Module – I

REVIEW OF STATICS
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Noushad. K

Assistant Professor

Department of Civil Engineering

MEA Engineering College, Perinthalmanna

Email: noushadk@meaec.edu.in

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 1. REVIEW OF STATICS

1.1 TYPES OF EXTERNAL LOADS

1. Point load that is also called as concentrated load.

2. Distributed load
3. Coupled load

1. Point Load

 Point load is that load which acts over a small distance

2. Distributed Load

 Distributed load is that acts over a considerable length

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Types of Distributed Load
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 ..............................................
Uniformly Distributed load (UDL)
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Uniformly Varying load (Non-uniformly distributed load).
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Uniformly Distributed Load (UDL)
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 Uniformly distributed load is that whose magnitude remains uniform throughout the
length

Uniformly Varying Load

 It is that load whose magnitude varies along the loading length with a constant rate

Uniformly varying load is further divided into two types;

 Triangular Load
 Trapezoidal Load

Triangular Load

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  Triangular load is that whose magnitude is zero at one end of span and increases
constantly till the 2nd end of the span.

Trapezoidal Load

 Trapezoidal load is that which is acting on the span length in the form of trapezoid.

3. Coupled Load

 Coupled load is that in which two opposite forces acts on the same span

1.2 STRESS

Stress is the internal resistance offered by the body to the external load applied to it per unit
cross sectional area.

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Now stress is defined as the force intensity or force per unit area. Here we use a symbol σ to
represent the stress.

𝑃
𝜎=
𝐴

Where A is the cross-sectional area

1.2.1 Types Of Stresses:

1. Normal stress
2. Shear stress.

Normal stresses: We have defined stress as force per unit area. If the stresses are normal to

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the areas concerned, then these are termed as normal stresses. The normal stresses are generally
denoted by a Greek letter (σ)

Tensile or compressive Stresses: The normal stresses can be either tensile or compressive
whether the stresses acts out of the area or into the area

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Shear Stresses:
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The stress acting tangential to the surface is known as Shear stress
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𝑃
𝜏=
𝐴

Where P is the total force and A the area over which it acts.

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1.3 WORKING STRESS

 Also called allowable stress

 It is the maximum safe stress the material may carry.

𝑈𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
Thus, 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 = 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑓𝑒𝑡𝑦 (𝑛)

1.4 STRAIN

When a single force or a system force acts on a body, it undergoes some deformation. This
deformation per unit length is known as strain. Mathematically strain may be defined as
deformation per unit length.

𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 =
𝑜𝑟𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛
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𝛿𝑙
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𝑒=
𝑙
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1.5 ELASTICITY
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The property of material by virtue of which it returns to its original shape and size upon
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removal of load is known as elasticity.

1.6 HOOKS LAW

It states that within elastic limit stress is proportional to strain. Mathematically

𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝐸=
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛

Where E = Young’s Modulus

Hooks law holds good equally for tension and compression.

1.7 POISSON’S RATIO

The ratio lateral strain to longitudinal strain produced by a single stress is known as Poisson’s

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ratio. Symbol used for poisson’s ratio is µ or 1/ m .

𝐿𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
𝑃𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑛′ 𝑠𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 =
𝐿𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛

1.8 MODULUS OF ELASTICITY (OR YOUNG’S MODULUS)

Young’s modulus is defined as the ratio of stress to strain within elastic limit.

𝜎
𝐸
𝑒

1.9 Deformation of A Body Due To Load Acting On It

We know that young’s modulus E = Stress / Strain

σ P
Or, strain, e = E = AE
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δl
e=
Now strain, .............................................
l
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𝑃𝐿
S o D e f o r m.............................................
a t i o n 𝛿𝑙 = 𝐴𝐸
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1.10 SHEAR STRAIN

T h e d i s t o r t i o n p r odu c e d b y s h e a r s t r e s s o n a n e l e m e n t o r r ec t a n gu l a r b l o c k
i s s h o w n i n t h e f i gu r e . T h e s h e a r s t r a i n o r ‘ sl i d e ’ i s ex p r e ss e d b y a n gl e ϕ
a n d i t c a n b e d e f i n e d a s t h e c h a n ge i n t h e r i gh t a n gl e . It i s m e a s u r e d i n
r a d i a n s a n d i s d i m e n s i o n l es s i n n a t u r e .

Shear strain = tanΦ

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1.11 MODULUS OF RIGIDITY

F o r e l a s t i c m a t e r i a l s i t i s f ou n d t h at s h e ar s t r e s s i s p r op o r t i on a l t o t h e sh e a r
s t r a i n w i t h i n e l a st i c l i m i t . T h e r a t i o i s c a l l e d m o d ul u s r i gi d i t y. It i s d e n o t e d
b y t h e s ym b o l ‘ G ’ o r ‘ C ’

𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝜏
𝐺= =
𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝜑

B u l k mo d u l u s ( K ) : It i s d e f i n e d a s t h e r a t i o o f u n i f o r m st r e s s i n t e n si t y t o
t h e v o l um e t r i c st r a i n . It i s d e n o t e d b y t h e s ym b o l K .

𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝐾=
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛

𝜎
𝐾=
𝑒𝑣
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1.12 RELATION BETWEEN ELASTIC CONSTANTS
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E l a s t i c ...............................................
c on s t a n t s : T h e s e a r e t h e r e l a t i o n s w h i c h d e t e r m i n e t h e
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d e f o r m a t.................................................
i o n s p r o d uc e d b y a gi v e n s t r e s s s ys t e m a c t i n g o n a p a r t i c u l ar
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a l . T h e s e f a c t o r s a r e c o n s t a n t w i t h i n e l a st i c l i m i t a n d k n o w n a s
m o d u l us o f e l a s t i c i t y E , m o d u l u s o f r i gi d i t y G , B u l k m o d u l us K a n d
Poisson’s ratio μ.

R e l a t i o n sh i p b e t w ee n mo d u l u s of e l ast i c i t y ( E ) an d b u l k mo d u l u s ( K ) :

𝐸 = 3𝐾(1 − 2𝜇)

R e l a t i o n sh i p b e t w ee n mo d u l u s of e l ast i c i t y ( E ) an d mo d u l u s of r i gi d i t y
(G):

𝐸 = 2𝐺(1 + 𝜇)

R e l a t i o n a mo n g t h r e e e l a s t i c c o n s t an t s :

9𝐾𝐺
𝐸=
3𝐾 + 𝐺

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1.13 STRESS STRAIN RELATIONSHIP

A typical tensile test curve for the mild steel has been shown below

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SALIENT POINTS OF THE GRAPH:
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(A) So it is evident form the graph that the strain is proportional to strain or elongation
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is proportional to the load giving a st..line relationship. This law of proportionality is valid up
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to a point A. .............................................
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or we can say that point A is some ultimate point when the linear nature of the graph ceases or
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there is a deviation from the linear nature. This point is known as the limit of proportionality
or the proportionality limit.

(B) For a short period beyond the point A, the material may still be elastic in the sense
that the deformations are completely recovered when the load is removed. The limiting
point B is termed as Elastic Limit.

(C) and (D) - Beyond the elastic limit plastic deformation occurs and strains are not totally
recoverable. There will be thus permanent deformation or permanent set when load is
removed. These two points are termed as upper and lower yield points respectively. The stress
at the yield point is called the yield strength.

A study a stress – strain diagrams shows that the yield point is so near the proportional limit
that for most purpose the two may be taken as one. However, it is much easier to locate the
former. For material which do not posses a well define yield points, In order to find the
yield point or yield strength, an offset method is applied.

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In this method a line is drawn parallel to the straight line portion of initial stress diagram by
offsetting this by an amount equal to 0.2% of the strain as shown as below and this happens
especially for the low carbon steel.

(E) A further increase in the load will cause marked deformation in the whole volume of the
metal. The maximum load which the specimen can with stand without failure is called the load
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at the ultimate strength.
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point ‘E' of the diagram corresponds to the ultimate strength of a material.
The highest ..............................................
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su = Stress which the specimen can with stand without failure & is known as Ultimate Strength
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or Tensile .................................................
Strength.
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su is equal to load at E divided by the original cross-sectional area of the bar.

(F) Beyond point E, the bar begins to forms neck. The load falling from the maximum until
fracture occurs at F. Beyond point E, the cross-sectional area of the specimen begins to reduce
rapidly over a relatively small length of bar and the bar is said to form a neck. This necking
takes place whilst the load reduces, and fracture of the bar finally occurs at point F.

1.14 PERCENTAGE ELONGATION

The ductility of a material in tension can be characterized by its elongation and by the
reduction in area at the cross section where fracture occurs.

It is the ratio of the extension in length of the specimen after fracture to its initial gauge
length, expressed in percentage.

𝑙1 − 𝑙𝑔
𝑃𝐸𝑅𝐶𝐸𝑁𝑇𝐴𝐺𝐸 𝐸𝐿𝑂𝑁𝐺𝐴𝑇𝐼𝑂𝑁 = 𝑥100
𝑙1

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lI = gauge length of specimen after fracture(or the distance between the gage marks at
fracture)

lg= gauge length before fracture(i.e. initial gauge length)

1.15 PERCENTAGE REDUCTION IN AREA

𝐴 − 𝐴𝑓
PERCENTAGE REDUCTION IN AREA=
𝐴

A – initaial area
Af – Final reduced area

1.16 DUCTILE AND BRITTLE MATERIALS

Ductile Materials
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It we just examine the earlier tension curve one can notice that the extension of the materials
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over the plastic range is considerably in excess of that associated with elastic loading. The
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materials to allow these large deformations or large extensions without failure is
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termed as ductility. The materials with high ductility are termed as ductile materials.
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Brittle Materials
A brittle material is one which exhibits a relatively small extensions or deformations to
fracture, so that the partially plastic region of the tensile test graph is much reduced.

This type of graph is shown by the cast iron or steels with high carbon contents or concrete.

1.17 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIAL

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Elasticity: Property of material by virtue of which it can regain its shape after removal of
external load

Plasticity: Property of material by virtue of which, it will be in a state of permanent

deformation even after removal of external load.

Ductility: Property of material by virtue of which, the material can be drawn into wires.

Hardness: Property of material by virtue of which the material will offer resistance to
penetration or indentation.

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