitters. In an amplitude modulation
(AM) transmitter, the information is added to the radio signal by varying its amplitude. In a
frequency modulation (FM) transmitter, it is added by varying the radio signal's frequency
slightly. Many other types of modulation are also used.

The radio signal from the transmitter is applied to the antenna, which radiates the energy as radio
waves. The antenna may be enclosed inside the case or attached to the outside of the transmitter,
as in portable devices such as cell phones, walkie-talkies, and garage door openers. In more
powerful transmitters, the antenna may be located on top of a building or on a separate tower,
and connected to the transmitter by a feed line, that is a transmission line.

32
Quadraphonic FM

In 1969, Louis Dorren invented the Quadraplex system of single station, discrete, compatible
four-channel FM broadcasting. There are two additional subcarriers in the Quadraplex system,
supplementing the single one used in standard stereo FM. The baseband layout is as follows:

 50 Hz to 15 kHz Main Channel (sum of all 4 channels) (LF+LR+RF+RR) signal, for

mono FM listening compatibility.
 23 to 53 kHz (sine quadrature subcarrier) (LF+LR) - (RF+RR) Left minus Right
difference signal. This signal's modulation in algebraic sum and difference with the Main
channel is used for 2 channel stereo listener compatibility.
 23 to 53 kHz (cosine quadrature 38 kHz subcarrier) (LF+RR) - (LR+RF) Diagonal
difference. This signal's modulation in algebraic sum and difference with the Main
channel and all the other subcarriers is used for the Quadraphonic listener.
 61 to 91 kHz (sine quadrature 76 kHz subcarrier) (LF+RF) - (LR+RR) Front-back
difference. This signal's modulation in algebraic sum and difference with the main
channel and all the other subcarriers is also used for the Quadraphonic listener.
 105 kHz SCA subcarrier, phase-locked to 19 kHz pilot, for reading services for the blind,
background music, etc.

The normal stereo signal can be considered as switching between left and right channels at 38
kHz, appropriately band limited. The quadraphonic signal can be considered as cycling through
LF, LR, RF, RR, at 76 kHz.

Early efforts to transmit discrete four-channel quadraphonic music required the use of two FM
stations; one transmitting the front audio channels, the other the rear channels. A breakthrough
came in 1970 when KIOI (K-101) in San Francisco successfully transmitted true quadraphonic
sound from a single FM station using the Quadraplex system under Special Temporary Authority
from the FCC. Following this experiment, a long term test period was proposed that would
permit one FM station in each of the top 25 U.S. radio markets to transmit in Quadraplex. The
test results hopefully would prove to the FCC that the system was compatible with existing two-
channel stereo transmission and receptionand that it did not interfere with adjacent stations.

There were several variations on this system submitted by GE, Zenith, RCA, and Denon for
testing and consideration during the National Quadraphonic Radio Committee field trials for the
FCC. The original Dorren Quadraplex System outperformed all the others and was chosen as the

33
national standard for Quadraphonic FM broadcasting in the United States. The first commercial
FM station to broadcast quadraphonic program content was WIQB (now called WWWW-FM) in
Ann Arbor/Saline, Michigan under the guidance of Chief Engineer Brian Jeffrey Brown.

Noise reduction

Various attempts to add analog noise reduction to FM broadcasting were carried out in the 1970s
and 1980s:

A commercially unsuccessful noise reduction system used with FM radio in some countries
during the late 1970s, Dolby FM was similar to Dolby B but used a modified 25 µs pre-emphasis
time constant and a frequency selective companding arrangement to reduce noise. The pre-
emphasis change compensates for the excess treble response that otherwise would make listening
difficult for those without Dolby decoders.

A similar system named High Com FM was tested in Germany between July 1979 and
December 1981 by IRT. It was based on the Telefunken High Com broadband compander
system, but was never introduced commercially in FM broadcasting.

Yet another system was the CX-based noise reduction system FMX implemented in some radio
broadcasting stations in the United States in the 1980s

Working of FM Transmitter Circuit

The following circuit diagram shows the FM transmitter circuit and the required electrical and
electronic components for this circuit is the power supply of 9V, resistor, capacitor, trimmer
capacitor, inductor, mic, transmitter, and antenna. Let us consider the microphone to understand
the sound signals and inside the mic there is a presence of capacitive sensor. It produces
according to the vibration to the change of air pressure and the AC signal.

FM Transmitter Circuit

34
The formation of the oscillating tank circuit can be done through the transistor of 2N3904 by
using the inductor and variable capacitor. The transistor used in this circuit is an NPN transistor
used for general purpose amplification. If the current is passed at the inductor L1 and variable
capacitor then the tank circuit will oscillate at the resonant carrier frequency of the FM
modulation. The negative feedback will be the capacitor C2 to the oscillating tank circuit.

To generate the radio frequency carrier waves the FM transmitter circuit requires an oscillator.
The tank circuit is derived from the LC circuit to store the energy for oscillations. The input
audio signal from the mic penetrated to the base of the transistor, which modulates the LC tank
circuit carrier frequency in FM format. The variable capacitor is used to change the resonant
frequency for fine modification to the FM frequency band. The modulated signal from the
antenna is radiated as radio waves at the FM frequency band and the antenna is nothing but
copper wire of 20cm long and 24 gauge. In this circuit the length of the antenna should be
significant and here you can use the 25-27 inches long copper wire of the antenna.

Ham radio

use of radio frequency spectrum for purposes of non-commercial exchange of messages, wireless
experimentation, self-training, private recreation, radiosport, contesting, and emergency
communication. The term "amateur" is used to specify "a duly authorised person interested in
radioelectric practice with a purely personal aim and without pecuniary interest;"[1] (either direct
monetary or other similar reward) and to differentiate it from commercial broadcasting, public
safety (such as police and fire), or professional two-way radio services (such as maritime,
aviation, taxis, etc.).

35
The amateur radio service (amateur service and amateur-satellite service) is established by the
International Telecommunication Union (ITU) through the Radio Regulations. National
governments regulate technical and operational characteristics of transmissions and issue
individual stations licenses with an identifying call sign. Prospective amateur operators are tested
for their understanding of key concepts in electronics and the host government's radio
regulations.

Radio amateurs use a variety of voice, text, image, and data communications modes and have
access to frequency allocations throughout the RF spectrum. This enables communication across
a city, region, country, continent, the world, or even into space. In many countries, amateur radio
operators may also send, receive, or relay radio communications between computers or
transceivers connected to secure virtual private networks on the Internet.

Amateur radio is officially represented and coordinated by the International Amateur Radio
Union (IARU), which is organized in three regions and has as its members the national amateur
radio societies which exist in most countries. According to an estimate made in 2011 by the
American Radio Relay League, two million people throughout the world are regularly involved
with amateur radio.[2] About 830,000 amateur radio stations are located in IARU Region 2 (the
Americas) followed by IARU Region 3 (South and East Asia and the Pacific Ocean) with about
750,000 stations. A significantly smaller number, about 400,000, are located in IARU Region 1
(Europe, Middle East, CIS, Africa).

The many facets of amateur radio attract practitioners with a wide range of interests. Many
amateurs begin with a fascination of radio communication and then combine other personal
interests to make pursuit of the hobby rewarding. Some of the focal areas amateurs pursue
include radio contesting, radio propagation study, public service communication, technical
experimentation, and computer networking.

Amateur radio operators use various modes of transmission to communicate. The two most
common modes for voice transmissions are frequency modulation (FM) and single sideband
(SSB). FM offers high quality audio signals, while SSB is better at long distance communication
when bandwidth is restricted.

36
Radiotelegraphy using Morse code, also known as "CW" from "continuous wave", is the wireless
extension of landline (wired) telegraphy developed by Samuel Morse and dates to the earliest
days of radio. Although computer-based (digital) modes and methods have largely replaced CW
for commercial and military applications, many amateur radio operators still enjoy using the CW
mode—particularly on the shortwave bands and for experimental work, such as earth-moon-earth
communication, because of its inherent signal-to-noise ratio advantages. Morse, using
internationally agreed message encodings such as the Q code, enables communication between
amateurs who speak different languages. It is also popular with homebrewers and in particular
with "QRP" or very-low-power enthusiasts, as CW-only transmitters are simpler to construct,
and the human ear-brain signal processing system can pull weak CW signals out of the noise
where voice signals would be totally inaudible. A similar "legacy" mode popular with home
constructors is amplitude modulation(AM), pursued by many vintage amateur radio enthusiasts
and aficionados of vacuum tube technology.

Demonstrating a proficiency in Morse code was for many years a requirement to obtain an
amateur license to transmit on frequencies below 30 MHz. Following changes in international
regulations in 2003, countries are no longer required to demand proficiency.[16] The United
States Federal Communications Commission, for example, phased out this requirement for all
license classes on 23 February 2007.

Modern personal computers have encouraged the use of digital modes such as radioteletype
(RTTY) which previously required cumbersome mechanical equipment.[19] Hams led the
development of packet radio in the 1970s, which has employed protocols such as AX.25 and
TCP/IP. Specialized digital modes such as PSK31 allow real-time, low-power communications
on the shortwave bands. EchoLink using Voice over IP technology has enabled amateurs to
communicate through local Internet-connected repeaters and radio nodes,[20] while IRLP has
allowed the linking of repeaters to provide greater coverage area. Automatic link establishment
(ALE) has enabled continuous amateur radio networks to operate on the high frequency bands
with global coverage. Other modes, such as FSK441 using software such as WSJT, are used for
weak signal modes including meteor scatterand moonbounce communications.

Fast scan amateur television has gained popularity as hobbyists adapt inexpensive consumer
video electronics like camcorders and video cards in PCs. Because of the wide bandwidth and
stable signals required, amateur television is typically found in the 70 cm (420–450 MHz)
frequency range, though there is also limited use on 33 cm (902–928 MHz), 23 cm (1240–1300
MHz) and higher. These requirements also effectively limit the signal range to between 20 and
60 miles (30–100 km).

37
Linked repeater systems, however, can allow transmissions of VHF and higher frequencies
across hundreds of miles.[21] Repeaters are usually located on heights of land or tall structures
and allow operators to communicate over hundreds of miles using hand-held or mobile
transceivers. Repeaters can also be linked together by using other amateur radio bands, landline,
or the Internet.

Amateur radio satellites can be accessed, some using a hand-held transceiver (HT), even, at
times, using the factory "rubber duck" antenna. Hams also use the moon, the aurora borealis, and
the ionized trails of meteors as reflectors of radio waves. Hams can also contact the International
Space Station (ISS) because many astronauts and cosmonauts are licensed as amateur radio
operators.

Amateur radio operators use their amateur radio station to make contacts with individual hams as
well as participating in round table discussion groups or "rag chew sessions" on the air. Some
join in regularly scheduled on-air meetings with other amateur radio operators, called "nets" (as
in "networks"), which are moderated by a station referred to as "Net Control". Nets can allow
operators to learn procedures for emergencies, be an informal round table, or cover specific
interests shared by a group.

Amateur radio operators, using battery- or generator-powered equipment, often provide essential
communications services when regular channels are unavailable due to natural disaster or other
disruptive events.

Many amateur radio operators participate in radio contests, during which an individual or team
of operators typically seek to contact and exchange information with as many other amateur
radio stations as possible in a given period of time. In addition to contests, a number of Amateur
radio operating award schemes exist, sometimes suffixed with "on the Air", such as Summits on
the Air, Islands on the Air, Worked All States and Jamboree on the Air.

38
Licensing

The top of a tower supporting a Yagi-Uda antenna and several wire antennas, along with a
Canadian flag

39
 A handheld VHF/UHF transceiver

Radio transmission permits are closely controlled by nations' governments because radio waves
propagate beyond national boundaries, and therefore radio is of international concern. Also,
radio has possible clandestine uses.

Both the requirements for and privileges granted to a licensee vary from country to country, but
generally follow the international regulations and standards established by the International
Telecommunication Union and World Radio Conferences.

All countries that license citizens to use amateur radio require operators to display knowledge
and understanding of key concepts, usually by passing an exam. The licenses grant hams the
privilege to operate in larger segments of the radio frequency spectrum, with a wider variety of
communication techniques, and with higher power levels relative to unlicensed personal radio
services (such as CB radio, FRS, and PMR446), which require type-approved equipment
restricted in mode, range, and power.

Amateur licensing is a routine civil administrative matter in many countries. Amateurs therein
must pass an examination to demonstrate technical knowledge, operating competence, and
awareness of legal and regulatory requirements, in order to avoid interfering with other amateurs
and other radio services. A series of exams are often available, each progressively more
challenging and granting more privileges: greater frequency availability, higher power output,
permitted experimentation, and, in some countries, distinctive call signs. Some countries, such as
the United Kingdom and Australia, have begun requiring a practical assessment in addition to the
written exams in order to obtain a beginner's license, which they call a Foundation License.

In most countries, an operator will be assigned a call sign with their license. In some countries, a
separate "station license" is required for any station used by an amateur radio operator. Amateur
radio licenses may also be granted to organizations or clubs. In some countries, hams were
allowed to operate only club stations.

An amateur radio license is valid only in the country in which it is issued or in another country
that has a reciprocal licensing agreement with the issuing country. Some countries, such as Syria
and Cuba, restrict operation by foreigners to club stations only.

In some countries, an amateur radio license is necessary in order to purchase or possess amateur
radio equipment.

Amateur radio licensing in the United States exemplifies the way in which some countries award
different levels of amateur radio licenses based on technical knowledge: three sequential levels

40
of licensing exams (Technician Class, General Class, and Amateur Extra Class) are currently
offered, which allow operators who pass them access to larger portions of the Amateur Radio
spectrum and more desirable (shorter) call signs. An exam, authorized by the Federal
Communications Commission (FCC), is required for all levels of the Amateur Radio license.
These exams are administered by Volunteer Examiners, accredited by the FCC-recognized
Volunteer Examiner Coordinator (VEC) system. The Technician Class and General Class exams
consist of 35 multiple-choice questions, drawn randomly from a pool of at least 350. To pass, 26
of the 35 questions must be answered correctly. The Extra Class exam has 50 multiple choice
questions (drawn randomly from a pool of at least 500), 37 of which must be answered correctly.
The tests cover regulations, customs, and technical knowledge, such as FCC provisions,
operating practices, advanced electronics theory, radio equipment design, and safety. Morse
Code is no longer tested in the U.S. Once the exam is passed, the FCC issues an Amateur Radio
license which is valid for ten years. Studying for the exam is made easier because the entire
question pools for all license classes are posted in advance. The question pools are updated every
four years by the National Conference of VECs.

Licensing requirements

Prospective amateur radio operators are examined on understanding of the key concepts of
electronics, radio equipment, antennas, radio propagation, RF safety, and the radio regulations of
the government granting the license. These examinations are sets of questions typically posed in
either a short answer or multiple-choice format. Examinations can be administered by
bureaucrats, non-paid certified examiners, or previously licensed amateur radio operators.

The ease with which an individual can acquire an amateur radio license varies from country to
country. In some countries, examinations may be offered only once or twice a year in the
national capital and can be inordinately bureaucratic (for example in India) or challenging
because some amateurs must undergo difficult security approval (as in Iran). Currently only
Yemen and North Korea do not issue amateur radio licenses to their citizens, although in both
cases a limited number of foreign visitors have been permitted to obtain amateur licenses in the

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past decade. Some developing countries, especially those in Africa, Asia, and Latin America,
require the payment of annual license fees that can be prohibitively expensive for most of their
citizens. A few small countries may not have a national licensing process and may instead
require prospective amateur radio operators to take the licensing examinations of a foreign
country. In countries with the largest numbers of amateur radio licensees, such as Japan, the
United States, Thailand, Canada, and most of the countries in Europe, there are frequent license
examinations opportunities in major cities.

Granting a separate license to a club or organization generally requires that an individual with a
current and valid amateur radio license who is in good standing with the telecommunications
authority assumes responsibility for any operations conducted under the club license or club call
sign. A few countries may issue special licenses to novices or beginners that do not assign the
individual a call sign but instead require the newly licensed individual to operate from stations
licensed to a club or organization for a period of time before a higher class of license can be
acquired.

Reciprocal licensing

Reciprocal agreements by country:

CEPT Member Nations

IARP Member Nations Members of CEPT and IARP

USA and Canada Treaty, CEPT and IARP

A reciprocal licensing agreement between two countries allows bearers of an amateur radio
license in one country under certain conditions to legally operate an amateur radio station in the

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other country without having to obtain an amateur radio license from the country being visited,
or the bearer of a valid license in one country can receive a separate license and a call sign in
another country, both of which have a mutually-agreed reciprocal licensing approvals.
Reciprocal licensing requirements vary from country to country. Some countries have bilateral or
multilateral reciprocal operating agreements allowing hams to operate within their borders with a
single set of requirements. Some countries lack reciprocal licensing systems.

When traveling abroad, visiting amateur operators must follow the rules of the country in which
they wish to operate. Some countries have reciprocal international operating agreements
allowing hams from other countries to operate within their borders with just their home country
license. Other host countries require that the visiting ham apply for a formal permit, or even a
new host country-issued license, in advance.

The reciprocal recognition of licenses frequently not only depends on the involved licensing
authorities, but also on the nationality of the bearer. As an example, in the US, foreign licenses
are recognized only if the bearer does not have US citizenship and holds no US license (which
may differ in terms of operating privileges and restrictions). Conversely, a US citizen may
operate under reciprocal agreements in Canada, but not a non-US citizen holding a US license.

Newcomers

Many people start their involvement in amateur radio by finding a local club. Clubs often
provide information about licensing, local operating practices, and technical advice. Newcomers
also often study independently by purchasing books or other materials, sometimes with the help
of a mentor, teacher, or friend. Established amateurs who help newcomers are often referred to as
"Elmers", as coined by Rodney Newkirk, W9BRD,[32] within the ham community.[33][34] In
addition, many countries have national amateur radio societies which encourage newcomers and
work with government communications regulation authorities for the benefit of all radio
amateurs. The oldest of these societies is the Wireless Institute of Australia, formed in 1910;
other notable societies are the Radio Society of Great Britain, the American Radio Relay League,
Radio Amateurs of Canada, Bangladesh NGOs Network for Radio and Communication, the New
Zealand Association of Radio Transmitters and South African Radio League. (See
Category:Amateur radio organizations)

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Call signs

An amateur radio operator uses a call sign on the air to legally identify the operator or station. In
some countries, the call sign assigned to the station must always be used, whereas in other
countries, the call sign of either the operator or the station may be used. In certain jurisdictions,
an operator may also select a "vanity" call sign although these must also conform to the issuing
government's allocation and structure used for Amateur Radio call signs. Some jurisdictions
require a fee to obtain such a vanity call sign; in others, such as the UK, a fee is not required and
the vanity call sign may be selected when the license is applied for. The FCC in the U.S.
discontinued its fee for vanity call sign applications in September 2015.

Call sign structure as prescribed by the ITU consists of three parts which break down as follows,
using the call sign ZS1NAT as an example:

 ZS – Shows the country from which the call sign originates and may also indicate the
license class. (This call sign is licensed in South Africa.)
 1 – Gives the subdivision of the country or territory indicated in the first part (this one
refers to the Western Cape).
 NAT – The final part is unique to the holder of the license, identifying that station
specifically.

Many countries do not follow the ITU convention for the numeral. In the United Kingdom the
original calls G0xxx, G2xxx, G3xxx, G4xxx, were Full (A) License holders along with the last
M0xxx full call signs issued by the City & Guilds examination authority in December 2003.
Additional Full Licenses were originally granted to (B) Licensees with G1xxx, G6xxx, G7xxx,
G8xxx and 1991 onward with M1xxx callsigns. The newer three-level Intermediate License
holders are assigned 2E0xxx and 2E1xx, and the basic Foundation License holders are granted
call signs M3xxx or M6xxx.

Instead of using numbers, in the UK the second letter after the initial ‘G’ identifies the station’s
location; for example, a callsign G7OOE becomes GM7OOE when that license holder is
operating a station in Scotland. Prefix "GM" is Scotland, G or GE is England (the ‘E’ may be
omitted), and "GW" is Wales. More information is available from the UK Radio & Media
Licensing Authority (Ofcom) website.

In the United States, for non-vanity licenses, the numeral indicates the geographical district the
holder resided in when the license was first issued. Prior to 1978, US hams were required to
obtain a new call sign if they moved out of their geographic district.

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In Canada, call signs start with VA, VE, VY, VO, and CY. Call signs starting with 'V' end with a
number after to indicate the political region; prefix CY indicates geographic islands. Prefix VA1
or VE1 is Nova Scotia, VA2 / VE2 is Quebec, VA3 / VE3 is Ontario, VA4 / VE4 is Manitoba,
VA5 / VE5 is Saskatchewan, VA6 / VE6 is Alberta, VA7 / VE7 is British Columbia, VE8 is the
Northwest Territories, VE9 is New Brunswick, VY0 is Nunavut, VY1 is Yukon, VY2 is Prince
Edward Island, VO1 is Newfoundland, and VO2 is Labrador. CY is for amateurs operating from
Sable Island (CY0) or St. Paul Island (CY9), both of which require Coast Guard permission to
access. The last two or three letters of the callsigns are typically the operator's choice (upon
completing the licensing test, the ham writes three most-preferred options). Two letter callsign
suffixes require a ham to have already been licensed for 5 years. Callsigns in Canada can be
requested with a fee.

Also, for smaller geopolitical entities, the numeral may be part of the country identification. For
example, VP2xxx is in the British West Indies, which is subdivided into VP2Exx Anguilla,
VP2Mxx Montserrat, and VP2Vxx British Virgin Islands. VP5xxx is in the Turks and Caicos
Islands, VP6xxx is on Pitcairn Island, VP8xxx is in the Falklands, and VP9xxx is in Bermuda.

Online callbooks or callsign databases can be browsed or searched to find out who holds a
specific callsign. An example of an online callbook is QRZ.COM. Non-exhaustive lists of
famous people who hold or have held amateur radio callsigns have also been compiled and
published.

Many jurisdictions (but not in the UK & Europe) may issue specialty vehicle registration plates
to licensed amateur radio operators often in order to facilitate their movement during an
emergency. The fees for application and renewal are usually less than the standard rate for
specialty plates.

Privileges

In most administrations, unlike other RF spectrum users, radio amateurs may build or modify
transmitting equipment for their own use within the amateur spectrum without the need to obtain
government certification of the equipment. Licensed amateurs can also use any frequency in their
bands (rather than being allocated fixed frequencies or channels) and can operate medium to
high-powered equipment on a wide range of frequencies so long as they meet certain technical
parameters including occupied bandwidth, power, and prevention of spurious emission.

Radio amateurs have access to frequency allocations throughout the RF spectrum, usually
allowing choice of an effective frequency for communications across a local, regional, or

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worldwide path. The shortwave bands, or HF, are suitable for worldwide communication, and
the VHF and UHF bands normally provide local or regional communication, while the
microwave bands have enough space, or bandwidth, for amateur television transmissions and
high-speed computer networks.

The international symbol for amateur radio, included in the logos of many IARUmember
societies. The diamond holds a circuit diagram featuring components common to every radio: an
antenna, inductorand ground.

In most countries, an amateur radio license grants permission to the license holder to own,
modify, and operate equipment that is not certified by a governmental regulatory agency. This
encourages amateur radio operators to experiment with home-constructed or modified
equipment. The use of such equipment must still satisfy national and international standards on
spurious emissions.

Amateur radio operators are encouraged both by regulations and tradition of respectful use of the
spectrum to use as little power as possible to accomplish the communication. This is to minimise
interference or EMC to any other device. Although allowable power levels are moderate by
commercial standards, they are sufficient to enable global communication. Lower license classes
usually have lower power limits; for example, the lowest license class in the UK (Foundation
licence) has a limit of 10 W.

Power limits vary from country to country and between license classes within a country. For
example, the peak envelope power limits for the highest available license classes in a few
selected countries are: 2.25 kW in Canada, 1.5 kW in the United States, 1.0 kW in Belgium,
Luxembourg, Switzerland and New Zealand, 750 W in Germany, 500 W in Italy, 400 W in
Australia, India and the United Kingdom, and 150 W in Oman.

Output power limits may also depend on the mode of transmission. In Australia, for example,
400 W may be used for SSB transmissions, but FM and other modes are limited to 120 W.

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The point at which power output is measured may also affect transmissions. The United
Kingdom measures at the point the antenna is connected to the signal feed cable, which means
the radio system may transmit more than 400 W to overcome signal loss in the cable; conversely,
Germany measures power at the output of the final amplification stage, which results in a loss in
radiated power with longer cable feeds.

Certain countries permit amateur radio licence holders to hold a Notice of Variation that allows
higher power to be used than normally allowed for certain specific purposes. E.g. in the UK
some amateur radio licence holders are allowed to transmit using (33 dBw) 2.0 kW for
experiments entailing using the moon as a passive radio reflector (known as Earth-Moon-Earth
communication) (EME).

Band plans and frequency allocations

The International Telecommunication Union (ITU) governs the allocation of communications

frequencies worldwide, with participation by each nation's communications regulation authority.
National communications regulators have some liberty to restrict access to these bandplan
frequencies or to award additional allocations as long as radio services in other countries do not
suffer interference. In some countries, specific emission types are restricted to certain parts of the
radio spectrum, and in most other countries, International Amateur Radio Union (IARU) member
societies adopt voluntary plans to ensure the most effective use of spectrum.

In a few cases, a national telecommunication agency may also allow hams to use frequencies
outside of the internationally allocated amateur radio bands. In Trinidad and Tobago, hams are
allowed to use a repeater which is located on 148.800 MHz. This repeater is used and maintained
by the National Emergency Management Agency (NEMA), but may be used by radio amateurs
in times of emergency or during normal times to test their capability and conduct emergency
drills. This repeater can also be used by non-ham NEMA staff and REACT members. In
Australia and New Zealand ham operators are authorized to use one of the UHF TV channels. In
the U.S., amateur radio operators providing essential communication needs in connection with
the immediate safety of human life and immediate protection of property when normal
communication systems are not available may use any frequency including those of other radio
services such as police and fire and in cases of disaster in Alaska may use the statewide
emergency frequency of 5167.5 kHz with restrictions upon emissions.

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Similarly, amateurs in the United States may apply to be registered with the Military Auxiliary
Radio System (MARS). Once approved and trained, these amateurs also operate on US
government military frequencies to provide contingency communications and morale message
traffic support to the military services.

Modes of communication

Amateurs use a variety of voice, text, image, and data communications modes over radio.
Generally new modes can be tested in the amateur radio service, although national regulations
may require disclosure of a new mode to permit radio licensing authorities to monitor the
transmissions. Encryption, for example, is not generally permitted in the Amateur Radio service
except for the special purpose of satellite vehicle control uplinks. The following is a partial list of
the modes of communication used, where the mode includes both modulation types and
operating protocols.

Voice

 Amplitude modulation (AM)

 Double Sideband Suppressed Carrier (DSB-SC)
 Independent Sideband (ISB)
 Single Sideband (SSB)
 Amplitude Modulation Equivalent (AME)
 Frequency modulation (FM)
 Phase modulation (PM)

Image

 Amateur Television (ATV), also known as Fast Scan television

 Slow-Scan Television (SSTV)
 Facsimile

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Text and data

Most amateur digital modes are transmitted by inserting audio into the microphone input of a
radio and using an analog scheme, such as amplitude modulation (AM), frequency modulation
(FM), or single-sideband modulation (SSB).

 Continuous Wave (CW), usually used for Morse code

 Automatic Link Establishment (ALE)
 AMateur Teleprinting Over Radio (AMTOR)
 D-STAR
 Digital mobile radio
 EchoLink
 Hellschreiber, also referred to as either Feld-Hell, or Hell
 Discrete multi-tone modulation modes such as Multi Tone 63 (MT63)
 Multiple Frequency-Shift Keying (MFSK) modes such as
o FSK441, JT6M, JT65, JT9, FT8
o JS8Call
o WSPR
o Olivia MFSK
 Packet radio (AX.25)
o Automatic Packet Reporting System (APRS)
 PACTOR
 Phase-Shift Keying
o 31 baud binary phase shift keying: PSK31
o 31 baud quadrature phase shift keying: QPSK31
o 63 baud binary phase shift keying: PSK63
o 63 baud quadrature phase shift keying: QPSK63
 Spread spectrum (SS)
 Radioteletype (RTTY)

Modes by activity

The following "modes" use no one specific modulation scheme but rather are classified by the
activity of the communication.

 Earth-Moon-Earth (EME)
 Internet Radio Linking Project (IRLP)
 Low Transmitter Power (QRP)
 Satellite (OSCAR – Orbiting Satellite Carrying Amateur Radio)

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CONCLUSION

A two-way radio is a radio that can both transmit and receive a signal (a transceiver), unlike a
broadcast receiver which only receives content. It is an audio (sound) transceiver designed for
bidirectional person-to-person/person-to-community voice communication with other users with
similar radios. Two-way radios are available in mobile, stationary base and hand-held portable
configurations.

Communication during and immediately after a disaster situation is an important component of

response and recovery, in that it connects affected people, families, and communities with first
responders, support systems, and other family members. Reliable and accessible communication
and information systems also are key to a community’s resilience1. The role of communication
technology has been recognized as integral to disaster management for a long time. Although
application of communication technology has a role in all the four distinct phases of disaster
management namely, mitigation, preparedness, response and recovery, most of the application
has traditionally been in response and recovery phases. The new communication and information
technologies that have emerged over the last two decades lend themselves to greater possibilities
of integration of different communication systems. The interoperability of various
communication systems including internet, mobile phones, fax, e-mail, radio and television is
increasingly becoming functional. As a result, the possibilities for application of communication
technologies in mitigation and prevention of disasters are also increasing

Currently, Indian hams are working on 14.210 MHz to contact hams in Nepal, where a massive
7.9 magnitude earthquake has claimed the lives of close to 2,000 people.Jayant Bhide, national
coordinator for disaster communication, Amateur Radio Society of India, who is currently based
in Gwalior, says, “We are coordinating with hams in Australia, Europe and Turkey to create a
mode of communication and provide help to those stuck in different parts of Nepal, as the
country is bereft of electricity and cellular networks following the earthquake."

We can also use this tech. in robotics and other field.

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Reference

 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amateur_radio
 http://www.arrl.org/what-is-ham-radio
 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two-way_radio
 https://www.buytwowayradios.com/blog/2014/12/what_is_the_difference_between_walk
ie_talkies_and_two_way_radios.html
 https://danimex.com/products
 https://www.thefreedictionary.com/transreceiver
 https://www.dnatechindia.com/CC2500-RF-Transreceiver.html

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