UNIT ONE

1. SENTENCE BUILDING

1.1. WHAT IS A SENTENCE?

A sentence is a group of words that expresses a complete idea or thought. A sentence always has
a subject and predicate.

Example:
a) Abdi came. (predicate is only a verb)
Subject predicate

b) Ali submitted the assignment. (predicate is verb plus object)

Subject predicate

c) Hana is a nurse. (predicate is verb plus complement)

Subject predicate

Notice that a predicate should at least have a verb.

Activity 1
In each of the following sentences, underline the subject and circle the verb.
1. Henock likes drinking tea.
2. Chaltu is my sister.
3. The man in blue-black suit is my brother.
4. Where are you going?
5. This is my pencil.

Activity 2
Read each group of words and decide whether it is a sentence. In the space provided, write “S” if
it is a sentence and “NS” if it is not a sentence. Try to rewrite those which are not sentences to
make them meaningful sentences.

1. In the United States religious holidays often become nonreligious. _____

2. The government of the United States recognizes eight holidays by giving its employees
the day off. ______
3. The parents hiding several hundred Easter eggs. ____
4. When we spend a long holiday weekend in the mountains. _____
5. Most people look forward to long holiday weekends. _______

Activity 3
Rearrange the following words to make them a sentence.
1. Your is what father’s name? What is your father’s name?
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 2. Suitable Ambo of towns the is most for living one. Ambo is one of the most suitable towns for living.
3. Speak very well English you do? Do you speak English very well?
4. My sister table on the belong book to does not the. the book on the table does not belong to my sister
5. Given our assignments teacher has us many English. Our English teacher has given us
many assignments.

Activity 4
There are seven incomplete sentences in the following paragraph. Find and correct them.

I want to tell you about my friend Talilie. She lives in Ambo. Is young and
single. She twenty-two years old. Works in Ambo Mineral Water Factory. Is a
nice place to work. Talilie likes her job. Factory very important to her. Helps her
family with the salary she gets from it. She also pays her tuition fee. She has a
plan to get married next year. Her fiancé ‘s name Moti. He loves her very much.

Activity 5
Find any incomplete sentences in the following paragraph and correct them.
The name of my hometown is Melka Jabdu. My family there. Is a small city
nearer to Dire Dawa. Has a population of about 20,000. the weather of Melka
Jabdu is usually hot. However, the winter relatively cool and rainy. Is a
favorable place for growing fruits and vegetable. The people very friendly. It a
nice place to live.

1.2. SENTENCE TYPES (STRUCTURALLY)

Sentences can be classified in different ways depending upon their function and structure. This
section discusses types of sentences according to their structure.

1.2.1. Simple Sentences

Simple sentences contain one independent clause and any number of phrases and single-word
modifiers.
1.3. An independent clause contains a subject and a verb and can stand alone as a sentence.

a) Simple Subject & Simple Predicate

 My brother has come.
 Hana is a clever nurse.

b) Compound Subject & Simple Predicate

 Dogs, wolves and foxes belong to the Canidae family.
 Neither Abebe nor his friends have come to the party.

c) Simple Subject & Compound Predicate

 Girmay came home and had his dinner with me.
 Hellen will wash the dishes, clean the room, and cook dinner.

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 d) Compound Subject & Compound Predicate
 Abdi and Kemal came home and ate lunch.
 The boys and the girls stood and cheered.

1.2.2. Compound Sentences

A compound sentence consists of two (sometimes more) independent clauses connected with a
coordinating conjunction (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, yet, so) or a conjunctive adverb such as
moreover, thus, therefore, consequently, indeed, moreover, furthermore.

A comma (,) comes before the conjunction in a compound sentence.

The coordinating conjunction shows the relationship between the two independent clauses of
the sentence.

Here are examples of compound sentences with different coordinating conjunctions.

I’m heading for Guder tonight, and I won’t be back for a month.
I’m heading for Guder tonight, so I won’t be seeing you for a month.
I’m heading for Guder tonight, but I’ll come right back.
Roba is a clever student, yet he could be doing even better.
Roba is a clever student, so we expect him to score ‘A’ in all subjects.
Roba is a clever student, for he studies hard and grasps concepts well.
We could call a taxi to get us, or we could walk sixteen blocks to the restaurant.

1.2.3. Complex Sentences

A complex sentence consists of an independent clause and one or more dependent clauses.
Dependent clauses usually begin with subordinating conjunctions or relative pronouns (who,
whose, which, that, whom). Common subordinating conjunctions are:

after till although since unless

as as if because before if
so as so far as so that though until
when whenever whereas while

The dependent clause (beginning with the subordinating conjunction) may either begin the
sentence or end it, depending on what clause the writer wants to emphasize. When the
dependent clause begins a sentence, a comma is placed after it.
Examples:
While you were out running around town, I was home taking care of your chores. (Comma
after dependent clause)
I was home taking care of your chores while you were out running around town. (No
comma – dependent clause ends sentence)

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 1.2.4. Compound-Complex Sentences
Compound - complex sentences contain at least one dependent clause and more than one
independent clause. The clauses are connected by both conjunctions (i.e., but, so, and, etc.) and
subordinators (i.e., who, because, although, etc.)
Examples
 John, who briefly visited last month, won the prize, and he took a short vacation.
 Jack forgot his friend's birthday, so he sent him a card when he finally remembered.
 The report which Tom complied was presented to the board, but it was rejected because it
was too complex.

Activity 6
Identify each of the following sentences as Simple Sentence, Compound Sentence, Complex
Sentence, or Compound Complex Sentence.
1. When the sky darkened, the wind blew, and the leaves fell.
2. Because of lack of money, the students were unable to conduct research on all the
research thematic areas that left many areas excluded.
3. I would like to do it; however, I have no time.
4. Genzebe runs and plays ground tennis every morning.
5. A good student will always carry out the command of his teacher.
6. Because it was a hot day, Ababo ordered a cold mirinda, and she drank it at once.
7. Sarah was a brilliant student but did not expect to go to college.
8. Mary and I remained hungry and tired, but we still worked hard.
9. The young girl and her brother viciously kicked the dog down the stairs and laughed nervously.
10. The movie was good because it was the story of human life, but I enjoyed the
book more.
11. Tura broke his leg when his car hit the tree.
12. Hanna bought her dress after she fought with her mother.

Activity 7

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Write down two sentences of your own (eight sentences altogether) for each type of sentences
above.

1.3. KINDS OF SENTENCES (FUNCTIONALLY)

Sentence classification can also be made based on their functions.

1.3.1. Declarative Sentence

A declarative sentence makes a statement. It normally ends with a period.

Example:
a) Ambo is a beautiful town.
b) Indian economy is growing very fast.
A declarative sentence can also be a negative sentence.
Example
c) Ambo is not a beautiful town.
d) Ethiopian economy is not growing very fast.

1.3.2. Imperative Sentence

An imperative sentence gives a command, warning, or makes a request. In this type of
sentences, the subject “you” is not often mentioned; it is understood. An imperative sentence
usually ends with a period, but if it expresses strong emotion, it will end with an exclamation
point.

Example:
a) Come in.
b) Please, open the window.
c) Get out!
d) Stop!

1.3.3. Interrogative Sentence

An interrogative sentence asks a question, and it ends with a question mark.

Example:
a) What is your name?
b) Have you done your homework?
Types of Questions

Questions can be divided as follows. Can you find out what the following types of question
mean by giving examples?

1.4. Indirect Question

1.5. Yes/No question
1.6. Wh-word question

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 1.7. Alternative question.
1.8. Tag question

1.3.4. Exclamatory Sentence

An exclamatory sentence expresses strong emotion; it ends with an exclamation mark.

Example:
a) What a beautiful girl Kena is!
b) Wow, this is an excellent piece of paper!

Activity 11
Identify each of the following sentences as Declarative (D), Imperative (I), Interrogative (In), or
Exclamatory (E).
1. Submit your assignment by next week. ________________
2. Among my classmates are Chaltu, Boni, Amaz, and Kemal. __________
3. Do you know the name of the student who won Gold Medal from Ambo University?
___________________
4. Relax and drive safely. ____________
5. What an excellent piece of drawing you made! ________________
6. Please, study hard. ________________
7. Bullshit! ______________

1.4. IDENTIFYING & CORRECTING FAULTY SENTENCES

Definition
A faulty sentence is a sentence that is deficient in one way or another. When we read it,
something sounds incomplete or wrong. We may have difficulty understanding exactly
what the writer is trying to say. For this reason, it is really important for writers to use
sentences that are both clear and grammatically correct. Writing is for communication,
and if the sentences are not communicating what the writer intends, there is a problem
that needs to be fixed.
What Is A Good Sentence?
A complete sentence contains both a subject (noun) and a verb (that subject's action). If a
sentence is missing either of these essential parts, we have a problem. A complete
sentence is a complete thought. If the thought is not complete, neither is the sentence.
Also, good sentences are clear and fairly to the point. When we read good sentences, we
understand what the writer is trying to communicate. Faulty sentences can be one of the
following: sentence fragments, run-on sentences, comma splices, misplaced modifiers,
and dangling modifiers.
1.4.1. SENTENCE FRAGMENTS
The minimum sentence in written English consists of a subject and a verb. Strings of words that
either do not have a subject or do not have a verb are called fragments and must be corrected.
Another kind of fragment is a dependent clause that is not connected to an independent clause.
Look at these fragments:
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 1. Because I needed to buy milk.
2. John singing in the shower.
3. Dancing and laughing on our way home from the party.
4. For example, a computer.
Fragments should never be used in academic writing. Here are some ways to correct the
preceding fragments.
1 “Because I needed to buy milk” is a dependent clause. A dependent clause must be
connected to an independent clause. You, the writer, must decide whether it should
be connected to the sentence in front of it or the sentence after it, possible corrections
are:
Because I needed to buy milk, I went to the store.
OR
I went to the store because I needed to buy milk.
2 In “John singing in the shower,” ‘singing’ is a form of a verb, but it does not have a
tense. There are three forms of a verb in English that do not have tense: the present
participle, the past participle, and the infinitive. ‘Singing’ is the present participle of
the verb ‘sing’. To make this fragment into a sentence, you need to change the
present participle to a verb with a tense. Possible corrections are
John was singing in the shower.
OR
John sings in the shower.

3 “Dancing and laughing on our way home from the party” is a fragment because it
does not have a subject. In addition, the verbs are present participles. Possible
corrections are:
We were dancing and laughing on our way home from the party.
OR
We danced and laughed on our way home from the party.
OR
Dancing and laughing on our way home from the party, we woke up all the
neighbors.
4 “For example, a computer” has only a noun phrase (a computer) and no verb. You
need to add a verb and decide if the noun phrase is the subject or object of the
sentence. Possible corrections are:
For example, a computer is useful for writing papers.
OR
For example, I think having a computer is useful.

Activity 1 Identifying Fragments

This paragraph has five fragments. Find them and correct them.

The History of Baseball

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 Modern baseball has an interesting history. Actually started out in England as a game called
rounders. It made its way to North America and was largely played in rural areas. By 1830,
most urban and rural area teams that played together, but there were still no official rules or
even a standard plying area. When a group in New York City published a book in 1845. It
gave baseball twenty rules, two teams of nine players each and defined the playing field.
Simply called the New York game. Its popularity continued to grow, and during the Civil
War in the 1860s, the Yankee soldiers spread the game throughout the country. By the end of
the 1860s. The name had changed to baseball and it looked very much like the game we
know today.

1.4.2. RUN-ON SENTENCES

Another common punctuation problem is a run-on sentence. In run-on sentences, two or more
independent clauses follow each other without any punctuation. Look at this example of a run-on
sentence:

Cutting down the rain forests leads to the extinction of plants and animals their habitats are
destroyed.

There are three common ways to correct run-on sentences:

1. Make two separate sentences.
Cutting down the rain forests leads to the extinction of plants and animals. Their
habitats are destroyed.
2. Add extra works.
When their habitats are destroyed due to cutting down the rain forests, many plants
and animals become extinct.
3. Add a subordinating conjunction.
Cutting down the rain forests leads to the extinction of plants and animals because
their habitats are destroyed.

Activity 2 Adding Necessary punctuation

The following paragraph has no punctuation. Correct it by adding capital letters, commas,
semicolons, and periods. (Hint: There are six complete sentences in the paragraph.)

Cities can grow in an organic way or in a planned way organic cities are usually older cities
they are called organic because they have spread in different directions with no precise
plan except to accommodate the growing population on the other hand the modern planned
cities are sometimes designed before they are even really established in a such a plan
careful attention is paid to the amount of residential and commercial spaces in short there
are two types of city growth.
1.4.3. COMMA SPLICES
A common punctuation problem is a comma splice. A comma splice is an error that occurs when
a comma by itself is used between two independent clauses. A comma is correct between two
independent clauses, but only when it is followed by a coordinating conjunction. Look at this
example sentence with a comma splice:
My dad hung a bird feeder in the backyard, he loves to watch the birds eat from it.
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There are four common ways to correct comma splices:
1. Put a period in the place of the comma and capitalize the first word of the next sentence.

My dad hung a bird feeder in the backyard. He loves to watch the birds eat from
it.
2. Put a semicolon in the place of the comma.
My dad hung a bird feeder in the backyard; he loves to watch the birds eat from
it.
3. Insert a coordinating conjunction.
My dad hung a bird feeder in the backyard, and he loves to watch the birds eat
from it.
4. Change one of the clauses into a dependent clause by starting it with a subordinating
conjunction.

Since my dad hung a bird feeder in the backyard, he loves to watch the birds eat
from it.
Activity3 Correcting Comma Splices
This paragraph has four comma splices. Find them and correct them. Try to use each of the four
ways explained above.
Planting Roses
Planting roses is easy if you follow these steps. First you need to measure the diameter of
the roots, next you must dig a hole twice as big as that diameter. This hole should be so
deep that the roots have plenty of room to grow. Mix some rose fertilizer with the soil at
the bottom of the hole, this is to help the rose to flower later. The next step is to form a
little hill in the middle of the hole, you are going to spread out the roots over the top of this
hill. Hold the rose firmly with one hand and spread out the roots with your other hand. Be
careful not to break the roots, they are quite delicate. While you are holding the plant with
one hand, pat the soil down gently around the roots. Continue putting soil over the roots
until the area around the plant is filled up to a level a little lower than the soil level around
it. Finally, water your plant thoroughly. With enough water and some sunshine, you should
see your rose plant begin to grow leaves in a few weeks.

1.4.4. MISPLACED MODIFIERS

When words or phrases modify the wrong word or seem to modify more than one word in a
sentence, they are called misplaced modifiers. To correct a sentence with a misplaced modifier,
move the modifier as close as possible to the word it modifies.
Examples:
MISPLACED
Leaves floated gently down onto the lawn with dazzling autumn colors. (Prepositional phrase
incorrectly modifying lawn)
CLEAR
Leaves with dazzling autumn colors floated gently down onto the lawn. (Prepositional phrase
correctly modifying leaves)
MISPLACED
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The big truck just missed a cat roaring down the road. (Participial phrase incorrectly modifying
cat)
CLEAR
Roaring down the road, the big truck just missed a cat. (Participial phrase correctly modifying
truck)
Activity 4
Rewrite each sentence correctly by moving the underlined modifier to an appropriate
position in the sentence.
1. The swimmers on deck with black and white bathing suits are all on the same swim
team.
2. Officials must dress in white uniforms judging the performance of the swimmers.
3. The champion backstroker stormed out of the complex being disqualified.
4. Spectators crowded into the stands carrying lunch bags and portable seats.
5. The authorities requested additional timers making an unusual announcement.
6. The swim team had practiced hard and long for the meet with the best record.
7. Swimmers congregated around the pool with a tense of excitement.
8. Standing on the blocks, the first racers waited for the sound of the starting pistol with
intensity on their faces.
9. Medals were given to the winners with the race and time written on the back.
10. One swimmer accidentally pushed an official into the pool paying no attention to
where he was going.

1.4.5. DANGLING MODIFIERS

A dangling modifier does not logically modify any word in the sentence in which it appears.
Correct a dangling modifier by supplying a word that can be modified by the dangling phrase.

Dangling
Shaving in front of a steamy mirror, the
razor nicked Ali's chin.
(Who was shaving in front of the mirror?
The answer is not razor but Ali. The subject
Ali must be added.)
Correct
Shaving in front of the steamy mirror, Ali
nicked his chin with the razor.
Or: When Ali was shaving in front of the
steamy mirror, he nicked his chin with the
razor.

While turning over the bacon, hot grease
splashed my arm.
(Who is turning over the bacon? The answer
is not hot grease, as it unintentionally seems
to be, but I. The subject I must be added.)
While I was turning over the bacon, hot grease
splashed my arm.
Or: While turning over the bacon, I was
splashed on the arm by hot grease.

Taking the exam, the room was so stuffy Taking the exam, Ketti found the room so
that Ketti almost fainted. stuffy that she almost fainted.
(Who took the exam? The answer is not Or: When Ketti took the exam, the room was
room but Ketti. The subject Ketti must be so stuffy that she almost fainted.

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added.)

To impress the interviewer, punctuality is To impress the interviewer, you must be

essential. punctual.
(Who is to impress the interviewer? The Or: For you to impress the interviewer,
answer is not punctuality but you. The punctuality is essential.
subject you must be added.)

Activity 5
Underline the misplaced or dangling modifier in each sentence. Then rewrite the sentence,
placing related words together or adding a logical subject, to make the meaning clear.

1. Kicked carelessly under the bed, Almaz finally found her sneakers.
2. The latest James Bond movie has almost opened in 1,200 theatres across the country.
3. Working at the copying machine, the morning dragged on.
4. Tired and exasperated, the fight we had was inevitable.
5. The newscaster spoke softly into a microphone wearing a bulletproof vest.
6. The tenants left town in a dilapidated old car owing two months’ rent.
7. Sitting at a sidewalk café, all sorts of interesting people passed by.
8. Packed tightly in a tiny can, Hagos had difficulty removing the anchovies.
9. The woman picked up a heavy frying pan with a great difficulty.
10. I discovered an unusual plant in the greenhouse that oozed a milky juice.

1.4.6. FAULTY PARALLELISM

Parallelism refers to the repetition of grammatical structure. Parallel constructions are rhythmic
and memorable. In the following examples, notice how parallelism creates a pleasing rhythm
when you say the sentence aloud.

WORDS: We saw the frogs swimming, jumping, and splashing.

PHRASES: Of the people, for the people
CLAUSES: Do as I say, not as I do
Elements joined by and, or, nor, for, but, yet, or so should be grammatically parallel.
Incorrect: They spent their time praying and work with the poor.
They spent their time praying and working with the poor.
Correct:
Incorrect: There is a great difference between dining out and to have a snack at home.
Correct: There is a great difference between dining out and having a snack at home.
Activity 7
Find and correct the punctuation problems in the paragraph below. You will need to:
- add eight commas
- delete two commas
- correct one fragment
- correct one comma splice with a semicolon
- correct one run-on sentence
Watching Pets
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There are three main kinds of animals that people keep in cages or glass tanks so that they can watch them:
birds reptiles and rodents. Because they are colorful and graceful to look at. Birds are very popular. In my
country, some people have only one big bird in a cage but others have several small ones fluttering and
chirping around in a single cage. I would never consider having a reptile, such as a snake, in my house,
however a friend of mine has a boa constrictor in a cage, and swears that it is a lovely pet, since it doesn’t
bark doesn’t eat much and never needs to be taken out for a walk. Finally, rodents are another kind of
animal that can be kept in a cage. Rodents are small animals like guinea pigs gerbils and hamsters they are
especially popular with children. If they are treated properly they can live quite a long time. In short these
animals have a fascination for people who mostly like to watch their pets.
Activity 8
Rewrite the following sentences, correcting faulty parallelism, dangling constructions, run-on
sentences, and sentence fragments.
1. Capital punishment should not be legalized because of its immorality, injustice, and it
violates our constitutional rights.
2. In visiting a city in Europe, the similarities which you can see are many.
3. Men and women were created equal, therefore women have the same right to work as men
do.
4. Some newspapers have no advertising at all. Whereas others carry many advertisements.
5. It is said that equality works only if some changes are made. Changes like having good child-
care centers for all economic classes.
6. Another purpose the newspaper should have is to serve the public, the classified ads in the
paper help people find jobs and apartments.
7. In comparing my language with English, many differences become apparent.
8. The Family’s economy was dependent on the young people, moreover the nation’s economy
was dependent on them too.
9. Security comes from the sense of being needed and usefulness.
10. Youth has become an economic liability. Thus adding new emotional problems to those
already present.
11. The sports section in this newspaper is on Monday, the science section is on Tuesday, and
there is a food section on Wednesday.
12. The persons who should get capital punishment are murderers, drug dealers, and bank
robbers. Because these types of persons are really harmful to society.
13. We should not use capital punishment for crimes such as stealing, kill somebody
unintentionally, or do something one is forced to do.
14. In earlier years, most people lived on farms thus youth was needed for economic reasons.
15. Coming from South India, my native language is Tamil,
16. Crime in my country is almost unknown even misdemeanors are rarely heard of.
17. By putting a consonant before each vowel, various syllables begin to take shape.
18. My reasons for going to college are self-improvement, enjoyment, cultural stimulation, and to
be prepared to face life.
19. Such situations will cause conflict and arguments. Finally ending with divorce or physical
violence.
20. When using a dictionary to check up a word, English follows an alphabetical order.
21. The punishment of death is not worse than life imprisonment. Although there is a difference
between these two.
1.4.7. SHIFT IN POINT OF VIEW
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 a) Avoid a shift in tense
Incorrect: The doctor advises us to eat a balanced meal. He said that fruits and
vegetables give us the vitamins we need.
Correct: The doctor advised us to eat a balanced meal. He said that fruits and
vegetables give us the vitamins we need.
b) Avoid a shift in pronouns used in general statements
Incorrect: You never really know what love is until we experience it ourselves.
Correct: We never really know what love is until we experience it ourselves.

Activity 9
Improve the following sentences by correcting shifts in tense or in pronouns.
1. With the freedom of choosing your own classes, college is our best chance to widen our
horizon.
2. As the woman walks toward the store, three young men jumped out and attacked her.
3. Wherever you are, people should establish some rules in order to live. If not we are going to
have anarchy.
4. The author suggests that the truth is sometimes painful, but telling the truth is better than
living a life being someone they are not.
5. When Moti married a widower her life became complicated because we can’t help but feel
jealous about a deceased wife.
6. Although it may be painful for a parent not to be your child’s role model, W/o Elfu doesn’t
have the right to be angry with her son’s choice.
7. As the soldiers marched away from the battleground, you felt as if the war may finally be
over.
8. A football player who wants to develop her pitching form knows you will develop more skills
at a sleep away camp.
9. Students underestimate the amount of time required to study nursing because they simply
cannot pass your tests without extensive study and practical experience.
10. Regardless of how much teachers try, it cannot make sure that students attend every class.
11. When I ran, you would get cramps.

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 1.4.8. SUBJECT-VERB AGREEMENT

A verb must agree with its subject in person and number. Most verbs change form to indicate
agreement only in the present tense. For a third person singular subject an-s (or -es) is added to
the base verb. The linking verb ‘be’ changes form in both the present and the past tense. When
‘be’, ‘have’, and ‘do’ are used as auxiliaries in verb phrases, their form changes to show
agreement with third-person subjects.

SINGULAR PLURAL
He paints. They paint.
She is happy. They are happy.
She was joyful. They were joyful.
He has volunteered. They have volunteered.
It does function. They do function.

Activity 1
Draw one line under the simple subject of each sentence and two lines under the verb in
parentheses that agrees with the subject.
1. I (knows, know) little about the country.
2. Celeste (explains, explain) that it consists of two main islands and several smaller ones.
3. New Zealand (is, are) slightly smaller than the state of Colorado.
4. Celeste’s family (visits, visit) Wellington, the capital of the country; as well as Auckland, the
largest city in New Zealand.
5. Though the temperature is mild most of the year, summer weather (remains, remain) the best.

1.4.8.1. Subject-Verb Agreement and Intervening Prepositional Phrases

The subject of a sentence never appears within a prepositional phrase. Be sure that the verb
agrees with the actual subject of the sentence and not with the object of preposition.

The gifts on the table are for Maria.

In the sentence above, the verb ‘are’ agrees with the subject, ‘gifts’, not the object of the
preposition, ‘table’.
Activity 2
Place a check (√ ) in the blank in front of each sentence in which the subject and verb agree.

1. The suitcase under my bed is filled with old clothes.

2. A student ahead of Challa announces today’s lunch choices.
3. Celebrations during the holiday include caroling, exchanging gifts, and
sharing meals with friends.
4. The trinket inside the box is a silver locket.
5. The building opposite this one contain a superb library.

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Activity 3
Underline the verb in parentheses that agrees with the subject.
1. Directions to Atlanta (is, are) available at the information desk.
2. Apple pie with vanilla ice cream (appears, appear) to be today’s dessert special.
3. Bouquets of white orchids (decorates, decorate) each table.
4. The song after this one always (soothes, soothe) my nerves.
5. Martha instead of Elsa (plays, play) the role of the protagonist.

1.4.8.2. Subject-Verb Agreement and Linking Verbs

In sentences with linking verbs, the verb agrees with the subject, not the predicate nominative. Do
not be confused by a predicate nominative that is different in number from the subject. Only the
subject affects the number of the linking verb.

The first prize was season tickets to the symphony.

Players become a team when they learn to work together.

Activity 4
Underline the verb in parentheses that agrees with the subject.
1. Crashing cymbals (becomes, become) the climax of the musical composition.
2. Biographies (is, are) Mom’s favorite type of reading material.
3. Grandfather’s farms (is, are) a quiet retreat for the entire family.
4. The constellation the Big Dipper (is, are) becoming the big Spatula.
5. The dinner menu (was, were) several tempting entrees and nearly a doze side dishes,
appetizers, and desserts.
6. The cost of the reception (was, were) thousands of dollars.

Activity 5
Write in the blank the linking verb in parentheses that agrees with the subject of each sentence.

1. Sighs the first signal that Alemitu is bored. (is, are)

2. A dark forest actually several pieces of painted cardboard placed at the back
of the stage. (was, were)
3. Lemma’s unusual dream disjointed images when he describes it. (becomes,
become)
4. Morning chores a determined effort to finish quickly. (becomes, become)
5. The amusing story more unbelievable coincidences than I have ever heard put into
one tale. (is, are)
6. Tulips the centerpiece of the spring garden. (is, are)

15
 1.4.8.3. Subject-Verb Agreement in Inverted Sentences
An inverted sentence is a sentence in which the subject follows the verb. Some inverted sentences
begin with ‘there’ or ‘here’. Look for the subject after the verb, and be sure it agrees with the verb
in number.

Over the mantelpiece hangs a portrait of Lucinda.

There reside two of the kindest persons in the neighborhood.

When an interrogative sentence contains an auxiliary verb, the auxiliary verb usually precedes the
subject, and the main verb follows the subject.

Does the play begin at eight o’clock?

Activity 6
Place a check (√) in the blank in front of each sentence in which the subject and verb agree.

1. Has Jennifer seen the new art exhibit?

2. Under the couch lie the other shoe.
3. On the shelf sit several valuable first-edition books.
4. Here are Ujullu’s chess set.
5. Does the parade pass this corner?
6. Do these cameras have film in them?

Activity 7
Underline the verb in parentheses that agrees with the subject.
1. (Does, Do) the players warm up before the national anthem is sung?
2. Here (is, are) everything you need to make Chicken Biriyani.
3. Through the rain (trudges, trudge) the weary travelers.
4. Across the threshold (sweeps, sweep) the royal couple.
5. (Has, Have) the customers seen our newest product?
6. Ahead of us (drives, drive) Carlos and Michelle.
1.4.8.4. Subject-Verb Agreement with special Subjects
A collective noun names a group. A collective noun is considered singular when it refers to a
group as a whole; it is considered plural when it refers to each member of the group individually.

The committee sponsors an essay contest every year. (singular)

The committee disagree about how to divide the funds. (plural)

Certain nouns that end in-s, such as mathematics, measles, and mumps, take singular verbs. Other
nouns that end in-s, such as scissors, pants, binoculars, and eyeglasses, take plural verbs. Many
nouns that end in-ics may be singular or plural, depending upon their meaning.

Mathematics fascinates Girmay. (singular)

Eyeglasses were prescribed by Jolene’s ophthalmologist. (plural)
Physics is my favorite science course. (singular)
16
When a noun of amount refers to a total that is considered as one unit, it is singular and takes a
singular verb. When a noun of amount refers to a number of individual units, it is plural and takes
a plural verb.

One hundred fifty dollars seems like a lot to pay for one dress. (singular)
One hundred fifty dollars are packed into that jar. (Plural)

A title is always singular, even if a noun within the title is plural.

Wuthering Heights is the subject of Corinne’s book report.

Activity 8
Underline the verb in parentheses that agrees with the subject.

1. The band (plays, play) each Friday night at seven O’clock.

2. “Creating Images” (is, are) the title of Janice’s essay.
3. Believe it or not, these pants (was, were) quite fashionable twenty years ago.
4. Politics (makes, make) some persons do unusual things.
5. The jury (returns, return) with a verdict this afternoon.
6. Ten days (has, have) passed since the portraits were taken.
7. The Garden Club (holds, hold) a seed sale to raise money.
8. Geometrics (is, are) popular prints for new clothes.
9. Fifteen dollars (remains, remain) the price of a full course meal at that restaurant
10. Cats (is, are) a musical that often tours the country.
11. Four years of high school (merits, merit) a diploma
12. Binoculars (appears, appear) to be the only equipment Jason forgot to bring.

1.4.8.5. Agreement with Compound Subjects

A sentence with a compound subject (more than one subject) may require either a singular or a
plural verb. If the compound is joined by and or both… and, the verb required is usually plural.
However, some compound subjects have two parts that make up one unit. These take a singular
verb.
Singular: Peanut butter and jelly is all my little brother will eat for lunch.
Plural: Grease and dirt cover everything in the small work shop.
The verb agrees with the subject that is closer in a compound subject joined by or, nor, either …
or, or neither … nor.

Singular: Neither crumpets nor tea was served at the tea party.
Plural: Larry or the twins have made that mess.

Any compound subject preceded by many a, every, or each takes a singular verb.
Many a chick and a gosling has been raised on this farm.

17
Activity 10
Underline the compound subject. Choose the verb in parentheses that agrees with the subject and
write it in the blank.

1. Both Abdi and Henock exams on Friday. (is giving, are giving)
2. Neither Tigist nor Adane the leftovers. (wants, want)
3. Ham and beans well with cornbread. (goes, go)
4. The anvil and the hammer neglected in the old horse barn. (sits, sit)
5. Neither Alex nor Ali to liking Sugary Crispies. (admits, admit)
6. Many a loudmouth and self–styled critic unwanted opinions. (has voiced, have
voiced)

1.4.8.6. Intervening Expressions

Certain expressions seem to create a compound subject but do not. Accompanied by, as well as, in
addition to, plus, and together with are expressions that introduce phrases that tell about the
subject. However, the subject remains singular and takes a singular verb.

Activity 11
Draw a line under each simple subject. Then write the form of the verb in parentheses that agrees
with the subject. Use the present tense of the verb.

1. Whole milk, as well as sugar and eggs, into the making of ice cream (go)
2. Mike, accompanied by his two sons, soon for the old car show.
(leave)
3. The attorney, along with the judge, of the jury’s verdict. (approve)
4. The pianist, accompanied by the violinist, a lovely salsa. (play)
5. Seasoned hamburger, plus pasta, delicious. (taste)
6. The sky, as well as the cumulus clouds riding across it, beautiful today. (look)

1.4.8.7. Indefinite Pronouns as Subjects

Many subjects are indefinite pronouns. A verb must agree with an indefinite pronoun used as a
subject.

Singular: Everyone in the band knows that old melody

Singular: Anybody realizes the truth in a case like this one.
Plural: Many recognize the usefulness of such a course of action.
Plural: Few admit such an embarrassing mistake.

Some pronouns can be either singular or plural, depending on the nouns to which they refer.
Singular: All of the cake tastes good, Michelle.
Plural: All of these cars are expensive.

18
Indefinite pronouns fall into three groups.

Always Singular: each everyone nobody anything

either everybody nothing someone
neither everything anyone somebody
one no one anybody something

Always plural: several few both many

Singular or Plural: some all most none

Activity 12
Underline under the indefinite pronoun subject. Draw two lines under the correct form of the
verb.
1. Something (makes, make) that sound during high winds.
2. Nobody (likes, like) outrageous allegations such as these.
3. One (needs, need) to remember all the good times we had in school.
4. Either (seems, seem) an equally good choice in such circumstances as we face now.
5. Someone (tells, tell) him these silly things, and he believes every word without question.
6. Nothing (stands, stand) in the way of Mebrat when she puts her mind to a problem.

1.4.8.8. Agreement in Adjective Clauses

When the subject of an adjective clause is a relative pronoun, the verb in the clause must agree
with the antecedent of the relative pronoun.
Patience is one of the requirements that make a good leader.

In the preceding example the antecedent of that is requirements, not one, because several
requirements – not just patience – make a good leader. Since requirements is plural, that is
considered to be plural, and the verb in the adjective clause, make, must also be plural.
Patience happens to be the only one of the leadership talents that is natural to me.

In this example the antecedent of that is one, not requirements, because the speaker has only one
of the requirements of a good leader, patience. Since one is singular, the verb in the adjective
clause, is must be singular.
Activity 13
Draw one line under the antecedent of each relative pronoun. Draw two lines under the correct
form of the verb.
1. Aba Tamrat appears to be the only one of the storytellers who (relates, relate) that particular
tale
2. Serawit is one of the actors who (is, are) participating in our production.
3. My dog will have to be one of the participants that (is, are) attending canine obedience school
next month.
4. The name of that constellation is the only one of the northern star group’s names that
(escapes, escape) me at the moment.
5. Rita remains one of my friends who (stands, stand) by me in this upheaval.
6. Sally is the only one of our runners who (holds, hold) that distance record at our school.
19
Activity 14
Underline the subject of each sentence. Then choose the verb in parentheses that agrees
with the subject and write it in the blank.
1. Tedy and Ali often modern music. (Plays, play)
2. His fit of sneezing the class. (Is disrupting, are disrupting)
3. Te job up a lot of his spare time. (Takes, take)
4. Two hundred boxes of cards by the club. (Was sold, were sold)
5. His frequent fevers a worry to his parents. (Was, were)
6. Gathering clouds a storm. (Foretells, foretell)
7. Her pets a great joy to her. (Is, are)
8. Final exams the last hurdle before graduation. (Is, are)
9. Down the mountain the skiers. (Speeds, speed)
10 In her pocket several acorns. (Was, were)
11. Two dollars not a big tip for this meal. (Is, are)
12. The group not on which movie to see. (Does agree, do agree)
13. Every student to study. (Needs, need)
14. Both Eliza and George to cook. (Loves, love)
15. The rock, as well as the waves, the ship. (Threatens, threaten)
16. Ireland, besides England, many ancient ruins. (Has, have)
17. Some of my brothers sheep. (Raises, raise)
18. One of the climbers reached the top. (Has, have)
19. Each of the actors a bow. (Takes, take)
20. A few of the vacationers to go home. (Wants, want)

20
 UNIT TWO
2. THE WRITING PROCESS

INTRODUCTION
Writing is a process which involves a series of stages that all writers must move through
to create their finished product. This process includes prewriting, drafting, revising,
editing, and presenting. Although the writing process may sound orderly and predictable,
it usually isn’t. Writing is a dynamic and sometimes messy process. As you write, you are
constantly thinking and discovering new ideas. You are continually evaluating your
thoughts and the information you receive, making myriad decisions about what works
and what doesn’t, and shaping and reshaping your ideas into a unified and coherent
whole. In the prewriting stage, you explore ideas, choose a topic, and collect and organize
your information. As you draft, you turn your ideas and information into sentences and
paragraphs. During revising, you review and refine, grappling with any problems you
detect in content and structure, finally you edit your work to eliminate errors, and then
you present your writing to your audience.
ACTIVITY 1 Check your understanding
Fill in the blank spaces with appropriate words from the above introduction.
1. Checking for mistakes and correcting them __________________________
2. Getting ideas before you start writing _________________________
3. The paper with your first try at writing a paragraph ______________________
4. Publishing your writing ________________________________
5. Making your writing clearer _________________________________
Step 1: Pre-writing
At this step, you begin to get ideas for your paragraph. There are many ways to get ideas,
such as brainstorming and free-writing.
ACTIVITY 2 Gathering information
You are going to write a paragraph about what you do every morning before going to
class
1. On your exercise book list down the things you do in the morning to get ready for
the day. Begin with the time you get up. Do not write complete sentences. Just
take notes – write a few words. For example:
- 7:00 A.M get up
- Make tea
- Shower, shampoo

21
 2. Work with a partner. Ask your partner, “What do you do in the morning?” Take
turns describing your morning routines. Try to use these words: first, then, after
that, and finally.
Step 2: Drafting
The first time that you write a paragraph, your paper is called your first draft.
Your work is not finished! Writing the first draft is only one step on the way to
your final paper.
ACTIVITY 3

1. Choose a title for your paragraph. You can use Getting Ready for the Day or My
Morning Routine if you like.
2. Begin your paragraph with a general statement about your morning routine.
3. Continue your paragraph, using your notes from Step 1.

Step 3: Revising
When you’ve finished writing your draft, it’s time to make sure it says everything
you want it to say. You also want to check that you’ve said things as well as you
possibly can. Revising means checking your writing for content and organization.

ACTIVITY 4
Look at your draft and answer the following questions
1. Does your paragraph have:
a. Title?
b. Topic sentence?
c. Enough supporting sentences?
d. Concluding sentence?
2. Have you missed any essential information? If so, add.
3. Have you included irrelevant ideas? If so, delete.
4. Does your draft need some kind of rearrangement? If so, do it?
5. Have you make links between your sentences?
Step 4: Editing
When you’ve finished revising your writing and you’re happy with what you’ve
written, it’s time to make edition. When you edit, you make sure you’ve used all the
right words and you proofread your work to find mistakes in grammar, capitalization,
and punctuation.

22
ACTIVITY 5
Look at your revised paragraph and check if there are mistakes in the following areas.

1. Diction
2. Spelling
3. Punctuation
4. Capitalization
5. Faulty Sentences – fragments, comma splices, misplaced & dangling modifiers,
faulty parallelism, subject-Verb agreement
6. Tense, voice
7. The format of the paper

Step 5: Writing the Final Draft

After making all the necessary revisions and editions, it is time to write the final
draft on a new piece of paper. The final draft should be neat, well-organized and
free from mistakes.
Sometimes a writer’s first draft needs no changes. This does not happen often.
Most of the time, writers must write new drafts.
Sometimes your first draft will need only small changes. Then maybe you can
erase and make changes on that same paper. Most of the time, you will need to
prepare a final draft on a new piece of paper. You will give your final draft to
your teacher.
Activity 6
Now, write the final draft of your paragraph on a piece of paper and submit to your
teacher for feedback
Activity 7 Peer Review
A. Work alone or with a partner. Look at Motuma’s first draft below. Motuma showed
his first draft to a classmate. If you are his classmate what is your feedback?

It easy for me to get ready for the day. My alarm clock wakes me up at 7:30.
I get up and have a shower. I get dressed. I drive to school at 8:15. I go to the
cafeteria. I very hungry in the morning, I eat cireal, fruit, eggs, and toast. I
drink orange juice and tea. I go to my class at 9:00. that is my morning.

B. Motuma edited his paragraph. Look at his final draft below. What is different? Mark
the changes. How many changes did Motuma make?
23
 Getting Ready for the day
It is easy for me to get ready for the day. My alarm clock wakes me up at 7:30.
I get up and take a shower. Then I get dressed. I drive to school at 8:15. First, I
go to the cafeteria. I am very hungry in the morning. I eat cereal, fruit, eggs,
and toast. I drink orange juice and tea. I talk with my friends. Finally, I go to
my class at 9:00. That is my morning routine.

Reviewer’s Checklist
Content
 Read all of your partner’s paragraph.
 Underline any part of the paragraph you do not understand. Ask your partner to
explain it.
 Ask questions if you want more information about your partner’s morning routine

Form
Look at these parts of your partner’s paper. Mark any problems on the paper in pencil.
Put a question mark (?) if you are not sure about something.

 the heading
 The title
 Indenting the first sentence
 Skipping lines
 Correct use of capital letters
 A period after every statement

24
 UNIT THREE
3. PARAGRAPH WRITING

A paragraph is a group of interrelated sentences that works together to develop a main idea. One
of these sentences identifies the topic for the reader and makes a statement of some kind about the
topic. This statement is called the topic sentence. Sentences that give additional information
about the idea stated in the topic sentence are called supporting sentences (developers). The last
sentence (concluding sentence) summarizes the main idea of the paragraph.

Look at the following example:

The weather in March is unpredictable. One day there was heavy ground fog, and the next
day was clear. It rained for a few days and cleared up, and then it rained again. One day the
temperature ranged from 45 degrees to 75 degrees, and the next day the temperature stayed
around 55 degrees all day long. It was difficult to plan activities or know what to wear with
such unpredictable weather.

3.1. THE TOPIC SENTENCE

A topic sentence is the most important sentence in a paragraph because it contains the main idea
of the paragraph. A topic sentence is usually a general sentence. That is, it makes a broad
statement about the person, place, animal, building, idea, event, etc., that is being discussed in the
paragraph. Because it is broad or general, a topic sentence leaves the reader with the feeling that
more information will follow. The reader expects that there will be some description or
explanation within the paragraph that tells how many, which one, what kind of, when, where, how,
why, etc. Sentences that give such information are called specific sentences. Supporting sentences
are specific.

For example, a topic sentence might be:

There many reasons why I have chosen to join Ambo University.

Notice that this sentence is vague as it stands. By itself, it does not tell enough about why I have
chosen Ambo University. The reader expects the reasons from the sentences which follow.

ACTIVITY 1: Here are some general topic sentences. Think about and write what questions
come to mind as you read them.

(a) Some holidays are particularly enjoyable to me.

(b) I would be reluctant to go to a big city by myself.
(c) Your little brother often amuses me.
(d) There are a number of reasons why I have chosen to live in Ambo.
(e) His father’s illness caused serious hardships for his family.

25
 Writing Effective Topic Sentences

What are the ingredients of an effective topic sentence? What makes one topic sentence more
effective than another? Here are some suggestions for writing strong topic sentences.

1. A good topic sentence usually states an opinion or attitude that can be supported by
details and examples.

Examples:

Topic sentence: The weather is miserable today.

Support: 105-degree temperature
High humidity
No breeze
Bad pollution

Topic Sentence: Abdi is a good teacher.

Support: Knowledgeable in his field
Excellent lecturer
Fair
Works hard
Helpful

2. A good topic sentence is specific enough to be clear and interesting.

Examples:
Good Topic sentence: The orange trees in your garden look diseased.
Weak Topic sentence: The trees in your garden look bad.

Good Topic sentence: Tabor College is having financial problems.

Weak Topic sentence: A school in town is having some problems.

3. A good topic sentence gives a definite direction to a paragraph.

Example:

Weak Topic sentence: I own a dog name Biscuit. (No direction given)
Better Topic sentence: My cocker spaniel Biscuit is a lazy dog.

3.1.1. Parts of a Topic Sentence

A good topic sentence has two parts: the topic and the controlling idea. The topic is the subject
of your paragraph. It is what you are writing about. The controlling idea limits the topic of your
paragraph to the aspect of that topic that you want to explore in your paragraph. Look at these
examples:
1. Ambo is a nice place to live.
Topic controlling idea
2. Ambo has many tourist attraction spots.
Topic controlling idea
3. Ambo has a suitable weather for living.
Topic controlling idea

26
Activity 1 Identifying Topics and Controlling Ideas
Read each sentence. Underline the topic and circle the controlling idea.
1. Riding horses is my favorite hobby.
2. Smoking cigarette is harmful to your health.
3. Bontu is the most beautiful girl in our class.
4. Driving ambulance can be a hazardous job.
5. Gifti is the best friend I have made this semester.
Activity 2 Supplying Controlling Ideas
For each of the following topics, supply a controlling idea.
1. Addis Ababa ___________________________________
2. Addis Ababa ___________________________________
3. Alcohol ___________________________________
4. Alcohol ___________________________________
5. Mohammed ___________________________________
6. Mohammed ___________________________________

Activity 3 Evaluating Topic Sentences

Read each sentence and decide if it is a good topic sentence. Remember that topic sentences
should state an opinion or divide the topic into parts. If the sentence is a good topic sentence,
underline the topic and circle the controlling idea. If it isn’t, cross it out.
1. My younger brother is driving me crazy.
2. My brother is thirty years old.
3. You need four ingredients to make Tella.
4. Global warming is threatening the environment.
5. Global warming has an effect on the environment.
Activity 4: Write your own topic sentence that could begin each of the following
paragraphs.
1. First, I lost my notebook. Then I broke the mirror in my compact when I dropped it. I got sick
during lunch and flunked my geometry midterm first period after lunch. I cried all the way to
the dorms. Topic sentence: -------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------.
2. First, I have the whole week off from the stationery store because it is going to be closed. My
friends are staying in town, so there will be plenty to do. We will go to the arcades during the
day and rent movies or go downtown in the evenings. I have also saved enough money to
visit my cousin in Guder for a couple days, and we always have a good time together. This
could be the best Easter week I have had in a long time. Topic sentence: -------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------.
3. At parties, he sits in a corner by himself all night. When he is in a crowd, you would never
notice him. When you talk to him, he looks at the ground and stammers out one-word replies.
He never speaks in class, and I have never seen him talk to a girl. Ali is a nice person, but few
people ever get to know him. Topic sentence: ---------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------.

27
4. I passed the history test I had been dreading. Then I found out I got a B+ on my English term
paper. My afternoon classes had been canceled, so I went to the river to relax. That evening I
saw one of the best movies I had ever seen, and I didn’t pay a penny to see it. And for the
first night in weeks, I slept great. Topic sentence: -----------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------.

3.2. SUPPORTING SENTENCES

Supporting sentences support the topic sentence in many different ways.
1. One of the most common ways to support a topic sentence is to use facts or statistics.
2. The second way to support a topic sentence is with examples.
3. The third common way of supporting a topic sentence is by using an illustration that is
based on personal experience.

ACTIVITY 5
Read the following paragraphs and decide how the supporting sentences are developed.

An Expensive Holiday
Valentine’s Day is a very expensive holiday. Typically, people who are in love with each
other exchange gifts. The gifts often cost a lot of money, sometimes as much as $100. In
some cases, if you don’t spend that much, your sweetheart might think you don’t care.
Some less expensive gifts that people often give are chocolate and flowers. One pound of
good chocolate my cost $10 to $15, and when you add up all of the chocolate that is sold
on Valentine’s Day, the total is probably well over $1 million. Flowers cost more than
chocolate, so sales of flowers may amount to $5 million! Also, it is often expected that you
and your sweetheart will go out to dinner on that evening. A romantic dinner at a nice
restaurant may cost $100 or more per person. It seems to me that Valentine’s Day is one of
the most expensive days of the year.
Valentine’s Day Overload
Usually three or four weeks before Valentine’s Day, you begin to see too many reminders
of this only-for-lovers holiday almost everywhere. For example, you see red hearts and
cupids in every shop and restaurant. Shops want you to buy a gift for your Valentine, and
restaurants hope that you will treat yourself and your Valentine to an expensive dinner.
You also seem to see more pictures of people in love and more people on the streets who
are obviously in love. They walk hand-in-hand and gaze into each other’s eyes lovingly.
Another example of Valentine’s Day reminders is seeing the commercials on TV, which
tell you about all the wonderful presents and cards that you can buy for that “special
someone.” In short, we are constantly reminded of Valentine’s Day for several weeks each
year.

28
 A Sad Valentine
Valentine’s Day makes people feel bad if they are alone. Last Valentine’s Day, I was alone
because I had broken up with my boyfriend the week before. On that Valentine’s night, I
was expecting roses and chocolates from him when he took me out to a romantic dinner,
but instead I stayed in and ate a frozen pizza and a candy bar in front of the TV while I
booked at my artificial flowers. I was so upset. Then, I found the present that I was going
to give him on Valentine’s Day. It was a cute teddy bear holding a big heart that said, “I
love you!” As I held it, I realized that the only Valentine card I had received was from my
grandmother. I started to cry and wondered how many other people felt as bad as I did. It’s
clear that Valentine’s Day can only be a happy day if you have someone special to share it
with.
3.2.1. Major and Minor Supporting Sentences
In terms of organization, especially of expository paragraphs, there are two types of supporting
sentences: major supporting sentences and minor supporting sentences. The major supporting
sentences are the main details that tell us about the topic sentence. The minor supporting
sentences tell us more about the major supporting sentences.
Look at the paragraph “Ways to Celebrate New Year’s Eve”. Below, it has been diagrammed to
show the parts of a paragraph, including the major and minor supporting sentences.
Ways to Celebrate New Year’s Eve
People in the United States celebrate New Year’s Eve in many ways. The most common way mat
be going to a big party with lots of friends, music, and dancing. At the stroke of midnight, people
at these parties grab their sweethearts and spend the first seconds of the New Year kissing them.
Another way to spend New Year’s Eve is with the significant other in your life. The New Year is
greeted with a champagne toast to the relationship. Sometimes, families with children like to
spend the evening together, letting the kids stay up until midnight. Finally, some people like to
spend the evening by themselves. They use this time to evaluate the past year and to make
resolutions and plans for the coming year. It is a time of reflection that can only happen when one
is alone. In short, New Year’s Eve is a special time that can be spent with friends, with family, or
even alone.
Topic Sentence (TS)
 People in the United States celebrate New Year’s Eve in many ways.
Major Supporting Sentence (SS)
 The most common way mat be going to a big party with lots of friends, music, and
dancing.
Minor Supporting Sentence (SS)
o At the stroke of midnight, people at these parties grab their sweethearts and
spend the first seconds of the new year kissing them.
Major Supporting Sentence (SS)
 Another way to spend New Year’s Eve is with the significant other in your life.
Minor Supporting Sentence (SS)
o The new year is greeted with a champagne toast to the relationship.

Major Supporting Sentence (SS)

 Sometimes, families with children like to spend the evening together, letting the kids stay
up until midnight.
29
 Major Supporting Sentence (SS)
 Finally, some people like to spend the evening by themselves.
Minor Supporting Sentence (SS)
o They use this time to evaluate the past year and to make resolutions and plans for
the coming year.
Minor Supporting Sentence(SS)
o It is a time of reflection that can only happen when one is alone.
Concluding Sentence (CS)
 In short, New Year’s Eve is a special time that can be spent with friends, with family, or even
alone.
It is important to note that all major supporting sentences do not need to have the same number of
minor supporting sentences. In fact, sometimes you will not have any minor supporting sentences
at all.
Activity 6 Diagramming a Paragraph
Diagram the paragraph “Valentine’s Day Overload”. Indicate the major supporting sentences
and the minor supporting sentences. Use the above example as a guide.

3.3. THE CONCLUDING SENTENCE

The concluding sentence of a paragraph is generally a restatement of the topic sentence. It may
not be possible to restate the topic itself, but it is always possible to restate the controlling idea.
Look at this paragraph and pay particular attention to the topic sentence and its restatement in the
concluding sentence.
How to Carve a Pumpkin
With Halloween just around the corner, it’s good to know how to carve a pumpkin. The first
step is to gather your materials. You’ll need a large pumpkin, a sharp carving knife, a big
spoon, a black marking pen, a candle, and some newspaper. Spread the newspaper on a table
and place the pumpkin. Then, use the spoon to take out the seeds from the inside the pumpkin.
Next, with the marking pen, draw eyes, a nose, and a mouth on one side of the pumpkin in
shapes that can be cut out. The next step is to carefully cut out the eyes, nose, and mouth with
the knife. Put a lighted candle inside the pumpkin, and put the top back on the pumpkin.
Finally, put it in a window after dark on Halloween night. Once you know how to carve a
pumpkin, you can amuse your trick-or-treaters this year and every year.
A second, less common, way to conclude a paragraph is to write a sentence that summarizes the
main points in the body of the paragraph. Example:
Celebrating the New Year
The new year is celebrated throughout the world at many different times, based on the solar or
lunar calendar. January 1 is recognized throughout the world as the beginning of the new year,
but this date is the beginning of the Christian year based on the Gregorian solar calendar. The
Jewish new year is called Rosh Hashanah and is celebrated in September or October even
though the Hebrew calendar is lunar. The Chinese new year, called Tet in Vietnam, follows a
lunar calendar and comes on a day between January 10 and February 19 according to the solar
calendar. Islam also uses a lunar calendar. Its new year celebration is in the spring, and the
date varies depending on the year. In short, Christians use the solar calendar, whereas Jews,
Chinese, Vietnamese, and Muslims use a lunar calendar to determine when to celebrate the
New Year.
30
Activity 7 Writing Restatement Concluding Sentences
Read these topic sentences. Write restatement concluding sentences for each.
1. Seeing Christmas decorations in October is a sign that Christmas has become over
commercialized.

2. My first day at kindergarten was much more difficult than my first day at college.

3. Despite what everyone said, my first car was the most beautiful car I had ever seen.

3.4. ELEMENTS OF A PARAGRAPH

So far, you have learned about the different types of paragraphs and their organization. As you
have seen, a good paragraph must have three separate parts: a topic sentence, supporting
sentences, and a concluding sentence. A good paragraph also must have some characteristics in
common. It must have certain characteristics, such as unity, coherence, cohesion, and
completeness.

3.4.1. UNITY
When a paragraph has unity, all the supporting sentences relate to the topic sentence. Look at the
following paragraph. Read each of the supporting sentences carefully.
Finding Irrelevant Sentences
Find the irrelevant sentences and cross them out so that the paragraph will be unified.

I live in a flat with my family. We have two bedrooms and a living room. We have a garden and
we have some flowers there. In weekdays I arrive home at five o'clock and I have lunch. Then I
do my homework and go to bed. I had a computer but now it doesn't work. I have a brother and a
sister and I think I am very lucky to live with them. Sometimes our relatives visit us. Our flat
becomes very crowded sometimes but I like it.

In a unified paragraph, we expect all the sentences to be about the main idea of the paragraph.
The main idea in this paragraph is "the description of your house". If we examine the paragraph,
we see that some sentences do not describe the house, such as:

o In weekdays I arrive home at five o'clock and I have lunch.

o Then I do my homework and go to bed.
o I had a computer but now it doesn't work.

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Activity 8

Each of the following paragraphs contains sentences that are irrelevant or unnecessary to the main
point of the paragraph. The sentences do not support the opening point, and so the paragraph is
not unified. Cross out the irrelevant sentences and put the numbers of those in the space provided.

How to Prevent Cheating

(1) Teachers should take steps to prevent students from cheating on exams. (2) To begin with,
teachers should stop reusing old tests. (3) Even a test that has been used once is soon known on
the student grapevine. (4) Students will check with their friends to find out, for example, what
was on Dr.Thompson's biology final last term. (5) They may even manage to turn up a copy of
the test itself, "accidentally" not turned in by a former student of Dr. Thompson's. (6) Teachers
should also take some common sense precautions at test time. (7) They should make students
separate themselves--by at least one seat—during an exam, and they should watch the class
closely. (8) The best place for the teacher to sit is in the rear of the room, so that a student is never
sure if the teacher is looking at him or her.(9) Last of all, teachers must make it clear to students
that there will be stiff penalties for cheating. (10) One of the problems with our school systems is
a lack of discipline. (11)Teachers never used to give in to students' demands or put up with bad
behavior, as they so today. (12) Anyone caught cheating should immediately receive a zero for
the exam.(13) A person even suspected of cheating should be forced to take an alternative exam
in the teacher's office. (14) Because cheating is unfair to honest students, it should not be
tolerated.
The numbers of the irrelevant sentences are __________________________________

3.4.2. COHERENCE
Another element of a well-composed text is coherence. A coherent paragraph is made up of
sentences that are ordered according to a principle. The principle changes depending on the type
of paragraph that you are writing. The three types of ordering are chronological ordering, spatial
ordering, and logical ordering.
a) Chronological Ordering
For a narrative paragraph, you must use good chronological ordering of sentences. This means
that the supporting sentences must tell the events of a story in the order that they happened. In
other words, the events must be ordered according to time.
b) Spatial Ordering
Descriptive paragraphs also need good coherence, or good ordering of sentences. However, they
do not use chronological ordering. They use spatial ordering. In other words, they have
sentences that are ordered according to space. Usually, this means that items are described
systematically through space. For example, this could be top to bottom, head to foot, left to right,
or front to back.
c) Logical Ordering
As you might guess by now, expository paragraphs also require good coherence. The principle,
however, is different. With expository paragraphs, coherence is based on logic or reason. We call
this logical ordering of sentences in a paragraph.

32
Activity 9 Working with Coherence
In each of the following paragraphs there is a sentence which is out of order. Circle the
sentence that is out of order and draw an arrow to indicate where it should go.
1. Kenenisa Bekele is very shy. At parties he sits in a corner by himself all night. When he is in
a crowd, you would never notice him. He has won two medals in athletics for his country in
2004 Athens Olympics. When you talk to him, he looks at the ground and stammers out one-
word replies. He never speaks during training, and I have never seen him talk to a girl.
2. Hanna is an attractive girl. Her large, dark eyes are beautiful. Her complexion is flawless,
and she has a lovely big smile. Her long, black hair is full and shiny. She is tall and slender,
and her every movement is graceful. She also dresses stylishly, and her assortment of
peasant skirts and loose-fitting blouses look great in her. She is very intelligent.

33
 3.4.3. COHESION
Another characteristic of a good paragraph is cohesion. When a paragraph has cohesion, all the
supporting sentences “stick together” in their support of the topic sentence. The methods of
connecting sentences to each other are called cohesive devices. Five important cohesive devices
are linking words, personal pronouns, definite articles, demonstrative pronouns, and synonyms.

3.4.3.1. Linking Words

There are many kinds of linking words: coordinating conjunctions, subordinating conjunctions,
prepositions, and transitions. The chart below lists some common linking words.

Conjunctions
Transitions Subordinate Coordinate Prepositions

Chronology first, second, etc; first of all; at After; before; and; or after; before; since;
first; next; after that; later on; at while; when; prior to
last; finally; then; eventually since
Description nearby on top of; under; to the
left; to the right; in
front of; behind;
above; next to
Example for example; for instance such as
Causation because; for because of; due to
since; as
Result therefore; for this reason; as a so
result; consequence;
consequently; hence
Unexpected however; nevertheless; even though; but; yet in spite of; despite
Result nonetheless although

however but in contrast to; instead

Contrast in contrast yet of; different from
Direct on the other hand; however but unlike
Contrast yet
Similarity likewise; similarly; whereas; Both…..and; like; similar to
in the same way while neither...nor; not
only…but also
Explanation In other words; that is
Emphasis Indeed; in fact
Addition in addition; furthermore; in addition to
moreover
Condition Otherwise; in this case if
Conclusion in conclusion; to sum up; in
short;
all in all

34
 3.4.3.2. Personal Pronouns
Another way to help a paragraph have good cohesion is by using personal pronouns. Pronouns
usually have antecedents, or nouns that they stand for, in previous sentence parts or sentences. In
other words, a pronoun usually refers back to a previous noun-its antecedent. For example:

The little boy looked at the birthday cake.

He stuck out his finger and took a taste of it.
3.4.3.3. The Definite Article
A third way to connect sentences is to use the definite article the. A noun with a definite article
often relates to a previously mentioned noun. For example:
I bought an anniversary present yesterday.
The anniversary present is for my grandparents.

3.4.3.4. Demonstrative Pronouns

Another way to connect sentences in a paragraph, or to give a paragraph good cohesion, is to use
the demonstrative pronouns this, that, these, and these. Like previous cohesive devices,
demonstrative pronouns require antecedents in order to help connect sentences to those that came
before. For example;
On top of the table was a present. This present had purple wrapping paper.
3.4.3.5. Synonyms
The use of synonyms is also a cohesive device in that the synonyms refer back to their
antecedents. Like using a pronoun, using a synonym also prevents the frequent repletion of a
word or words. Read the first paragraph. It is awkward because of the over repetition of words.
Then read the revised version using synonyms for the forms of depress and retire.

Retirement
The sixty-five-year-old employee was depressed at the thought of his retirement. His boss
told him that that he had to retire because he was retirement age, but he didn’t want to
retire. Therefore, he became depressed. He thought that his days would be depressing from
then on because he was retired. In fact, he was so depressed that his wife made him find
another job with a company that didn’t have a retirement age. He wasn’t depressed after
that.
Retirement (Revised Version)
The employee was saddened by the thought of his retirement. His boss told him that he had
to stop working because he was sixty-five, but he felt that he still had a lot of good work
years in him, he didn’t want to quit working, so he became depressed. He thought that his
days would become boring and useless from then on because he couldn’t work. In fact, he
became so distressed that his wife made him find a company to work for that didn’t have a
retirement policy. He felt great after that.
In the revised paragraph, the cohesive devices are useful in relating sentences in a paragraph to
one another. When sentences are related, a paragraph has good cohesion.

35
Activity 9 Working with Cohesive Devices
This paragraph lacks cohesion because it doesn’t have linking words, definite articles, or
demonstrative pronouns. It also repeats nouns instead of using personal pronouns or synonyms.
Rewrite the paragraph on a separate piece of paper. Make the cohesion better.
Preparing to Travel
Traveling to a foreign city can be fun, but traveling to foreign city requires some planning besides
getting a passport. You should buy a phrase book and learn a few key phrases in a foreign
language. Using phrases demonstrates a willingness to learn about the people who live in a
foreign city. Read about a city beforehand. Read about what places in a foreign city you’d like to
see. Get a feeling for a foreign city and for weather so that you can pack appropriate clothes.
Check your camera. Make sure that your camera is in good working order and that you have lots
of film. Get yourself a good pair of walking shoes, and break a good pair of walking shoes in for
about a month before you leave. Taking a few precautions before you leave can make your trip to
a foreign city more enjoyable.

3.5. Types of Paragraphs

3.5.1. Narrative
Narration is telling a story from a certain viewpoint, and there is usually a reason for the telling.
All narrative essays will have characters, setting, climax, and most importantly, a plot. The plot is
the focus of the story and is usually revealed chronologically, but there are sometimes flash
forwards and flash backs.

In writing a narrative essay, remember to:

 Include sensory and emotional details, so the reader will experience the story, not just
read about it
 Have the story support the point you are making, and make reference to that point in
the first sentence.
 Write in the first or third person
Following are example of narrative paragraph:

"The day I picked my dog up from the pound was one of the happiest days of both of our lives. I
had gone to the pound just a week earlier with the idea that I would just "look" at a puppy. Of
course, you can no more just look at those squiggling little faces so filled with hope and joy than
you can stop the sun from setting in the morning. I knew within minutes of walking in the door
that I would get a puppy… but it wasn't until I saw him that I knew I had found my puppy."

36
 3.5.2. Descriptive
Descriptive essays have text which describes traits and characteristics of people, objects,
events, feelings, etc in intricate detail.

Whatever is being described will be thoroughly examined. For example, if you were
describing roses, you would explain:

 Where they come from

 What they look like
 What colors they are
 How they grow and smell
When you write a descriptive essay, you want to involve the reader’s senses and
emotions. For example, you could say, “I got sleepy” or describe it like this, "As I was
waiting for Santa, my eyelids began to get heavy, the lights on the tree began to blur with
the green branches, and my head started to drop." The second sentence gives vivid details
to make the reader feel like he is there.

Following are excerpts from descriptive paragraph:

Here is a descriptive essay about a first visit to a favorite diner written by a university
student

"When you enter John’s house, two things are immediately noticeable: the place is rarely
empty and seems to consist of a maze of rooms. The first room, through the door, is the
main part of the restaurant. There is another, rarely used, dining room off to the right. It
was added during the oil well boom of the seventies. Through the main dining room is
yet another room; it guards the door leading into the kitchen. This room contains the most
coveted table in the place.

3.5.3. Expository
Expository paragraph can compare, explore and discuss problems, or tell a story. An
exposition essay gives information about various topics to the reader. It:

 Informs
 Describes
 Explains
In writing an exposition, the text needs to:

 Be concise and easy to understand

 Give different views on a subject or report on a situation or event
 Explain something that may be difficult to understand as you write your essay.
Remember that your purpose is to explain.

Following are excerpts from exposition paragraph:

Here is an example of a student model answer of an Expository Essay.

37
"Throughout history and through a cross-section of cultures, women have transformed their
appearance to conform to a beauty ideal. Ancient Chinese aristocrats bound their feet as a show
of femininity; American and European women in the 1800s cinched in their waists so tightly,
some suffered internal damage; in some African cultures women continue to wear plates in their
lower lips, continually stretching the skin to receive plates of larger size. The North American
ideal of beauty has continually focused on women's bodies: the tiny waist of the Victorian period,
the boyish figure in vogue during the flapper era, and the voluptuous curves that were the
measure of beauty between the 1930s and 1950s. Current standards emphasize a toned, slender
look, one that exudes fitness, youth, and health.
3.5.4. Argumentative
In an argumentative essay the writer is trying to convince the reader by demonstrating the
truth or falsity of a topic. The writer’s position will be backed up with certain kinds of
evidence, like statistics or opinions of experts.

The writer is not just giving an opinion, but making an argument for or against something
and supporting that argument with data.

To know how to write an essay in an argumentative way, you have to research and
backup what you say in the text.

Here is an example of argumentative paragraph:

"Gun control has been a controversial issue for years. A vast majority of citizens believe that if
gun control is strictly enforced it would quickly reduce the threat of crime. Many innocent people
feel they have the right to bear arms for protection, or even for the pleasure of hunting. These
people are penalized for protecting their lives, or even for enjoying a common, innocent sport. To
enforce gun control throughout the nation means violating a person’s Constitutional rights.
Although some people feel that the issue of gun control will limit crime, the issue should not exist
due to the fact that guns are necessary for self defense against crime, and by enforcing gun
control is violating a citizen’s second amendment right to bear arms."

The key to learning to write a good essay is to read and study other essays and then
practice, practice, rewrite and practice some more

Activity 8 Working with Paragraph Types

Identify each of these paragraphs as narrative (N), descriptive (D), or expository (E) and
argumentative (A). Write the correct letter on the line after the number.
1. A Ten-Speed vs. a Tricycle
Ten-speed bicycles and tricycles are both people-powered means of transportation, but there
are obvious differences. The first difference is in the number of wheels. A ten-speed bicycle
has two wheels, whereas a tricycle has three wheels. Of course, this difference in the number
of wheels is due to the difference in the kind of rider. A ten-speed is ridden by someone who
is able to balance a bicycle on two wheels. On the other hand, a tricycle is ridden by someone
who doesn’t have this skill. The final obvious difference between a ten-speed and a tricycle is
that a ten-speed has ten gears. It is designed to do many kinds of riding, but a tricycle has
only one speed and offers one kind of riding. In conclusion, ten-speeds and tricycles have
differences that are easy to see at a glance. _______________

38
 2. Online games and socialization
"Online games aren't just a diversion, but a unique way to meet other people. As millions
of gamers demonstrate, playing online is about friendship and cooperation, not just
killing monsters. These games are a viable social network because players focus on
teamwork, form groups with like-minded people and have romantic relationships with
other players."Massively-Multiplayer Online Games (MMOGs) feature millions of
players interacting in the same environment. The games are social in nature as they allow
players to band together and complete missions based on a story line, or test their skills
by fighting against each other. At the start of the game, the user creates a fictional
character, and customizes its physical appearance. Since many games involve combat,
players also outfit their characters with armor and weapons, as well as choose their
"profession." Many popular game titles like World of Warcraft and Everquest follow a
fantasy theme, so most professions have magical abilities like healing other players or
raising undead minions. While the process seems simple, players may spend hours
agonizing over the perfect look for their character, from their armor color to the type of
skills to use in battle. Once their character is created, the player is free to explore the vast,
digital world and interact with other players; however they must pay on average $15 a
month for game content. MMOG users are mostly male - usually between the ages of 18-
34 - although titles like World of Warcraft have a healthy population of female players as
well. With millions of players, there are plenty of people to adventure with."__________

3. A Birthday Piñata
The piñata at my niece’s birthday party was the familiar donkey-shaped one. The head had
two bright red ears that stood straight up. The red nose was long and under it was the neck of
the “donkey.” The body was plump and hid the tummy full of candy. It was striped in red and
green. The ears had green earring. The legs looked like stumps on a tree but were pink in
color. The tail was really just red, green, and pink ribbon that had been cut long and curled.
The parts of the piñata that my niece no doubt remembers best, however, are the many
brightly colored pieces of candy that fell from it after she hit is squarely in the middle and
broke it. It was a typical piñata destroyed in a typical way. _______________

4. An Anniversary to Remember
Few couples reach their seventy-fifth wedding anniversary, but my grandparents did last
year, and they celebrated in an unusual, but quite romantic, way. First, they renewed their
wedding vows in the same place and at the same time that they had been married all those
years earlier. This meant that we all had to be at City Hall at 6:30 in the morning. That
evening, we went dancing at the old Starlight Room downtown. Then, as they had done, we
went to breakfast at the Maple leaf Restaurant. Perhaps this was a great place for breakfast
seventy-five years ago, but in my opinion, it wasn’t anymore. Still, my grandparents looked
happy eating the meal of fried eggs and bacon that they had eaten all those years ago. In the
afternoon, we went to a matinee at the Roxie Theater. The owners of the theater had even
managed to find out what was playing the day of their wedding, so we watched the same
movie they had. At the end of the evening, my grandparents spent their second “wedding
night” in the same room of the same hotel where they had spent their first. All in all, it was
one of the most romantic days of my life, and it wasn’t even my anniversary!
_______________
39
 5. The Instruments of an Orchestra
The modern orchestra is divided into four distinct groups. The first group is the strings.
Their sound is produced by vibrating strings or wires. Woodwind instruments make up the
second section of an orchestra. These instruments, such as flutes, piccolos, and oboes,
make their sound by the player blowing into a mouthpiece and opening and closing holes in
the instrument. The third section is the brass section, whose instruments are bugles,
trumpets, and tubas. Examples of string instruments are violins, cellos, and basses. The last
section of an orchestra is the percussion section. The sound of these instruments is made by
hitting them. Examples of percussion instruments include cymbals, drums, and
tambourines. When put together, these four groups of instruments make a complete
orchestra. _______________

40
 UNIT FOUR
4. ESSAY WRITING

4.1. WHAT IS AN ESSAY?

In the earlier section, we were dealing with the construction of one paragraph from an original
topic statement. In this section, we will be dealing with the construction of multi-paragraph
compositions by extensions of the same basic process.

The kinds of writing assignments you will experience in college will not always allow you to
limit yourself to a single paragraph. Most of your compositions, such as reports, essay tests,
research papers, and the like, will extend to several paragraphs – paragraphs that deal with a
single main topic, however, and that develop a single topic statement about that topic. Such
writing will give you the opportunity to explain and develop your topic and topic statement in
considerable detail. This topic statement will, in fact, become the main idea, or thesis, of your
entire composition. It will be developed through several additional paragraphs, each of which
may contain its own topic statement. Your original topic statement, from which your additional
paragraphs are developed, is now called the “thesis statement” of your multi-paragraph
composition. A thesis is a sentence that says something specific about that subject. The thesis is
what you are going to write about. Thus, an essay is a group of paragraphs that deals with a single
main topic.

The roles of these paragraphs are described and illustrated below.

A Model Essay
The following model should help you understand clearly the form of an essay.
The Hazards of Movie going
Introductory I am a movie fanatic. When friends want to know what picture won the Oscar in
Paragraph 1980 or who played the police chief in Jaws, they ask me. My friends, though,
have stopped asking me if I want to go out to the movies. The problems in
getting to the theatre, the theatre itself, and the behavior of some patrons are all
reasons why I often wait for a movie to show up on TV.

First For one thing, just getting to the theatre presents difficulties. Leaving a home
Supporting equipped with a TV and a video recorder is not an attractive idea on a humid,
Paragraph cold, or rainy night. Even if the weather cooperates, there is a thirty-minute drive
to the theatre down a congested highway, followed by the hassle of looking for a
parking space. And then there are the lines. After hooking yourself to the end of a
human chain, you worry about whether there will be enough tickets, whether you
will get seats together, and whether many people will sneak into the line a head
of you.

41
 Second Once you have made it to the box office and gotten your tickets, you are
Supporting confronted with the problems of the theatre itself. If you are in one of the run-
Paragraph down older theatres, you must adjust to the musty smell of seldom-clean carpets.
Escaped springs lurk in the faded plush or cracked leather seats, and have the
seats you sit in seem loose or tilted so that you sit at a strange angle. The newer
twin and quad theatres offer their own problems. Sitting in an area only one
quarter the size of a regular theatre, moviegoers often have to put up with the
sound of movie next door. This is especially jarring when the other movie
involves racing cars or a karate war and you are trying to enjoy a quite love story.
And whether the theatre is old or new, it will have floors that seem to be coated
with rubber cement. By the end of a movie, shoes almost have to be pried off the
floor because they have become sealed to a deadly compound of spilled soda,
hardening bubble gum, and crushed jujubes.

Third Even more of, a problem than the theatre itself, are some of the other patrons.
Supporting Little kids race up and down aisles, usually in giggling packs. Teenagers try to
Paragraph impress their friends by talking back to the screen, whistling, and making what
they consider to be hilarious noises. Adults act as if they were at home in their
own living rooms and comment loudly on the ages of the stars or why movies
aren’t as good anymore. And people of all ages crinkle candy wrappers, stick
gum on their seats, and drop popcorn tubs or cups of crushed ice and soda on the
floor. They also cough and burp, squirm endlessly in their seats, file out for
repeated trips to the rest rooms or concession stand, and elbow you out of the
armrest on either side of your seat.

Concluding After arriving home from the movies one night, I decided that I was not going to
Paragraph be a moviegoer anymore. I was tired of the problems involved in getting to the
movies and dealing with the theatre itself and other patrons. The next day I
arranged to have cable TV service installed in my home. I may now see movies a
bit later than other people, but I will be more relaxed watching box office hits in
the comfort of my own living room.

4.2. GENERAL STRUCTURE OF AN ESSAY

The essay just presented _ "The Hazards of Movie going" _ is a good example of the standard
short essay you will write in college English. It is a composition of slightly over five hundred
words that consists of a one-paragraph introduction, a three-paragraph body, and a one-paragraph
conclusion. The roles of these paragraphs are described and illustrated below.

4.2.1. Introductory Paragraph of an Essay

The introductory paragraph of an essay should start with several sentences that attract the reader's
interest. It should then advance the central idea or thesis that will be developed in the essay. Part
of that thesis may include a plan of development-a "preview" of the major points that will support
the thesis. These supporting points should be listed in the order in which they will appear in the
essay. In some cases, the plan of development is presented in a sentence separate from the thesis;
in other cases, it is omitted.

Activity 1
42
 1. In' 'The Hazards of Movie going," which sentences are used to attract the reader's
interest?
a. First sentence b. First two sentences c. First three sentences
2. The thesis in "The Hazards of Movie going" is presented in the
a. Third sentence
b. Fourth sentence
3. The thesis contains a plan of development.
a. Yes
b. No
4. Write down the words in the thesis that announce the three major supporting points in the
essay:
a. __________________________________________________
b. __________________________________________________
c. __________________________________________________

4.2.2. Supporting Paragraphs, or "Body," of an Essay

Most essays have three supporting points, developed at length over three separate paragraphs.
(Some essays will have two supporting points, others four or more. For the purposes of this book,
your goal will be three supporting points for each essay.) Each of the supporting paragraphs
should begin with a topic sentence that states the point to be detailed in that paragraph. Just as the
thesis provides a focus for the entire essay, the topic sentences provide a focus for each
supporting paragraph.

1. What is the topic sentence for the first body paragraph?

_______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
2. The first topic sentence is then supported by details about (fill in the missing words):
a. _____________________
b. _____________________
c. Long ticket line
3. What is the topic sentence for the second supporting paragraph?

4. The second topic sentence is then supported by details about (fill in the missing words):
a. Problems of old theaters (mustiness and )
b. Problems of new theaters ( and sound of adjoining movie)
c. Problem of old and new theaters ( )
5. What is the topic sentence for the third body paragraph?
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
6. The third topic sentence is then supported by details about (fill in the missing words):
a. Patrons (kids, and ______________________)
b. Distractions caused by People of all ages

4.2.3. Concluding Paragraph of an Essay

The concluding paragraph often summarizes the essay by restating briefly the thesis and, at times,
the main supporting points of the essay. In addition, the writer often presents a concluding
thought about the subject of the paper.

Activity 2
43
1. Which two sentences in the concluding paragraph restate the thesis and supporting points of
the essay?
a. First and second b. Second and third c. Third and fourth
2. Which sentence contains the concluding thought of the essay?
a. First b. Second c. Third d. Fourth

4.3. STEPS IN ESSAY WRITING

So far, you have a sense of the general structure of an essay. Next, you will see the basic steps
involved in writing an essay. There are four major steps in essay writing. They are:
1. Begin with a point or thesis.
2. Support the thesis with specific evidence.
3. Organize the specific evidence.
4. Write clear, error-free sentences.
Step 1 Begin With a Point or Thesis
The first essential step in writing a successful essay is to formulate a clearly stated thesis.
Formulating your thesis or point at the start will help in two ways:
 You will find out at once whether you have a clear and workable thesis.
 You will be able to use the thesis as a guide while writing your essay.
Writing a Good Thesis
To write a good thesis, you must begin with a subject that is neither too broad nor too narrow.
Common Errors in Writing a Thesis
When writing thesis statements, people often make one of several mistakes that undermine their
chances of producing an effective essay. One mistake is to substitute an announcement of the
subject for a true thesis idea. Other mistakes include writing theses that are too broad, too narrow,
or too vague. A vague statement may be either one that is simply unclear or one that contains
more than one idea. Following are examples of all four errors:
Announcements
The subject of this paper will be my parents.
I want to talk about the crime wave in our country.
Statements that are too broad
My parents have been the most influential people in my life.
Crime is a major concern of everyone in our country.
Statements that are too narrow
My parents had only one child
In the last year there have been over twenty robberies in our neighborhood.
Statements those are too vague
My parents helped me grow in important ways, although in other respects I was limited.
The problem of America’s overcrowded prisons must be solved, and judges must start
handing out tougher sentences.

Step 2 Supports the Thesis with Specific Evidence

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The second basic step in writing a successful essay is to support the thesis with specific reasons
or details. To ensure that your essay will have adequate support, you may find an informal outline
very helpful. Write down a brief version of your thesis idea and then work out and jot down the
three points that will support the thesis. Here is the informal outline prepared by the author of the
essay on movie going:
Movie going is a problem.
1. Getting there
2. Theater itself
3. Patrons
An informal outline of this one looks simple, but achieving it often requires a great deal of careful
thinking. Once you have planned the steps that logically support your thesis, you will be in an
excellent position to go on to write an effective essay.
The Importance of Specific Details
Just as a thesis must be developed with three supporting points, so those supporting points must
be developed with specific details. Specific details have two key values.
 Details excite the reader’s interest. The make writing a pleasure to read, for we all enjoy
learning particulars about people, places, and things.
 Details serve to explain a writer’s points. They give the evidence needed for us to see and
understand general ideas.

The Importance of Adequate Details

One of the most common and serious problems in student writing is inadequate development.
You must provide enough specific details to support fully the point in a body paragraph of an
essay. You could not, for example, include a paragraph about a friend’s unreliability and provide
only a short example. You would have to add several other examples or provide an extended
example showing your friend as an unreliable person. Without such additional support, your
paragraph would be underdeveloped.

Step 3 Organize and Connect the Specific Evidence

At the same time that you are generating the specific details needed to support a thesis, you
should be thinking about ways to organize and connect those details. All the details in your essay
must cohere or stick together; in this way, your reader will be able to move smoothly and clearly
from one bit of supporting information to the next. This section will discuss the following ways to
organize and connect supporting details:
1. Common methods of organization
2. Transitions
3. Other connecting words
1. Common methods of organization
Time order and emphatic order are common methods used to organize the supporting material in
an essay. Time, or chronological, order simply means that details are listed as they occur in time.
First this is done; next this; then this; after that, this; and so on.

Emphatic order is sometimes described as “save-the-best-till-last” order. It means that the most
interesting or important detail is placed in the last part of a paragraph or in the final body
paragraph of an essay. Finally, last of all, and most important are typical words showing
emphasis.

2. Transitions
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Transitions are signals that help readers follow the direction of the writer’s thought. They are like
signposts on the road that guide travelers.
Example:
Additional signals: first of all, second, the third reason, also, next, another, and, in addition,
moreover, furthermore, finally, last of all
Time signals: fist, then, next, after, as, before, while, meanwhile, now, during, finally
Space signals: next to, across, on the opposite side, to the left, to the right, above, below, nearby
Change-of-direction signals: but, however, yet, in contrast, otherwise, still, on the contrary, on
the other hand
Illustration signals: for example, for instance, specifically, as an illustration, once, such as
Conclusion signals: therefore, consequently, thus, then, as a result, in summary, to conclude, last
of all, finally
Transitional sentences: Transitions occur not only within the supporting paragraphs in an essay
but also between the paragraphs. Transitional, or linking, sentences are used to help tie together
the supporting paragraphs in an essay. They enable the reader to move smoothly and clearly from
one idea and paragraph in an essay to the next idea and paragraph. Here are the two linking
sentences in the essay on movie going:
Once you have made it to the box office and gotten your tickets, you are confronted with
the theater itself.
The words made it to the box office remind us of the point of the first supporting paragraph, while
confronted with the theatre itself presents the point to be developed in the second supporting
paragraph.
Even more of a problem than the theatre itself is some of the other patrons.

The words the theatre itself echo the point of the second supporting paragraph, while some of the
other patrons announces the topic of the third supporting paragraph.

3. Other Connecting Words

In addition to transitions, there are three other kinds of connecting words that help tie together the
specific evidence in a paper:
(a) Repeated words
Repeating key words can help tie together the flow of thought in a paper. Below is a selection that
uses repeated words to remind readers of the key idea on which the discussion is centered:

One reason for studying psychology is to help you deal with your children. Perhaps your young
daughter refuses to go to bed when you want her to and bursts into tears at the least mention of
“lights out.” A little knowledge of psychology comes in handy. Offer her a choice of staying up
until 7:30 with you or going upstairs and playing until 7:30 with you or going upstairs and
playing until 8:00. Since she gets to make the choice, she does not feel so powerless and will not
resist. Psychology is also useful in rewarding a child for a job well done. Instead of telling your
ten-year-old son what a good boy he is when he makes his own bed, tell him how neat it looks,
how happy you are to see it, and how proud of him you are for doing it by himself. The
psychology books will tell you that being a good boy is much harder to live up to than doing one
job well.

(b) Pronouns

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Pronouns (he, she, it, you, they, this, that, we, and others) are another way to connect ideas as you
develop a paper. Using pronouns to take the place of other words or ideas can help you avoid
needless repetition in a paper. Here is a selection that makes use of pronouns:

Another way for people to economize at an amusement park is to bring their own food. If they
pack a nourishing, well-balanced lunch of cold chicken, carrot sticks, and fruit, they will avoid
having to pay high prices for hamburgers and hot dogs. They will also save on calories. Also,
instead of filling up on soft drinks, they should bring a thermos of iced tea. It is more refreshing
than soda, and it is a great deal cheaper. Every dollar that is not spent at a refreshment stand is
one that can be spent on another ride.

(c) Synonyms
Using synonyms (that is, words that are alike in meaning) also can help move the reader clearly
from one step in the thought of a paper to the next. In addition, the use of synonyms increases
variety and interest by avoiding needless repetition of the same words. Note the synonyms of
method in the following selection:

There are several methods of fund raising that work well with small organizations. One technique
is to hold auction, with everyone either contributing an item from home or obtaining a donation
from a sympathetic local merchant. Because all the merchandise, including the services of the
auctioneer, has been donated, the entire proceeds can be placed in the organization’s treasury. A
second fund-raising procedure is a car wash. Club members and their children get together on a
Saturday and wash all the cars in the neighborhood for a few dollars apiece. A final, time-tested
way to raise money is to give a bake sale, with each family contributing homemade cookies,
brownies, layer cakes, or cupcakes. Sold by the piece or by the box, these baked goods will
satisfyingly fill both the stomach and the pocketbook.

INTRODUCTIONS AND CONCLUSIONS

So far, this chapter has been concerned with ways to organize the body paragraphs of an essay. A
well-organized essay, however, should also have a strong introductory paragraph and an effective
concluding paragraph.

Introductory Paragraph
A well-written introductory paragraph will perform several important roles:

1. It will attract the reader's interest, encouraging him or her to go on and actually read the
essay. Using one of the methods of introduction described ahead can help draw the reader
into your paper.
2. It will supply any background information needed to understand the essay. Such information
is sometimes needed so that the reader has a context in which to understand the ideas
presented in the essay.
3. It will present a thesis statement. This clear direct statement of the main idea to be developed
in the paper usually occurs near the end of the introductory paragraph.
4. It will indicate a plan of development. In this' 'preview, " the major points that will support
the thesis are listed in the order in which they will be presented in the essay. In some cases,
the thesis and plan of development appear in the same sentence. In some cases, also, the plan
of development may be omitted.

Common Methods of Introduction: Here are some common methods of introduction. Use

47
anyone method, or combination of methods, to introduce your subject in an interesting way to the
reader.

1. Begin with a broad, general statement of your topic and narrow it down to your thesis
statement. Broad, general statements ease the reader into your thesis statement by providing a
background for it. In the example below, the writer talks generally about diets and then
narrows down to comments on a specific diet.

Bookstore shelves today are crammed with dozens of different diet books. The American
public seems willing to try any sort of diet, especially the ones that promise instant,
miraculous results. And authors are more than willing to invent new fad diets to cash in on
this craze. Unfortunately, some of these fad diets are ineffective or even unsafe. One of the
worst is the "Palm Beach diet." It is impractical, does not achieve the results it claims, and is
a sure route to poor nutrition.

2. Start with an idea or situation that is the opposite of the one you will develop. This approach
works because your readers will be surprised, and then intrigued, by the contrast between the
opening idea and the thesis that follows it.

When I decided to return to school at age thirty-five, I was not at all worried about my ability
to do the work. After all, I was a grown woman who had raised a family, not a confused
teenager fresh out of high school. But when I started classes, I realized that those "confused
teenagers" sitting around me were in much better shape for college than I was. They still had
all their classroom skills in bright, shiny condition, while mine had grown rusty from disuse. I
had totally forgotten how to locate information in a library, how to write a report, and even
how to speak up in class discussions.
3. Explain the importance of your topic to the reader. If you can convince your readers that the
subject in some way applies to them, or is something they should know more about, they will
want to keep reading.

Diseases like scarlet fever and whooping cough used to kill more young children than any
other cause. Today, however, child mortality due to disease has been almost completely
eliminated by medical science. Instead, car accidents are the number one killer of our
children. And most of the children fatally injured in car accidents were not protected by car
seats, belts, or restraints of any kind. Several steps must be taken to remedy this serious
problem.
4. Use an incident or brief story. Stories are naturally interesting. They appeal to a reader's
curiosity. In your introduction, an anecdote will grab the reader's attention right away. The
story should be brief and should be related to your main idea. The incident in the story can be
something that happened to you, something you have heard about, or something you have
read about in a newspaper or magazine.

Early Sunday morning the young mother dressed her little girl warmly and gave her a candy bar,
a picture book, and a well-worn stuffed rabbit. Together, they drove downtown to a Methodist
church. There the mother told the little girl to wait on the stone steps until children began arriving
for Sunday school. Then the young mother drove off, abandoning her five-year old because she
couldn't cope with being a parent anymore. This incident is one of thousands of cases of child
neglect and abuse that occur annually. Perhaps the automatic right to become a parent should no
longer exist. Would-be parents, instead, should be forced to apply for licenses granting them the
privilege of raising children.
5. Ask one or more questions. But remember that questions need answers. You may simply

48
 want the reader to think about possible answers, or you may plan to answer the questions
yourself later in the paper.

What is love? How do we know that we are really in love? When we meet that special person,
how can we tell that our feelings are genuine and not merely infatuation? And, if they are
genuine, will these feelings last? Love, as we all know, is difficult to define. But most people
agree that true and lasting love involves far more than mere physical attraction. It involves
mutual, respect, the desire to give rather than take, and the feeling of being wholly at ease.

6. Use a quotation. A quotation can be something you have read in a book or article. It can also
be something that you have heard: a. popular saying or proverb ("Never give advice to a
friend"); a current or recent advertising slogan ("Reach out and touch someone"); a favorite
expression used by friends or family ("My father always says. . . "). Using a quotation in your
introductory paragraph lets you add someone else's voice to your own.

"Fish and visitors," wrote Benjamin Franklin, "begin to smell after three days." Last summer,
when my sister and her family came to spend their two-week vacation with us, I became
convinced that Franklin was right. After only three days, I was thoroughly sick of my brother-in-
law's corny jokes, my sister's endless complaints about her boss, and their children's constant
invasions of our privacy.

Concluding Paragraph
A concluding paragraph is your chance to remind the reader of your thesis idea. Also, the
conclusion brings the paper to a natural and graceful end, sometimes leaving the reader with a
final thought on the subject.

End with a summary and final thought. When Army instructors train new recruits, each of
their lessons follows a three-step formula:
a. Tell them what you're going to tell them.
b. Tell them.
c. Tell them what you've told them.

An essay that ends with a summary is not very different. After you have stated your thesis ("Tell
them what you're going to tell them") and supported it ("Tell them"), you restate the thesis and
supporting points ("Tell them what you've told them"). Don't, however, use the exact wording
you used before. Here is a summary conclusion:

Catalog shopping at home, then, has several advantages. Such shopping is convenient, saves you
money, and saves you time. It is not surprising that growing numbers of devoted catalog shoppers
are welcoming those full-color mail brochures that offer everything from turnip seeds to
televisions.

Note that the summary is accompanied by a final comment that "rounds off" the paper and ends
the discussion. This combination of a summary and a final thought is the most common method
of concluding an essay.

Include a thought-provoking question or short series of questions. A question grabs the

reader's attention. It is a direct appeal to your reader to think further about what you have written.
A question should follow logically from the points you have already made in the paper. A
question must deal with one of these areas:
a. Why the subject of your paper is important
49
 b. What might happen in the future
c. What should be done about this subject
d. Which choice should be made

You may provide an answer to your question in the conclusion. Be sure, though, that your
question is closely related to your thesis. Here is an example:

What, then, will happen in the twenty-first century when most of the population will be over sixty
years old? Retirement policies could change dramatically, with the age-sixty-five testimonial
dinner and gold watch postponed for five or ten years. Even television would change as the
Geritol generation replaces the Pepsi generation. Glamorous gray-haired models would sell
everything from toilet paper to televisions. New soap operas and situation comedies would reveal
the secrets of the "sunset years." It will be a different world indeed when the young finally find
themselves outnumbered.

End with a prediction or recommendation. Like questions, predictions and recommendations

also involve your readers. A prediction states what will or may happen in the future:

If people stopped to think before acquiring pets, there would be fewer instances of cruelty to
animals. Many times.. it is the people who adopt pets without considering the expense and
responsibility involved who mistreat and neglect their animals. Pets are living creatures. They do
not deserve to be acquired as carelessly as one would acquire a stuffed toy.

A recommendation suggests what should be done about a situation or problem:

Stereotypes such as the helpless homemaker, harried executive, and dotty grandparent are
insulting enough to begin with. Placed in magazine ads or television commercials, they become
even more insulting. Now these unfortunate characters are not just being laughed at; they are
being turned into hucksters to sell products to an unsuspecting public. Consumers should boycott
companies whose advertising continues to use such stereotypes.
Step 4:
Write Clear, Error- Free Sentences
The fourth step in writing an effective paper is to follow the agreed-upon rules or conventions of
written English. These conventions--or, as they are called in this book, sentence skills-must be
followed if your sentences are to be clear and error-free. Here are the most common of these
conventions,

1. Write complete sentences rather than 12. Check for possible spelling errors.
fragments. 13. Eliminate careless errors.
2. Do not write run-on sentences. 14. Vary your sentences.
3. Use verb forms correctly.
4. Make sure that subject, verbs, and
pronouns agree.
5. Eliminate faulty parallelism and faulty
modifiers.
6. Use pronoun forms correctly.
7. Use capital letters where needed.
8. Use punctuation marks correctly.
9. Use correct paper format.
10. Eliminate wordiness.
11. Choose words carefully.

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 Basic Writing Skills

Space will not be taken here to explain and offer activities in all the sentence skills. Rather, they
will be treated in detail in Part 5 of this book, where they can be referred to easily as needed. Note
that both the list of sentence skills on the inside front cover (item 4) and the correction symbols
on the last page of the book contain page references, so that you can turn quickly to those skills
that give you problems.

Practice in Organizing Specific Evidence

You now know the third step in effective writing: organizing the specific evidence used to
support the thesis of a paper. You also know that the fourth step-writing clear, error-free
sentences-will be treated in detail in Part 5. This closing section will expand and strengthen your
understanding of the third step in writing. You will work through the following series of
activities:
1. Organizing through time or emphatic order
2. Providing transitions
3. Identifying transitions and other connecting words
4. Completing transitional sentences
5. Identifying introductions and conclusions
6. Writing introductions and conclusions

Writing Activity

Choose a topic and write a five-paragraph essay.

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 Basic Writing Skills

Summarized uses of Punctuation marks

- A full stop indicates the end of a grammatically complete sentence. The full stop
is also used to mark most abbreviations.
- A question mark characterizes an interrogation.
- An exclamation mark indicates surprise or emotion.
- A comma is used to separate elements in a series and in a pair, to set off words or
phrases in a sentence.
- A semicolon ranks halfway between a comma and a full stop. A semicolon is also
used to link two or more sentences that are closely related.
- A colon indicates the beginning of a list, summary or quotation.
- An apostrophe omissions or the possessive case.
- Quotation marks are used to enclose a direct speech or words quoted from a
different source.
- Parentheses are used to enclose elements of a sentence that are not essential for
the meaning of the sentence buy for amplifying it.
- Brackets are used to enclose bibliographical references.
- Braces are used in mathematical expressions and in writing a computer program.
Braces may not be used in the place of the parentheses or the brackets.
- A hyphen is used to form complex words and to break words at the end of a line.
- A dash is used for emphasis and in a pair, to set off words or phrases.
- A slash is used in abbreviations, expression of time and with fractions.
- Ellipses are three dots used to show omission of words or sentences in a reported
speech or a quotation.

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