Module 1: COMMUNICATION THEORY

Topics in Syllabus

1.1 The Communication Process

1.2 Objectives
1.3 Methods of Communication
1.4 Formal and informal Channels of Communication in a Business Organization
1.5 Barriers to Communication,
1.6 Techniques to improve Communication (Listening, Speaking, Reading, Writing)
1.1 COMMUNICATION PROCESS

INTRODUCTION

Communication skills have emerged as the most powerful set of skills to possess for accelerating one’s
career trajectory and speed of accomplishment in every walk of life. To prepare you for a rewarding career
in the broad field of management, it is even more essential to acquire, practice and exhibit high levels of
communication skills in normal and crisis situations. Effective communication skills provide the ladder to the
managers and leaders for rapid progression in their careers.

BRIEF HISTORY OF COMMUNICATION

The history of communication began with man communicating with others like him, using oral
communication that was understandable to the listener. Hand signs and body language played important
roles while our ancestors communicated with one another. Man then developed a sense of what
surrounded him, by trying to depict all that he saw and experienced, using mud and sharpened tools, to
draw and carve on walls. The first means of communication was, of course, the human voice but between
3,300-1600 BC writing was invented in Iraq, Egypt and China. However the only American civilization to
invent a true system of writing were the Mayans.

The next big step was the invention of the alphabet in what is now Israel and Lebanon about 1,600 BC. In
the Ancient World many civilizations including Egypt, Assyria, Persia, Rome and China had efficient postal
systems to deliver messages to parts of their empires using relays of horses.

In the ancient world people wrote on papyrus or parchment. However the Chinese invented paper. The
knowledge of how to make paper passed to the Arabs and in the Middle Ages it reached Europe. The next
major improvement in communication was the invention of printing. In Europe in the mid-15th century
Johannes Gutenburg invented the printing press, which made books much cheaper and allowed
newspapers to be invented. The first newspapers were printed in the 17th century. European monarchs set
up postal services to carry their messages. Communication became far more efficient in the 19th century.
Cheap mail made it much easier for people to keep in touch with loved ones who lived a long way off. The
telegraph and the fax machine were invented. A Scot, Alexander Graham Bell, invented the telephone and
later the first telephone exchange in Britain opened.

Meanwhile the first successful typewriter went on sale and the first successful fountain pen was made.
Louis Braille invented an embossed typeface for the blind and Isaac Pitman invented shorthand.
Communication continued to improve in the 20th century. Marconi sent a radio message across the
Atlantic. Television was invented by John Logie Baird and the BBC began regular, high definition
broadcasting.

In the early 21st century the internet became an important form of communication. Today email has
become one of the most popular methods of communication. Social media and ebook readers became
common.

Web This link takes us to an article which examines the reasons behind why we communicate and a
Link look at the factors that condition human communication.
No. 1
http://communicationtheory.org/why-do-we-communicate/

Web This web page indicates in detail about how the history of communication dates back to
Link prehistory, with significant changes in communication technologies.
No. 2
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_communication

Q. What is the importance of communication in the real world?

Q. Communication is an often quoted term in modern times because of its increasing importance in
the world. There is a necessity of simplifying this complex term to understand all the complexities
involved. Explain the process of communication concentrating on definitions and terms involved.
Give reasons for its increasing importance day by day.

REAL LIFE APPLICATION, IMPORTANCE AND SCOPE OF COMMUNICATION

Communication is an essential part of human interaction. The benefits of effective communication are many
and obvious as they enhance all aspects of our personal and professional lives. Ineffective or
misunderstood communications in our personal lives may give rise to problems or embarrassment but in
our professional lives the results of misunderstandings may have much more serious results. A phrase from
some British propaganda during WWII neatly sums up the dangers of ineffective communications:
‘Careless talk costs lives’.

In working life, communication involves letting others know of our activities or the results of our work.
Communication of projects is essential in letting people know what is happening and what results are being
achieved – the best project in the world will not lead to any positive changes if itsresults are not
communicated to others.

How you communicate an idea or piece of information is often as important as the idea or information itself.
Messages need to be clear, simple and accurate. Badly presented, boring or complicated messages will
often be misunderstood or simply ignored. You might be fascinated by all the details of your own important
work, but other people will not have an innate interest in what you have done. You will need to show them
why they should take notice of what you have achieved. Good communication is about catching people’s
attention to news and information that they are then interested to hear more about.

Good communication means the intended message you send is received by your audience without any
distortions in meaning. This definition applies to not only personal communication among friends or
relatives, but to business situations where you may be communicating with a co-worker one-on-one or in a
meeting with several or more people. The key here is clarity.

Good business communication helps get the job done well, on time and on budget. The boss or team
member who can communicate objectives, reasoning and step-wise tasks in a concise and coherent
manner contributes more to a company's success than one who does not. These communicators are highly
valued in today's complex and competitive business world, and are often earmarked for promotion and
increased responsibility. n today's global economy, businesses cannot ignore the importance of cross-
cultural communication. Businesses are finding that it is in their best interest to learn about national, cultural
and ethnic groups they need to communicate with to grow their businesses. Knowledge of language
nuances and local customs are important to that growth as a misstep can cause a lost sale or a delayed
project.

Scope of Communication

Communication as a subject of study has a very vast canvas. To different people, communication implies
various areas of study, research and application:
(1) It is a means of transportation from one place to another viz., moving men, machines, materials etc
by surface transport like railways, roadways or by air or by sea. It is not uncommon to describe a region or
a country backward in terms of means of communication because it is not serviced or well connected by
railways, roadways, airways or seaways.

(2) It also relates to means of sending / receiving messages, packets or parcels through post,
telephone, telegram, radio, wireless or Internet. These means of communications have undergone rapid
changes during the last few decades. Postal services have been revolutionized by courier services – same-
day delivery, next-day delivery etc. Telephone services have become commonplace – one can talk to a
person anywhere even one orbiting in a satellite without shouting. The mobile telephony and use of Internet
has changed the way people talk and communicate with one another. They are changing the way business
is done.

(3) Communication is a major focus of attention for artists – singers, dancers, actors, painters,
sculptors etc are all trying to communicate with their audiences. They endeavour to win their attention and
appreciation so as to secure attractive returns for their efforts.

In managerial or business context, it is the science and art of communicating.

Etymologically, communication as a word is derived from the word ‘Communis’ from Latin. It means shared
by or ‘concerning all’. Thus communication is a process of influencing others to achieve common, shared
objectives. These goals could be that of individuals, families, teams, departments / functions and
companies.

Web This is an article on the scope of communication and indicates how communication has an effect
link on all aspects of our lives.
No. 3
http://thebusinesscommunication.com/scope-of-communication/

Q. What do you understand by the term communication? Define it.

DEFINITIONS:

Communication is a two-way process of reaching mutual understanding, in which participants not only
exchange (encode-decode) information, news, ideas and feelings but also create and share meaning. In
general, communication is a means of connecting people or places. In business, it is a key function of
management--an organization cannot operate without communication between levels, departments and
employees.

We can now proceed to define communication from what we have seen above. The exact meaning of the
word communicate is ‘to share’ or ‘to participate’. The dictionaries say that communication is the
transmission of a message or information by speaking or writing.

Another dictionary declares that communication is giving or exchanging information, signals, messages by
talk or gestures or writing. Yet another definition says
that communication is social intercourse. Communication is all this and much more. A good definition
should not only give the precise meaning but also throw light on the scope of the word/expression.

Communication is giving, receiving or exchanging ideas, information, signals or messages through

appropriate media, enabling individuals or groups to persuade, to seek information, to give information or to
express emotions.

This broad definition includes body-language, skills of speaking and writing. It outlines the objectives of
communication. It emphasizes listening as an important aspect of communication.

Some more definitions:

"Communication is the process by which information is transmitted between individuals and / or

organizations so that an understanding response results." ~ Peter Little

Communication is an exchange of facts, ideas, opinions or emotions by two or more persons." ~

W.H.Newman

"Administrative communication is a process which involves the transmission and accurate replication of
ideas ensured by feedback for the purpose of eliciting actions which will accomplish organizational goals."~
William Scott

The process of passing the information and understanding from one person to another. It is essentially a
bridge of meaning between the people. By using the bridge a person can safely cross the river of
misunderstanding’. ~ Keith Davis

‘Communication is the sum total of all the things that a person does, when he wants to create an
understanding in the mind of another. It involves a systematic and continuous process of telling, listening
and understanding’. ~ Louis A. Allen
Web A look at some more definitions of communication.
link
No. 4 http://communicationtheory.org/definitions-of-communication/

Q. Comment on the statement that communication is a two way process. What role does feedback
play in this process? (Illustrate your answer with the help of a diagram).

COMMUNICATION AS A TWO-WAY PROCESS

Communication is a complete process - it starts with communicators sending messages to receivers, the
communicatees. An experienced sender of message, whether oral or written, would think of the audience
as his customer. He would try to gauge or guess the kind of level of communication the receiver is
comfortable with. Thereafter, he would craft his message in a manner and in the language, words, phrases
and idioms that the receiver is familiar with.

Each receiver of message is really a customer whose needs and wants should be as well known to the
sender as it happens in a market place. Obviously, like the sender who chooses words, phrases and idioms
from his vocabulary depending on own learning, experience and exposure, receiver also has his own
mental filter that is the product of his learning, experience and exposure. To absorb the message in his
mind, he does the abstraction of the message in to words, phrases and idioms that he is familiar with or has
command over. This leads to his formulating his response to the message received. Once again, it goes
through the mind filter and ultimately comes out of the communicatee and starts its return journey to the
sender of the message. It conveys back what is understood by the receiver.

Web This links us to a wiki page on two-way communication across various platforms.
link
No. 5 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two-way_communication
Q. Define the word ‘Communication’. Describe the process of communication with the help of a
diagram, its elements and working.

Q. Describe the process of communication, indicating the role of each constituent element.
Q. With the help of diagram, describe the components and process of communication.

Q. Communication is like a journey which consists of various steps starting from the idea as a
source, to feedback as destination. Explain the ideal cycle of communication which makes it
complete and effective. Make use of diagrams and illustrations to support your answer.

Q. Communication is a dynamic and an ongoing process. Explain the communication proves in the
light of this statement with the help of a communication cycle.

Q. “Communication is a continuous process which is a highlight of human social life". Explain the
statement by use of the communication cycle.

Q. Communication is the process of sending and receiving information. Explain the communication
process, in the light of this statement. Draw the communication cycle to support your answer.

Q. Write a short note the importance of context in the cycle of communication.

Q. What is the first stage in the process of communication and who is responsible for it?

Q. Write a short note on code, encode and decode.

Q. Write a short note on feedback as an important component of the communication cycle.

Q. Write a short note on medium and message in communication cycle.

Q. Write a short note on the role of the receiver in the process of communication.

Q. Write a short note on feedback as an important component of the communication process.

Q. Write a short note on the importance of feedback.

 Q. Write a short note on the necessity and importance of feedback.

Q. Feedback is the final link of the communication process.’ Explain the process of communication
with the help of a block diagram in the light of this statement.

Q. What is meant by Feedback? Is it a part of communication cycle? What role does it play in the
process of communication?

Q. Give an outline of the Communication cycle and explain the components

giving an example.

COMMUNICATION CYCLE

Communication is a fundamental part of all our lives. The range of methods we can use to communicate
with each other is growing all the time. We can communicate using everything from a note stuck on the
fridge door to video-conferencing. But no matter which medium we choose, the underlying structure or
communication cycle remains the same. If we are unsure of what we wish to communicate, or transmit it
badly, we run the risk of not being understood by other people.

The communication cycle is a structure that was thought up about how we communicate. It suggests that
we 'Aim' what we want to say, how we'll say it, what we want the other person to do with the information.
This is the stage in which we think particularly about how we will communicate the information and to who
we wish to communicate with.

Context is the circumstances surrounding a message. The circumstances might include the setting, the
value positions of the people, and appropriateness of a message. This means considering your audience,
the forum under which you are speaking, the era, and accepted norms.

1. Once we have organized what we want to say, who to say it to and how to say it, we have to consider
social influences and other things that may 'change' what we want to say. This is the 'Encoding' stage. We
have to consider what language to say it in, what we assume of the receiver and are these assumptions
 correct? We also have to consider what the Receiver may be assuming about US. Their assumptions may
hinder and change what we say.

2. The next stage is vital in successful communication. This stage is the 'Transmission' stage. We need to
be able to transmit the message that we wish to communicate in right format and at the correct time. We
need to consider if there will be any distractions to hinder our communication attempt, if we need to
summarize and if we can add anything to increase the clarity of what we are trying to say.

3. When we receive the information from someone, if they are speaking, we must take into account that we
think 3 times faster than we speak, and therefore, it is much easier for a speaker's words to get muddled up
with other thoughts and distractions. Reactions and questions must not happen until after the speaker has
finished with what they were saying. This stage is called 'Receiving'. "In the communication process, the
role of receiver is, I believe, as important as that of sender. There are five receiver steps in the process of
communication--Receive, Understand, Accept, Use, and Give a Feedback. Without these steps, being
followed by the receiver, no communication process would be complete and successful." (Keith David.) The
receiver is the destination of the message. The receiver's task is to interpret the sender's message, both
verbal and nonverbal, with as little distortion as possible.

4. The next stage in the Communication Cycle is called 'Decoding'. This is the opposite of encoding. If the
Sender has transmitted the information correctly and has given enough attention to what they are saying,
including their body language and tone of voice, then you should be able to decode their message
effectively. We may sometimes feel that some Senders are not approachable in certain circumstances, but
we must remember, the meaning of the message is the responsibility of the Sender and not the Receiver.
5. The last stage in the Communication Cycle is 'Responding' or ‘Feedback’. This gives the Receiver the
chance to ask any questions and this also gives the Sender the chance to realize if they have missed out
any stages in the Communication Cycle.

Feedback is an integral part of communication, and it allows the sender of a message to judge how effective it has
been. Feedback is the final link or component in the communication chain or cycle. When the receiver of a
communication sends a response or reply to the message, it is called feedback. Feedback is essential in all
communications as it indicates successful transmission of the message. Feedback can be defined as the process by
which the decoder's (receivers) reaction to the message is transmitted to the encoder (sender). Feedback is the
backbone of the communication.

1. Positive / Negative

Feedback is an intelligent understanding of the encoded message by the decoder. Feedback may be
positive or negative. Positive feedback means a very good and satisfactory response of the decoder to the
encoder's encoded message Negative feedback means an indifferent response to the encoder's encoded
message.

2. Immediate / Delayed

Feedback can be immediate or delayed. In inter-personal communication the receiver of the message
conveys, that he has received through smiling or frowning. When we write letters or broadcast on the radio,
the feedback becomes delays as the message is conveyed little slow.

3. Simple / Complex

Feedback can be simple through a nod of the head, conveying a brief yes or no, or it can be complex as a
lengthy written response. Feedback involves circling back of information to a control device to adjust
behavior. For example, when management communicates through a public welfare officer to the striking
workers in the factory, the workers respond either positively or negatively and this feedback helps the
management to take an effective decision to send the workers back to work.

4. Profits / Losses

Feedback can enhance the profits of an organization. If a business reacts positively to feedback, it changes
its marketing strategy and achieves progress. A negative feedback may be responsible for weak and lop
sided business. Thus, feedback constitutes the most vital aspect of the process of communication.

Video This is an explanatory video on the cyclical process of communication.

No. 1
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=C69OhJPc2TE
Video This video throws light on the elements of communication and the role that they play in successful
No. 2 communication.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8gSmeDUSpR0

Video This video describes the 2 processes of communication- Linear and Transactional
No. 3
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=64MvcVq32Ik
1.2 OBJECTIVES OF COMMUNICATION
Q. List the major objectives of communication. Explain any one.

Q. Write a short note on the objectives of communication.

An objective is something that one's efforts or actions are intended to attain or

accomplish. When we communicate, with what intention do we communicate governs the way we
communicate. One needs to be clear about “why” one is communicating.

Video This is an NPTEL video of a comprehensive lecture on introduction to Communication Skills by

No. 4 Dr. T. Ravichandran, Department of Humanities and Social Sciences, IIT Kanpur.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cQruENyLNYI&list=PLbMVogVj5nJSZB8BV29_sPwwkz
 MTYXpaH

Business communication has specific objectives. They are:

Information related Communication: Information on a product, service or activity of an organization to the

people concerned and information about the product, service or activity from the people concerned to the
organization come under this category. They are outgoing information and incoming information
respectively. The people concerned may be those within the organization or outside the organization.
Transmission of information may be through personal contacts, written documents, advertisements, etc.
Information might be in the nature of an advice, order, warning or counselling. Orders and warnings are
different from advice and counselling by their very nature.

Video This is a video of a short talk on the concepts and objectives of communication.
No. 5
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JaFJCcSoveY

Persuasion related communication: Persuasion is related to the promotional activity of a company. It is

employed to promote sales and service. Persuasion related communication calls for tact and an
understanding on the part of the communicator.
 Motivation related communication: A company has to motivate its workforce to turnout better work, its
customers to buy its product and service. Motivation can be done only by understanding the mind-set of the
receiver. Business organizations have to continuously resort to motivation to succeed in their business
aims.

Web This is a blog entry on the various aspects of organizational communication and an overview of
link the development of communication.
No. 6
http://buchpayal.blogspot.com

Important Objectives of Business Communication:

1. To develop information and understanding among all workers.
2. To foster an attitude that is necessary for motivation, cooperation and job satisfaction. High morale and
effective performance go hand to hand.
3. To discourage misinformation, ambiguity and rumors.
4. To prepare workers for a change in methods or environment by giving them the necessary information in
advance.
5. To encourage subordinates to supply ideas and suggestions for improving upon the product or work
environment, and taking these suggestions seriously.
6. To improve labour-management relations by keeping their communication channels open.
7. To encourage social relations among workers by encouraging inter communication.
8. To plan and strategize about what is to be done in the future.
9. To facilitate direction and motivation from superiors to his subordinates increase productivity. Order is an
authoritative communication pattern and should be clear and complete and given in a friendly way. To
achieve organizational goals, there must be a good relationship between employee and employer.
10. To solve problems by ensuring that a communication network is in place to smoothly coordinate between
employees and employers. Counseling is given to solve employees’ mental stress and improve
productivity.
11. To create consciousness, responsibility and accountability about the respective roles, duties and activities
of all employees. If the employees do not abide by the norms of the organization, warning is a power
communication tool and it can be general and specific.
12. To recruit, train, motivate and manage human resources effectively there must be effective communication.
13. To attract potential customers with new products and services, efficient communication is a must. Your
organization’s need for effective reach of company name and public promotions are based on effective
promotional material such as advertisements, bill boards, online ads, posters etc. are all communicated for
effective message delivery and meaning.
14. To facilitate joint effort, mutual trust & unity arising from good communication is a must.

Web This is a blog entry on the objectives of communication and the process of communication.
link
No. 7 https://rkmvcbba.wordpress.com/2011/01/17/objectives-of-communication-communication-
process-and-functions-of-communication/
1.3 METHODS OF COMMUNICATION

The best communication methods succeed in putting across the right message in a clear, unambiguous
way that gets noticed by the target audience, whilst also saving on time and cost. Good communicators
succeed in choosing the best medium of communication for the particular purpose in mind. Communication
methods can be broadly divided into 1) Verbal and 2) Non Verbal.

Video This video is an overview of the significance of modern communication systems across the world
No. 6 and the risks associated with them.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TmyB_pTUmpE

Video This animated video brings out the distinction between verbal and nonverbal communication at a
No.7 quick glance.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=I9i5_xwRE_U
(1) Verbal communication
Verbal communication happens through the use of words. It must be understood that communicator has to
depend on the language that has been designed, developed and propagated by humans. As a result, it
suffers from a lot of limitations despite the fact that some languages of the world are very developed and
command a vast vocabulary. Verbal Communication, in turn, can be further divided into: i) Oral and ii)
Written.

Video This video is a compilation of cartoons and images which demonstrates ‘the power of words’ in
No. 8 communication across various cultures.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8-hGDlifwhg

Q. As a manager of a company you have to train the young trainees and guide them to be good
senders as well as good receivers. Explain how you would guide them to be effective in both
written as well as oral communication skills in this regard.

Q. Compare and contrast oral and written communication.

Q. Advantages and disadvantages of oral and written communication.

ORAL AND WRITTEN COMMUNICATION

Most of us intuitively understand that there are differences between oral and written language. All
communication includes the transfer of information from one person to another, and while the transfer of
information is only the first step in the process of understanding a complex phenomenon, it is an important
first step. Writing is a fairly static form of transfer. Speaking is a dynamic transfer of information. To be an
effective speaker, you must exploit the dynamism of oral communication, but also learn to work within its
limitations. While there is a higher level of immediacy and a lower level of retention in the spoken word, a
speaker has more ability to engage the audience psychologically and to use complex forms of non-verbal
communication.

Oral Communication

Speeches can also be precise and indeed they ought to be. But precision in oral communication comes
only with a great deal of preparation and compression. Once spoken, words cannot be retracted, although
one can apologize for a mistake and improvise a clarification or qualification. Word-for-word reading from a
text is not speech-making, and in most circumstances audiences find speech-reading boring and retain
very little of the information transmitted.
On the other hand, oral communication can be significantly more effective in expressing meaning to an
audience. This distinction between precision and effectiveness is due to the extensive repertoire of signals
available to the speaker: gestures, intonation, inflection, volume, pitch, pauses, movement, visual cues
such as appearance, and a whole host of other ways to communicate meaning. A speaker has significantly
more control over what the listener will hear than the writer has over what the reader will read. The
speaker, therefore, must become a reader of the audience.

As one speaks, the audience provides its own visual cues about whether it is finding the argument
coherent, comprehensible, or interesting. Speakers should avoid focusing on single individuals within an
audience. There are always some who scrunch up their faces when they disagree with a point; others will
stare out the window; a few rude (but tired) persons will fall asleep. These persons do not necessarily
represent the views of the audience; much depends upon how many in the audience manifest these
signals. By and large, one should take the head-nodders and the note-takers as signs that the audience is
following one's argument. If these people seem to outnumber the people not paying attention, then the
speech is being well-received. The single most important bit of evidence about the audience's attention,
however, is eye contact. If members of the audience will look back at you when you are speaking, then you
have their attention. If they look away, then your contact with the audience is probably fading.

Speeches probably cannot be sophisticated and intricate. Few audiences have the listening ability or
background to work through a difficult or complex argument, and speakers should not expect them to be
able to do so. Trying to put too much into a speech is probably the single most frequent error made by
speakers. This desire to "say everything" stems from the distinctive limitations of speeches: after a speech,
one cannot go back and correct errors or omissions, and such mistakes could potentially cripple the
persuasiveness of a speech. If necessary, the other aspects of the argument should be clearly
acknowledged by the speaker, but deferred to a question-and-answer period, a future speech, or a
reference to a work that the audience can follow-up on its own. Speakers must exercise tight and
disciplined control over content.

As a rule of thumb, the audience will remember about one-half of what was said in a twenty-minute talk.
After twenty-minutes, recall drops off precipitously. Oral arguments should therefore be parsed down as
much as possible. There are very few circumstances in which an audience will recall a great deal of the
information in a speech longer than twenty minutes. Most evidence suggests that audience recall declines
precipitously after 16 and one-half minutes.

Video Be inspired by Bill Gates in this video - the most successful and the richest dropout in the world!
No. 9 We all know Bill Gates, but most of us don't know his ups and downs to success. This video is an
example of the power of oral communication.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iADTpgRXYrk

Video A quick tribute to some of the Greatest Speeches in History.

No. 10
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5110UES-QzE

Features of Oral communication:

A great deal of information is communicated orally.
- Oral communication can occur in a face-to-face meeting of two people or in manager’s presentation to a
large audience;
- It can be formal or informal, and it can be planned or accidental.
- It makes possible speedy interchange with immediate feedback.
- People can ask questions and clarify points. In a face-to-face interaction the effect can be noted.
- It may not always save time, as any manager knows who has attended meetings in which no results or
agreements were achieved. These meetings can be costly in terms of time and money.

Q. Write a short note on the merits and demerits of oral communication.

Advantages of Oral Communication

There is high level of understanding and transparency in oral communication as it is interpersonal.
There is no element of rigidity in oral communication. There is flexibility for allowing changes in the
decisions previously taken.
The feedback is spontaneous in case of oral communication. Thus, decisions can be made quickly without
any delay.
Oral communication is not only time saving, but it also saves upon money and efforts.
Oral communication is best in case of problem resolution. The conflicts, disputes and many
issues/differences can be put to an end by talking them over.
Oral communication is an essential for teamwork and group energy.
Oral communication promotes a receptive and encouraging morale among organizational employees.
Oral communication can be best used to transfer private and confidential information/matter.

Disadvantages/Limitations of Oral Communication

Relying only on oral communication may not be sufficient as business communication is formal and very
organized.
Oral communication is less authentic than written communication as they are informal and not as organized
as written communication.
Oral communication is time-saving as far as daily interactions are concerned, but in case of meetings, long
speeches consume lot of time and are unproductive at times.
Oral communications are not easy to maintain and thus they are unsteady.
There may be misunderstandings as the information is not complete and may lack essentials.
It requires attentiveness and great receptivity on part of the receivers/audience.
Oral communication (such as speeches) is not frequently used as legal records except in investigation
work.

Telephone communication
It is important to choose the correct medium for the communication process. Telephone is an excellent
means to save time. But remember to:
- Call only if it is inevitable. Think if it is better to talk personally
- Identify yourself as the first thing. This will save a lot of time and trouble.
- Speak softly. You are talking into somebody’s ears and not from a drama stage.
- Avoid mannerism. That other person can not see you.
- Do not express disregard even in a wrong call. Nobody would like to talk to you unnecessarily. It could be
a mistake after all.
- Identify the caller by voice if you can. You can not ask the boss who he is!
- Be precise. You will save the time and trouble for two people.

Written Communication
Written Communication requires preparation and can be thought out properly before committing in writing.
It takes time and is expensive. However, it is more accurate and is the norm for technical, legal and most
diplomatic communications. With increase in the size of organizations, their complexity and dynamism,
many a times written communication is the only way to communicate. With technological advancement in
our ability to send / receive emails, fax messages, short messaging service (SMS) on mobile phones,
instant messaging etc, written messages have become very common and popular. Ability to send online
reports across continents has won the race against time and distance. It is significantly influencing the way
people shall do business in the twenty-first century.

The written language can be significantly more precise. Written words can be chosen with greater
deliberation and thought, and a written argument can be extraordinarily sophisticated, intricate, and lengthy.
These attributes of writing are possible because the pace of involvement is controlled by both the writer and
the reader. The writer can write and rewrite at great length, a span of time which in some cases can be
measured in years. Similarly, the reader can read quickly or slowly or even stop to think about what he or
she has just read. More importantly, the reader always has the option of rereading; even if that option is not
exercised, its mere possibility has an effect upon a reader's understanding of a text. The written word
appeals more to a contemplative, deliberative style.

Video Six simple writing tips for better business communications.

No. 11
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4XPUcJGABXI

Features of written communication:

- Written communication has the advantage of providing records, references, and legal defenses.
- The message can be carefully prepared and then directed to a large audience through mass mailings.
- Written communication can also promote uniformity in policy and procedure and can reduce costs, in
some cases.
- The disadvantages are that written messages may create mountains of paper, may be poorly expressed
by ineffective writers, and may provide no immediate feedback.
- Consequently, it may take a long time to know whether a message has been received and properly
understood.

Q. Write a short note on the merits and demerits of written communication.

Advantages of Written Communication

Written communication helps in laying down apparent principles, policies and rules for running of an
organization.
It is a permanent means of communication. Thus, it is useful where record maintenance is required.
It assists in proper delegation of responsibilities. While in case of oral communication, it is impossible to fix
and delegate responsibilities on the grounds of speech as it can be taken back by the speaker or he may
refuse to acknowledge.
Written communication is more precise and explicit.
Effective written communication develops and enhances an organization’s image.
It provides ready records and references.
Legal defenses can depend upon written communication as it provides valid records.

Video Learn the correct way to communicate in writing at work. Not only will this create a positive
No. 12 impression but it may help you avoid misinterpretation of your message.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lLCgDpX6DdQ

Disadvantages of Written Communication

Written communication does not save upon the costs. It costs huge in terms of stationery and the
manpower employed in writing/typing and delivering letters.
Also, if the receivers of the written message are separated by distance and if they need to clear their
doubts, the response is not spontaneous.
Written communication is time-consuming as the feedback is not immediate. The encoding and sending of
message takes time.
Effective written communication requires great skills and competencies in language and vocabulary use.
Poor writing skills and quality have a negative impact on organization’s reputation.
Too much paper work and e-mails burden is involved.
Conclusion
Written and oral communication media have favorable and unfavorable characteristics; consequently, they
are often used together so that the favorable qualities of each can complement the other. In addition, visual
aids may be used to supplement both oral and written communications. For example, the lecture in the
management training session may be made more effective when written handouts, transparencies,
videotapes, and films are used. Evidence has shown that when a message is repeated through several
media, the people receiving it will more accurately comprehend and recall it.
One should not think about speeches as oral presentations of a written text. Speeches are genuinely
different from written prose, and one should not use the logic of writing as a basis for writing a speech. In
selecting the media, one must consider the communicator, the audience, and the situation. An executive
who feels uncomfortable in front of a large audience may choose written communication rather than a
speech. On the other hand, certain audiences who may not read a memo may be reached and become
motivated by direct oral communication. Situations may also demand a specific medium.

Q. Besides the use of language, there are several other methods available to Mankind, to give way
to their expressions. Explain.

Q. According to NLP, feelings are 55% body language, 38% tone and 07% words. Explain nonverbal
communication in the light of this statement with examples.

Q. "One cannot not communicate". Discuss this statement in the light of non-verbal
communication.

Q. Explain the role of non-verbal communication in improving the effectiveness of a presentation of

a Sales Report.

NON VERBAL COMMUNICATION

Non Verbal Communication is defined as behavior and elements of speech aside from the words
themselves that transmit meaning. Non-verbal communication includes pitch, speed, tone and volume of
voice, gestures and facial expressions, body posture, stance, and proximity to the listener, eye movements
and contact, and dress and appearance.
Albert Mehrabian, Ph.D., is known for his studies on the relative importance of verbal and nonverbal
communication. He formulated the 7%-38%-55% rule: 7% of the total meaning of our communication is
from spoken words, 38% is from vocal variables (such as voice tone) and 55% is visual (such as facial
expressions). According to Mehrabian, wordless messages impact 93% of our communication
effectiveness.
Transmission of messages by a medium other than speech or writing is also considered as Non Verbal
Communication.

Effects of Non Verbal Communication

Non verbal communication, especially body language, can send a strong message, in spite of what your
words say. Even the tone of your voice, its pitch, volume, quality, and speed effects what you say. Your
body language can:
Repeat the message your words are saying
Contradict what your words are saying
Be a substitution for your verbal message
Add to the meaning of your message
Accent or make the message stronger, like pounding your fist on a table
Non-verbal behaviour predates verbal communication because individuals, since birth, rely first on non-
verbal means to express themselves. This innate character of non-verbal behaviour is important in
communication.
According to experts, a substantial portion of our communication is nonverbal. Every day, we respond to
thousands on nonverbal cues and behaviors including postures, facial expression, eye gaze, gestures, and
tone of voice. From our handshakes to our hairstyles, nonverbal details reveal who we are and impact how
we relate to other people. Scientific research on nonverbal communication and behavior began with the
1872 publication of Charles Darwin's The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals. Since that time,
there has been an abundance of research on the types, effects and expressions of unspoken
communication and behavior. While these signals are often so subtle that we are not consciously aware of
them, research has identified several different types of nonverbal communication.

In many cases, we communicate information in nonverbal ways using groups of behaviors. For example,
we might combine a frown with crossed arms and unblinking eye gaze to indicate disapproval.

Q. Write a short note on gestures and facial expressions.

1. Facial Expression

Facial expressions are also among the most universal forms of body language. The expressions used to
convey fear, anger, sadness, and happiness are similar throughout the world. Facial expressions are
dynamic features which communicate the speaker’s attitude, emotions, intentions, and so on. The face is
the primary source of emotions. During oral communication, facial expressions change continually and are
constantly monitored and interpreted by the receiver. Examples are: a smile, frown, raised eyebrow, yawn
or sneer.
Facial expressions are responsible for a huge proportion of nonverbal communication. Consider how much
information can be conveyed with a smile or a frown. While nonverbal communication and behavior can
vary dramatically between cultures, the facial expressions for happiness, sadness, anger and fear are
similar throughout the world.
Displays of emotions can generally be categorized into two groups: negative and positive. Negative
emotions usually manifest as increased tension in various muscle groups: tightening of jaw muscles,
furrowing of forehead, squinting eyes, or lip occlusion (when the lips seemingly disappear). In contrast,
positive emotions are revealed by the loosening of the furrowed lines on the forehead, relaxation of the
muscles around the mouth, and widening of the eye area. When individuals are truly relaxed and at ease,
the head will also tilt to the side, exposing our most vulnerable area, the neck. This is a high-comfort
display that is nearly impossible to mimic when tense or suspicious.
The face is the most expressive part of the body.
• A smile (friendliness), a frown (discontent), raising the eyebrows (disbelief) or tightening the jaw
muscles (antagonism) can add to the meaning being conveyed through verbal means.
• An effective communication can turn out to be a failure if the speaker does not have proper facial
expressions.
• Biting the lips, raising the eyebrows at regular intervals or blinking the eyes too often can certainly
mar the smooth flow of the communication.

Smiling plays a very crucial role in human interactions:

Smile creates a lasting first impression. A smile says, ‘I like you. I am glad to see you’. Smile is a
messenger of your goodwill; it brightens the lives of all who see it. For those who often see people frown,
scowl or turn their faces away, smile is like a sun breaking through the clouds. It costs nothing but creates
 much – it enriches those who receive without impoverishing those who give. Smile creates happiness at
homes, fosters goodwill in business and is the countersign of friendship.

Video A video tutorial I made to help people learn the most common facial expressions. These are
No. 13 useful when evaluating micro-expressions. These flash on people's faces for only 1/2-1/5th of a
second. This can help you learn exactly where to focus when trying to read lightning fast
microexpressions.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TrgNKGjSyxA

Q. Write a short note on the role played by Gestures in body language.

2. Gestures
Deliberate movements and signals are an important way to communicate meaning without words. Common
gestures include waving, pointing, and using fingers to indicate numeric amounts. Other gestures are
arbitrary and related to culture.
Body gestures can only be transferred if the interpreter is visible for the audience. Body gestures vary
considerably according to cultural regions. A speaker, for example, agrees on a proposal - which is
reproduced by the simultaneous interpreter - but shakes his or her head several times. This might be a sign
of consent in the speaker’s culture. However, a European audience will consider this gesture as a sign of
refusal and is probably confused not knowing, which information might be correct – the positive one (by the
interpreter) or the apparent negative one (visually). If the simultaneous interpreters could express
themselves visually, they would support the verbal reproduction of consent by nodding their head. It is
generally not recommended that interpreters imitate or exaggerate (striking) gestures as they run the risk to
make fools of themselves.
Gestures can also be categorized as either speech independent or speech related. Speech-independent
gestures are dependent upon culturally accepted interpretation and have a direct verbal translation. A
wave or a peace sign are examples of speech-independent gestures. Speech-related gestures are used in
parallel with verbal speech; this form of nonverbal communication is used to emphasize the message that
is being communicated. Speech-related gestures are intended to provide supplemental information to a
verbal message such as pointing to an object of discussion.

A well timed gesture can drive a point home.

ly robs a speaker of the
effectiveness of his communication.
 All oral communications are accompanied by gestures such as shrugging of the shoulders, flourish
of the hands, movement of the head etc.
Gestures enhance the impact and add a greater value to what is being said besides exercising a
more powerful impact upon the listener.

Some gestures and their meanings

The O gesture
When tips of the index finger and thumb are brought together to form „O‟ , it has several meanings as
under:
In English speaking countries including India - OK or perfect.
In Japan - Money
In France - Zero
In Brazil - Insult

The V sign
Popularized by Winston Churchill during the Second World War, it is a sign of victory in all English speaking
nations of the world including India.

(a) Clenched hands in a sitting position

It normally signifies determination. However, in interviews, it is a sign of nervousness.

(b) Hands inter-locked at crotch level

Such a posture is meant for statues; it should not be used at all.

(c) Slashing / jabbing the air and then pointing forefinger to someone
It is a strong warning or making an accusation on someone.

(d) Hugging of the self

When some one is hugging self with arms and hands, it conveys uncertainty and lack of confidence

(e) Arms folded in front of the chest with thumb pointing upwards
The individual has closed personality and closed mind. He suffers from a superiority complex.

(f) Holding hands in front of the abdomen

It has two interpretations depending upon the position of hands:
If the left hand cups the right hand, the individual is of artistic bend of mind – related to the right side of the
brain. If the right hand cups the left hand, the individual is of logical mind – related to the left side of the
brain.

(g) Clasping of the hands behind the back

It implies that the individual is very confident of himself. He is not used to taking orders and is in the habit of
issuing directions.

(h) Either hand behind the neck

The individual is trying to analyze the problem and evaluating the proceedings of the interaction. The other
person should be careful in interactions as the issues are being evaluated.

(i) Both hands clasping behind the neck

It is a danger signal because it means as if the spine or backbone is being straightened before the final
plunge!

(j) Both hands behind the head

Positioning of both hands behind the head is a gesture of superiority, confidence and possible arrogance.
This gesture if combined with the expression on the face and eyes can be interpreted as under:
If the individual maintains eye contact, he feels superior and is confident.
If the individual turns his head away but continues to position his hands behind the head, he is dismissing
your position without much ado. It is pointless to continue further interaction with the person.

(k) Scratching the head

As is the proverb, individual is confused and would like to sort things out as they are causing a lot of
discomfort.
(l) Stroking the chin
It implies that the ideas brought up in the discussions are being pruned and being given due consideration.
Issues will be taken to their logical conclusions.

(m) Scratching or lightly rubbing one side of the neck

Rubbing one side of the neck may involve one or two fingers only. It means the individual is insecure and is
looking for some kind of assurance that he would get from stroking the self or being in close proximity of his
own self.

(n) Clenching of hands

It conveys different meanings if the person is speaking and listening:
If speaking, it implies frustration about the issue and also uncertainty about how long the interaction would
continue
If listening, it means that he is responding rather negatively to whatever is being said.

(o) Thumbs hidden inside the fists

This gesture implies that the person is not able to resolve the issue or reach an amicable solution.
Additionally, if the thumbs are well covered, it means the person is depicting his inability to face the
situation or come up with a satisfactory solution.

(p) One or both the hands on the hip

If a person is standing erect with one or both the hands on the hip, it denotes two things – either it is a
habitual gesture or one that implies authority or royalty and the person is a monarch of all he surveys!

(q) Hands down and fists clenched

It means that the person is getting ready for a quarrel and is ready for the final outburst. The other person
can give him a break before he lets off his steam because, otherwise, he is likely to be very aggressive and
hostile.

(r) Rubbing hands

There are several interpretations:
If the rubbing of hands is quick, it implies that the person is excited about something that is satisfying too.
Slower the rubbing of hands, more dangerous is the implication. It indicates that some kind of deception is
going to take place. It also implies that something is going on in the mind of the person that needs close
watching.
Still slower rubbing of the hands similar to when they are cleaned or washed, indicates that the individual is
deciding to steer clear of the situation.

(s) Pressing the hands in front of the body like Indian namaskar
The gesture indicates that the individual should be given a chance to present and defend his case. In such
gestures of persuasion, there is an element of request that implies that he is in desperate need of having
his case heard.

(t) Stapling of the fingers and thumbs together

This gesture signifies that the person is of a very confident nature and is certain of the opinions he wants to
put across in the interaction. Being a person of extreme strength and convictions, little can shake his
confidence in whatever he wishes to convey.

(u) Leaning forward with head supported by one or both the hands
This has two variants:
If accompanied with enthusiastic looks in the eyes, it shows interest in the listener
If it is coupled with bored look on the face, it implies the listener is bored or tired of the interaction.

(v) Person holding his ears with both hands

Although not very common, it implies that the person is sorry and apologetic for what he has done.

(ii) Palms
Human palms are used to give one of the most powerful signals given by human palms. Some of these are:

(a) Open palm gesture while talking or speaking

This stands for openness and frankness. It is very valuable when you are making an oral presentation. It
shoes a positive personality.

(b) An open palm pointing upwards

It indicates submissiveness, as if asking for alms.

(c) An open palm but pointing downwards

It reflects authority. The person is in command. If request is given to subordinate, it is acceptable. However,
if request is given to a colleague with open palm pointing downwards, he may feel annoyed.

(d) Palm closed in to a fist but forefinger pointing

By this gesture, the speaker is beating his listener in to submission. It is one of the most irritating gestures a
speaker can use. If you are a habitual finger pointing type, try palm up or palm down positions. These lead
to more relaxed attitude that has a more positive effect on others.

Video If not used properly, gestures and body language can be distracting and detract from the
No. 14 message of your speech. Learn to hone your speaking skills by channeling nervous energy into
purposeful movement.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-3ywrgCA-1I

Video Four pairs of participants play the roles of employer and candidate in a salary negotiation.
No. 15 Observe the role of body language in negotiation.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aJVbu78rEfU

3. Paralinguistic
Paralinguistic refers to vocal communication that is separate from actual language. This includes factors
such as tone of voice, loudness, inflection and pitch. Consider the powerful effect that tone of voice can
have on the meaning of a sentence. When said in a strong tone of voice, listeners might interpret approval
and enthusiasm. The same words said in a hesitant tone of voice might convey disapproval and a lack of
interest.
"We speak with our vocal organs, but we converse with our entire bodies. . . . Paralinguistic phenomena
occur alongside spoken language, interact with it, and produce together with it a total system of
communication. . . . The study of paralinguistic behavior is part of the study of conversation: the
conversational use of spoken language cannot be properly understood unless paralinguistic elements are
taken into account."
Communicators must become familiar with the phonetics (study of sounds, their combination and
reproduction), process and physiology of speech. Ability to use paralanguage effectively reflects persons‟
status, educational background, national / regional roots and clues about their state of mind.

Video A PowerPoint with voice over defining paralanguage and talking about using and interpreting
No. 16 paralanguage.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FMoLkyrfp6o

Q. Write a short note on paralanguage.

Some aspects of Paralanguage

(1) Pronunciation
Pronunciation imparts life to the words. Leaders who are international travellers, global trainers etc have to
spend time learning the way the pronunciation changes among communities and countries. These also
change in different parts of the same country as is common in India. If speakers can learn and quickly
adapt to the local lingua, the impact of their message goes a long way.
(2) Enunciation
Enunciation and tone of the voice go together. Some sentences, anecdotes play central role in conveying
the message and need to be enunciated properly and correctly by varying the tone of the voice to suit the
story in the message. Suggestions to improve their rendering in a speech are fetching and speakers should
learn to modify the speech from possible listeners‟ point of view.
(3) Speed of delivery
Some speakers deliver their speeches very fast while others are very slow and boring. The correct speed is
between 150 to 200 words. Anything above 200 words per minute is fast. The only exception to this rule is
the need to enunciate the message. If faster delivery for a few sentences is required to make the right
impact, it should be so incorporated in the speech.
(4) Pitch of the voice
Husky voice may be an asset for an actress. Most speakers have to use the mike to deliver the speech. For
such persons, ensuring use of the right pitch of the voice is important. That would also be comfortable for
the audience who are the customers as the message is intended for them.
(5) Pauses
Pauses are like punctuations in a written message. They should be observed at the right places. It makes
the speech more effective. Effective speakers pause just before making an important point and sometimes,
even after making an important point to ensure that it has been well received. Absence of pauses distracts
listeners.
A few deep breaths at the beginning of a formal speech and correct breathing throughout the delivery
embellish a speech.
(6) Voice modulation
Voice is not only the index of mind but also the index of ones character. Experienced communicators have
well modulated voice. Individuals can improve their voice quality by exercising the throat muscles,
improving breathing while talking and practicing deep breathing regularly.
• Variation in the pitch and tempo of the voice is essential to convey your message.
• Fast delivery betrays a lack of confidence. Speak 125 to 150 words per minute.
• Pronounce words properly, putting stress at the right places.
• Speak loud enough so that everyone in the audience can hear you clearly.
• Avoid nasalization and vocalised pauses such as ‘er’, ‘ah’, ‘um’, etc.
• Do not repeatedly use phrases such as ‘you see’, ‘I mean’, Is it clear?’ etc.

Q. Explain what is meant by body language.

4. Kinesics - Body Language

Research on body language has grown significantly since the 1970's, but popular media have focused on
the over-interpretation of defensive postures, arm-crossing, and leg-crossing. While these nonverbal
behaviors can indicate feelings and attitudes, research suggests that body language is far more subtle and
less definitive that previously believed.
Video Amy Cuddy revealed that we can actually change feelings we have about our own status through
No. 17 the physical positions we take with our bodies. Her research participants had higher levels of
testosterone and lower levels of cortisol after only two minutes in a "power pose". In this video
Cuddy asks if such findings can have wider implications for empowerment training.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=phcDQ0H_LnY

Video Non-verbal communication can predict anybody's success or failure. Research of Patryk & Kasia
No. 18 Wezowski has proven that decoding somebody's "Body Language Code can predict the outcome
of presidential elections or your inborn potential to have an advantage in negotiations. Knowing
how to read "micro expressions" is probably the most effective way to connect more with people
and the most crucial skill to prevent the increasing social autism caused by today's technological
innovations.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CWry8xRTwpo

Video Body language affects how others see us, but it may also change how we see ourselves. Social
No. 19 psychologist Amy Cuddy shows how "power posing" -- standing in a posture of confidence, even
when we don't feel confident -- can affect testosterone and cortisol levels in the brain, and might
even have an impact on our chances for success.
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ks-_Mh1QhMc

Q. What are the different kinds of distances we observe during communication situations?

5. Proxemics
Proxemics is defined as the study of the cultural, behavioral, and sociological aspects of spatial distances
between individuals. People often refer to their need for "personal space," which is also an important type
of nonverbal communication. The amount of distance we need and the amount of space we perceive as
belonging to us is influenced by a number of factors including social norms, situational factors, personality
characteristics and level of familiarity.
Every person has a particular space that they keep to themselves when communicating, like a personal
bubble. When used as a type of nonverbal signal in communication, proxemics helps to determine the
space between individuals while they interact. There are four types of proxemics with different distances
depending on the situation and people involved.
Edward Hall suggests that the distances include: Intimate distance (0–2 ft.) Personal distance (2–4 ft.)
Social distance (4–12 ft.) Public distance (> 12 ft.) Intimate distance is used for close encounters like
embracing, touching, or whispering. It is used for family, children, or significant others in which someone is
comfortable. Personal distance is for interactions with close friends and family members. Social distance is
for interactions among acquaintances. It is mostly used in workplace or school settings where there is no
physical contact. Public distance is for strangers or public speaking.

6. Oculesics - Eye Gaze

Eye contact can be defined as the instance when two people look at each other's eyes at the same time; it
is the primary nonverbal way we indicate engagement, interest, attention and involvement. Gaze comprises
the actions of looking while talking and listening. The length of a gaze, the frequency of glances, patterns of
fixation, pupil dilation, and blink rate are all important cues in nonverbal communication. Liking generally
increases as mutual gazing increases. Along with the detection of disinterest, deceit can also be observed
in a person. Hogan states "when someone is being deceptive their eyes tend to blink a lot more. Eyes act
as leading indicator of truth or deception. Overall, as Allan Pease states, "Give the amount of eye contact
that makes everyone feel comfortable. Unless looking at others is a cultural no-no, lookers gain more
credibility than non-lookers"
Looking, staring and blinking can also be important nonverbal behaviors. When people encounter people or
things that they like, the rate of blinking increases and pupils dilate. Looking at another person can indicate
a range of emotions, including hostility, interest and attraction.
• Eye contact is one of the most immediate and effective means of establishing rapport with an
audience.
• Maintain eye contact with the audience, looking from one pair of eyes to another around the room
while speaking creates a good expression on the audience.
• To look at the ceiling or outside the room through a window, or at one section of the audience is a
sign of rudeness.
• If the listeners feel that you are ignoring them, they are also likely to ignore you and what you say.
• Through eye contact you get the signal whether the channel of communication is open, and get the
he listeners are reacting to what you are saying.
• Remember an eye is an extension of the brain and window of the soul.
• Better eye contact leads to more effective communication.

7. Haptics
Communicating through touch is another important nonverbal behavior. Haptics is the study of touching
behavior. Touch is an extremely important sense for humans; as well as providing information about
surfaces and textures it is a component of nonverbal communication in interpersonal relationships, and vital
in conveying physical intimacy.
Touching is treated differently from one country to another. Moving from one haptic category to another can
become blurred by culture. Examine the many areas in the United States where a touch on the forearm is
accepted as socially correct and polite. In the Midwest, this is not always an acceptable behavior.
Managers should know the effectiveness of using touch while communicating to subordinates, but need to
be cautious and understand how touch can be misunderstood. A hand on the shoulder for one person may
mean a supportive gesture, while it could mean a sexual advance to another person. Working with others
and using touch to communicate, a manager needs to be aware of each person’s touch tolerance.
The initial connection to another person in a professional setting usually starts off with a touch, specifically
a handshake. Your handshake can speak volumes about you and your personality. Chiarella (2006) wrote
an article for Esquire magazine explaining to the predominately male readership how handshakes differ
from person to person and how they send nonverbal messages. He mentioned that holding the grip longer
than two seconds will result in a stop in the verbal conversation, thus the nonverbal will override the verbal
communication.
There has been a substantial amount of research on the importance of touch in infancy and early
childhood. Harry Harlow's classic monkey study demonstrated how the deprivation of touch and contact
impedes development. Baby monkeys raised by wire mothers experienced permanent deficits in behavior
and social interaction. Touch can be used to communicate affection, familiarity, sympathy and other
emotions.

8. Appearance
Clothing is one of the most common forms of non-verbal communication. The study of clothing and other
objects as a means of non-verbal communication is known as artifacts or objectors’. The type of clothing
that an individual wears conveys nonverbal cues about his or her personality, background and financial
status, and how others will respond to them. An individual's clothing style can demonstrate their culture,
mood, level of confidence, interests, age, authority, values/beliefs,
Our choice of color, clothing, hairstyles and other factors affecting appearance are also considered a
means of nonverbal communication. Research on color psychology has demonstrated that different colors
can evoke different moods. Appearance can also alter physiological reactions, judgments and
interpretations. Just think of all the subtle judgments you quickly make about someone based on his or her
appearance. These first impressions are important, which is why experts suggest that job seekers dress
appropriately for interviews with potential employers.

9. Posture

Q. Write a short note on the role played by gesture and posture in body language.

Posture and movement can also convey a great deal on information.

There are many different types of body positioning to portray certain postures, including slouching,
towering, legs spread, jaw thrust, shoulders forward, and arm crossing. The posture or bodily stance
exhibited by individuals communicates a variety of messages whether good or bad. Posture can be used to
determine a participant's degree of attention or involvement, the difference in status between
communicators, and the level of fondness a person has for the other communicator, depending on body
"openness".

Studies investigating the impact of posture on interpersonal relationships suggest that mirror-image
congruent postures, where one person's left side is parallel to the other person's right side, leads to
favorable perception of communicators and positive speech; a person who displays a forward lean or
decreases a backward lean also signifies positive sentiment during communication. Posture can be
situation-relative, that is, people will change their posture depending on the situation they are in.
Standard leg-cross posture: In this posture, one leg neatly crosses over the other leg – usually right leg
over the left for men and left leg over the right for women. This posture indicates nervous, reserved and
defensive attitude. This is a supportive gesture and occurs with other postures and should not be
interpreted in isolation. It is common among the audience listening to a lecture. It also happens during cold
weather.
Ankle-lock posture: Ankle lock is also a negative gesture similar to cross leg and cross arm posture. In
male version, ankle lock is combined with clenched fists on the knees or with hands tightly gripping the
arms of the chair and feet are together near the ankle. In the female version, knees are held together and
legs crossing below the knees. Hands are either on the thighs next to each other or one above the other.
This kind of posture is common among candidates for interviews. They try to hold back negative thoughts,
emotions and nervousness. Litigants sit with ankle lock in the court.

Video In this training you will be aware of the impact of your body language. You will learn to interpret the
No. signals of others and you will get the right tools and techniques to develop your own body
20 language so that the impact of your communications actually generates the desired effect.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ET7qsJv6nLk&index=10&list=PLKuCNSDbqwfb_FLt4Mz
fv_4XLTDxddOQO
Q. “Silence is more eloquent than words.” Elaborate.

Q. Write a short note on the significance of silence.

10. Silence
Silence is an important communication tool. Most of us find an extended period of silence rather oppressive
and threatening, and we rush to fill the void with words—usually saying more than we mean to say. By
using silence at strategic times, you can sometimes get your decoder to reveal certain feelings and
attitudes that may be hindering effective communication. It is important that we find out how we are doing in
our effort to communicate; we do this through feedback. Silence can be an effective technique to
encourage feedback. Charlie Chaplin and other famous actors of silent movies may be considered to be
pioneers in non-verbal communication skills as they conveyed meaning of their acting without uttering any
dialogue.
Saying nothing is saying a lot. Silence says that you are open to being 100% present in the moment, open
to learning, and open to truly understanding the other person’s ideas, feedback, input, thoughts and
feelings; it says that you are open to the positive development of the relationship.

Q. Write a short note on the various connotations of silence.

Q. Write a short note on the significance of silence as a means of non-verbal communication.

Silence can serve many functions in a conversation and how you manage it determines your level of
sophistication in communication. Here are some points to keep in mind about silence in communication.

1. Allowing silence in a conversation puts pressure on the other person.

This is one tool that some therapists use. Allowing silence to exist between the therapist and the client, put
pressures on the client to say something. This is also a tool investigators use. When you're subjected to
this sort of silence, it feels like pressure, and you're likely to blurt something out! And it can often be the one
thing you don't want to say. Therefore some people in power use this ploy, such as an interviewer. An
experienced interviewer may let a silence hang, just to see how the person being interviewed conducts him
or herself.
2. Silence can indicate hostility or disagreement.
While it's almost never an indication of indifference, silence can indicate that the other person is having
negative emotions. When we experience anger, fear, or embarrassment, our thinking brain shuts down. We
sit there fuming, unable to speak. Some people are completely "flooded" by such emotions.
3. Silence can indicate profoundness, such as respect, awe or horror.
Sometimes when we're listening to someone else, we hear something that leaves us speechless because it
really goes beyond words. Listening to someone talk about a dreadful trauma they've endured, or a
beautiful, almost-sacred interaction with another human being, or a description of an awesome natural
event such as a sunset or a volcano eruption are examples.
4. Silence can indicate contemplation.
The more introverted your communication partner, the more likely they will think before they speak.
Extroverts discover what they're thinking and how they feel by talking. Introverts figure it all out inside their
own head and heart before giving voice to it.
5. Silence can be intentional rudeness.
Because of the nature of normal conversation in the US, allowing an extended silence can be perceived as
rudeness, and even meant that way. Refusing to reply to the other person is a way of ignoring them.
6. Silence can create a listening space.
When you are profoundly listening to someone, you create an open space for them to talk that's almost
palpable. Good listeners know how to do this, and it can be learned. It's an openness that you transmit
through nonverbal means. Study emotional intelligence and nonverbal communication, and you'll pick up on
these cues better.
7. Silence can indicate empathy.
Silence can be an indication of empathy. When we are really tuning in to how the other person is feeling
about what they're saying, we're listening more to the tone of their voice, cadence and speed rather than
the actual words, and so replying with words may not be the attuned response.
Excellent communicators:
Can allow silence when it's effective or called for
Avoid being pressured into "spilling" when silence is used manipulatively
Offer silence as a gift or sign of respect
Interpret the silence of others appropriately
Understand the way other people and other cultures use silence
Mindfully regulate the use of silence in a conversation
Are comfortable with silence and understand its many uses.

11. Chronemics
Chronemics is the study of the use of time in nonverbal communication - the way that one perceives and
values time, structures time and reacts to time frames communication. Across cultures, time perception
plays a large role in the nonverbal communication process. Time perceptions include punctuality,
willingness to wait and interactions. The use of time can affect lifestyle, daily agendas, speed of speech,
movements and how long people are willing to listen.
Time can be used as an indicator of status. For example, in most companies the boss can interrupt
progress to hold an impromptu meeting in the middle of the work day, yet the average worker would have
to make an appointment to see the boss. The way different cultures perceive time can influence
communication as well.
Cultures are sometimes considered monochronic or polychronic. A monochronic time system means that
things are done one at a time and time is segmented into precise, small units. Under this system time is
scheduled, arranged and managed. The United States is considered a monochronic society. A polychronic
time system is a system where several things can be done at once, and a more fluid approach is taken to
scheduling time. Latin American, African, Asian and Arab cultures use the polychronic system of time.
The old statement “When in Rome, do as the Romans do” holds true with chronemics. There will be
situations when even though you are a very timely person, you may have to deal with someone who is not
as timely as you are and adapt your communication to their needs. These adaptations can vary depending
on the position of the person you are dealing with, as well as the cultural background of that person.

Q. Write short notes on sign, signal and symbol.

Q. Write the differences between sign and signal.

Signs, Symbols and Signals

Signs are a more mechanical kind of non verbal communication, which includes signal flags or lights, a 21
gun salute, a display of airplanes in formation, horns, and sirens.

Symbols of communication are used for religious or personal status reasons, as well as to build self
esteem. This includes jewelry, cars, clothing, and other things to communicate social status, financial
means, influence, or religion.
Communication is preeminently symbolic. There are two major categories of signals people send: signs
and symbols. Signs are the foundation of all communication. A sign designates something other than itself,
and meaning is the link between an object or idea and a sign.

Symbols make up our communication system, which includes both verbal and non-verbal components.
Symbols are representations of an event, action, object, person, or place that can be used to communicate
about the event, action, object, person, or place. Symbols can be used for both receptive and expressive
communication. Objects, parts of objects, pictures, print, actions, gestures, signs, and speech can all be
symbols. Symbols may start as cues and signals. The more a symbol resembles what it represents, the
more concrete that symbol is. The less a symbol resembles what it represents, the more abstract that
symbol is. An example of a concrete symbol would be a spoon, used during mealtimes, to represent
mealtime.

A signal is an indicator, such as a gesture or colored light that serves as a means of communication. It is a
gesture, action, or sound that is used to convey information or instructions, typically by prearrangement
between the parties concerned. E.g. "The firing of the gun was the signal for a chain of beacons to be lit."
A signal implies movement whereas a sign is something more static.

Graphic Aids

Graphic aids such as Tables, Figures, graphs, charts, drawings, photographs and maps are mainly used to
communicate more effectively and accurately, to clarify and supplement the verbal analysis and to present
a large number of details in less space and with greater precision.

Other Modes and Media of Communication

Olfactics is the study of smell in relation to human communication. Our body associates certain smells with
different feelings and emotions. Smells are also powerful at triggering our memory, with certain smells
being tied to different emotions, people, or events.
Audio visual aids refer to the equipment for amplifying or supplementing our message. An aid makes the

overhead projector, filmstrip and slide projector, movie film projector, video tape recorder, audio tape
recorder, and models.
Besides these, we have advertisements which is a form of communication intended to promote the sale of
a product or service, to influence public opinion, to advance a particular cause, to gain political support or to
elicit some other response derived by the advertiser and the media commonly used are newspapers,
magazines, radio, television, billboards and direct mail.
-mail has reduced the distance between
communicators.
Telephone, computer, telegraph, telex, facsimile and internet are some of the fastest mode of
communication.
Teleconferencing, Videoconferencing, Webinars are reducing the need to travel in order to communicate.
Sculpture, art, paintings, cartoons, animations are some visual forms of communication.
Drama, Cinema, Television programs, Mime Shows, Dance and Music performances, Newspapers are
some elements of mass media communication.
Social networking and blogging via sites such as Facebook, Twitter, YouTube, LinkedIn are some of the
modern media of communication.

Quiz This is a short online quiz on verbal communication.

No. 1
http://www.proprofs.com/quiz-school/story.php?title=verbal-communication-skills-quiz

Web This web site gives you a chance to learn more about nonverbal communication. You can even
link test your own ability to "read" samples of real nonverbal communication.
No. 8
http://nonverbal.ucsc.edu/

Quiz This is an online quiz on the various methods of communication.

No. 2
http://www.sporcle.com/games/KrisTofer/different-methods-of-communication
1.4 CHANNELS OF COMMUNICATION

Q. Write a short note on Medium and Channel.

Q. What are the various channels of communication in a business organisation?

We can define communication as the transfer of information. In this context, communication channels can
be understood simply as the modes or pathways through which two parties might communicate. As
population grows and technology evolves, these channels of communication change as well. Many have
observed that "the world is getting smaller," referring not only to the ease of travel, but also to the ease of
communication around the globe. Unfortunately, however, just because communication is easy to
accomplish does not mean that it is done, or that the result is an increase in understanding.
Communication channels are the means through which people in an organization communicate. Thought
must be given to what channels are used to complete various tasks, because using an inappropriate
channel for a task or interaction can lead to negative consequences. Complex messages require richer
channels of communication that facilitate interaction to ensure clarity.
There are two types of communication channels- Formal and Informal.

Web This link gives an overview of organizational communication.

link
No. 9 http://users.dickinson.edu/~jin/Communication.html

FORMAL COMMUNICATION

Q. Write a short note on the importance of internal communication in a business organization.

Q. State the differences between formal and informal communication.

The messages which are circulating on regulated, preset channels, of an organization are creating the
formal communication. The content of the communication is related to the organization’s activity, to the
work and to anything which is related to those. Formal communication can consist of verbal messages,
nonverbal messages, written, under the shape of letters, telephone messages, radio messages, printed,
internal notes. Even some gestures can consist in formal communication. The messages are transmitted by
the authorized ones: on official channels, these arrive to the ones who need to react, to people or machines
which need to know the content of these messages.
Usually, all formal communications are recorded and kept in the organization as evidence. Copies of these
are retained by the transmitter and by the receiver. Examples of formal communications are given by work
commands, reports and financial evidence, sales, purchase and inventory reports, statements referring to
the company’s policies, post descriptions, etc.

The formal communication can sometimes take place on the horizontal, along the parallel directions of
authority. It defines the channel on which will be sent important messages. It offers an information storage
space which will be necessary on planning the operations and control. It creates an ordered system for the
superiors and subordinates, in order to keep each other informed constantly.

The formal communication network is formed out of formal channels, created by setting a formal system of
responsibilities according to the hierarchical structure of the organization. The perfect network is the one
which contains communication channels from bottom up, downwards and horizontally. Often the direction
of horizontal communication is missing or it is inefficient and in this way the accuracy of the information
decreases. This situation appears because of the lack of permanent circulation of the information between
departments, although this is vital for the organization in conditions of existent competition, or the lack of
specialists in organizational communication.

In the typical hierarchical pattern of an organisation, communication has been viewed as proceeding in
three directions: upward, downward and laterally.
In an organization, communication flows in 5 main directions-
1. Downward
2. Upward
3. Lateral
4. Diagonal
5. External

Q. Describe different networks of communication.

Q. Explain the need of external and internal communication in Business organizations.

Q. What is vertical communication? Discuss its types, and merits and demerits of each.

Q. Write a short note on downward communication.

Q. Distinguish between Upward and Downward communication.

Q. Differentiate between upward and downward channels of communication.

Q. What are the different types of Business Communication? Explain the significance of vertical
communication in an organization.

1. Downward Flow of Communication:

Communication that flows from a higher level in an organization to a lower level is a downward
communication. In other words, communication from superiors to subordinates in a chain of command is a
downward communication. This communication flow is used by the managers to transmit work-related
information to the employees at lower levels. Employees require this information for performing their jobs
and for meeting the expectations of their managers. Communications downward are highly directive-that is
they initiate actions by subordinates.

The downwards communications, from top to bottom, is performed by the manager to the subordinates.
There are transmitted provisions and instructions, are identified the employees responsibilities. In an
efficient organization, this type of communication has its purpose in motivating the employees, their
continuous information about policy, goals and organization strategy. The periodicity is important because it
ensures constant communication.
If the organization is in the process of changing, the downward communication must be used to change
opinions, attitudes, to restrict fear towards misinformation in order to support the employees to comply with
these changes. This type of communication requires a feedback. That is why it is completed with bottom up
communication, from the employees to the manager. These, as they understand the downwards
communication, can communicate their answers.
Downward communication is used by the managers for the following purposes -
Providing feedback on employees performance
Giving job instructions
Providing a complete understanding of the employees’ job as well as to communicate to them how their job
is related to other jobs in the organization.
Communicating the organizations mission and vision to the employees.
Highlighting the areas of attention.
Organizational publications, circulars, letter to employees, group meetings etc are all examples of
downward communication.
2. Upward Flow of Communication:
Communication that flows to a higher level in an organization is called upward communication. It provides
feedback on how well the organization is functioning. The subordinates use upward communication to
convey their problems and performances to their superiors. The subordinates also use upward
communication to tell how well they have understood the downward communication. It can also be used by
the employees to share their views and ideas and to participate in the decision-making process.
Communications going upward are primarily non-directive that is they report result or give information but
cannot initiate activity by superiors.

Upward communication leads to a more committed and loyal workforce in an organization because the
employees are given a chance to raise and speak dissatisfaction issues to the higher levels. The managers
get to know about the employees’ feelings towards their jobs, peers, supervisor and organization in
general. Managers can thus accordingly take actions for improving things.
Grievance Redressal System, Complaint and Suggestion Box, Job Satisfaction surveys etc. all help in
improving upward communication. Other examples of Upward Communication are - performance reports
made by low level management for reviewing by higher level management, employee attitude surveys,
letters from employees, employee-manager discussions etc.
Q. Write a short note on the importance of Horizontal Communication.

Q. Write a short note on the advantages and disadvantages of Horizontal communication.

3. Lateral / Horizontal Communication:

Horizontal communication also called lateral or crosswise communication, takes place between peers,
between managers at same levels, between any horizontally equivalent organizational members or any two
or more persons who are bound to one another by relationship of equality. Voluntary, crosswise or
horizontal channels of communications at all levels speed up the transmission of information and improve
understanding. The advantages of horizontal communication are as follows:
It is time saving.
It facilitates co-ordination of the task.
It facilitates co-operation among team members.
It provides emotional and social assistance to the organizational members.
It helps in solving various organizational problems.
It is a means of information sharing
It can also be used for resolving conflicts of a department with other department or conflicts within a
department.
4. Diagonal Communication:
Communication that takes place between a manager and employees of other workgroups is called diagonal
communication. It generally does not appear on organizational chart. For instance - To design a training
module a training manager interacts with Operations personnel to enquire about the way they perform their
task.

5. External Communication:

Q. What is external communication?

External Communication is that which takes place between a manager and external groups such as -
suppliers, vendors, banks, financial institutes etc. For instance - to raise capital the Managing Director
would interact with the Bank Manager.

Consensus:

Consensus is a general agreement about an idea or opinion that is shared by all the people in a group.
The consensus process is often used to bring about agreement between the managements and the trade
unions. Consensus is the process of arriving at agreement through consultation. Here a majority of people
subscribe to a particular view which all the members are willing to accept in the larger interest of the
organization. Consensus decisions promote harmony. It checks conflicts and splits.
One very obvious disadvantage of the consensus process is that a member is forced to subscribe to a view
he does not hold. Dissent is often stifled in the name of consensus. It may degenerate into process of
mutual accommodation. It may project a false image of the management.
Web This page is an introduction to what communication channels are and why we use them. We'll
link also cover the different groups of communication channels.
No. 10
http://education-portal.com/academy/lesson/channel-of-communication-types-definition-
quiz.html

INFORMAL COMMUNICATION

Communication arising out of all those channels of communication that fall outside the formal channels is
known as informal communication built around the social relationships of members of the organization.
Informal communication does not flow along lines of authority as is the case of formal communication. It
arises due to the personal needs of the members of an organization. At times, in informal communication, it
is difficult to fix responsibility about accuracy of information. Such communication is usually oral and may
be covered even by simple glance, gesture or smile or silence. Informal communication is implicit,
spontaneous, multidimensional and diverse. It often works in group of people, i.e. when one person has
some information of interest; he passes it on to his informal group and so on.
In spite on many advantages, informal communication has certain disadvantages. Informal communication
contains facts, deceptions, rumors and unclear data. The informal channels of communication may transmit
completely imprecise information that may harm rather than help an organization. In addition, it is
impossible to fix the responsibility for its origin or flow of information.
However, for the efficient working of any organization both formal and informal communications are
required.

Web This page cites 5 ways to improve organizational communication.

link
No. 11 http://doctortyrone.wordpress.com/2008/08/11/5-ways-to-improve-organizational-
communication/

Q. Write a short note on grapevine communication.

Q. How did grapevine originate and what is the importance of grapevine in an organization?

Q. Write a short note on the demerits of Grapevine Communication.

Grapevine Communication
Informal channel of business communication is also known as ‘Grapevine’. It is called so because it
stretches throughout the organization in all directions irrespective of the authority levels. Man as we know is
a social animal. Despite existence of formal channels in an organization, the informal channels tend to
develop when he interacts with other people in organization. It exists more at lower levels of an
organization.

Grapevine generally develops due to various reasons. One of them is that when an organization is facing
recession, the employees sense uncertainty. Also, at times employees do not have self confidence due to
which they form unions. Sometimes the managers show preferential treatment and favour some employees
giving a segregated feeling to other employees. Thus, when employees sense a need to exchange their
views, they go for grapevine network as they cannot use the formal channel of communication in that case.
Generally during breaks in cafeteria, the subordinates talk about their superior’s attitude and behaviour and
exchange views with their peers. They discuss rumours about promotion and transfer of other employees.
Thus, grapevine spreads like fire and it is not easy to trace the cause of such communication at times.

Specialists in this field have identified four types of grapevine chains.

(1) Single Strand Chain: It flows like a chain, i.e., ‘A’ tells something to ‘B’ who tells it to ‘C’ and so on.
(2) Gossip Chain: One person tells everybody else. This chain passes a message regarding a ‘not-on-job’
nature.
(3) Probability Chain: here information may move from anybody to anybody. This chain is found when the
information is somewhat interesting but not really significant.
(4) Cluster Chain: This move through selected groups. ‘A’ tells something to a few selected individuals and
then some of these individuals inform a few other selected individuals. Cluster chain is the dominant
grapevine pattern in an organization. Most informal communication flows through this chain.

Advantages of Grapevine Communication

1. Grapevine channels carry information rapidly. As soon as an employee gets to know some confidential
information, he becomes inquisitive and passes the details then to his closest friend who in turn passes it to
another. Thus, it spreads hastily.
2. The managers get to know the reactions of their subordinates on their policies. Thus, the feedback
obtained is quick compared to formal channel of communication.
3. The grapevine creates a sense of unity among the employees who share and discuss their views with
each other. Thus, grapevine helps in developing group cohesiveness.
4. The grapevine serves as an emotional supportive value.
5. The grapevine is a supplement in those cases where formal communication does not work.

Disadvantages of Grapevine Communication

1. The grapevine carries partial information at times as it is more based on rumours. Thus, it does not
clearly depict the complete state of affairs.
2. The grapevine is not trustworthy always as it does not follow official path of communication and is spread
more by gossips and unconfirmed report.
3. The productivity of employees may be hampered as they spend more time talking rather than working.
4. The grapevine leads to making hostility against the executives.
5. The grapevine may hamper the goodwill of the organization as it may carry false negative information
about the high level people of the organization.

Effective use of Grapevine

An organization can make efficient use of informal channels to fortify the formal channels of
communication. It acts as a valuable purpose in expressing certain information that cannot be channeled
via the official channels. The manager should organize fruitful group activities so as to enhance the self-
worth of the employees and update their knowledge. The manager should keep an eye on rumor-mongers.
He should tactfully identify the leaders and won their confidence. As far as possible, the employees,
through their leaders, should be made partners in the decision making process. A tactful manager will keep
the employees well informed so that they may not spread rumors. The manager should try to get feedback
on his style of functioning and work for continuous improvement. A manager must be a good empathic
listener. This way the employees or the leaders will feel free to talk to him rather than indulge in rumor
mongering.
It satisfies the people’s desires to identify what is happening in the organization and offers an opportunity to
express dreads, worries and complaints. Informal communication also facilitates to ameliorate managerial
decisions as more people are involved in the process of decision-making.

Web This links us to a webpage which has a flowchart of organizational communication and how
link communication flows via formal and informal channels.
No. 12
https://sites.google.com/site/communicationskill4you/informal-communication

Web This link is for further reading on formal and informal channels of communication, and the merits
Link and demerits of each.
No. 13
http://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/business-communication/channels-of-business-
communication-formal-and-informal-channels/27647/

1.5 BARRIERS OF COMMUNICATION

Q. Explain the concept of ‘Barriers’. Using illustrations, explain how medium can be a potential
source of barriers in communication.

Q. Discuss the barriers that hinder the smooth flow of communication.

One of the most important problems cited by an individual singly or collectively is communication
breakdown. An individual's inner self, the environment, the society and language pose problems in
communication. A barrier, thus, is an obstacle, a hindrance, an obstruction or an improper gap which blocks
the smooth flow of communication. In other words, a barrier creates difficulties and complications in
communication.
Problems can exist in the sender, in the transmission of the message, the message itself, in the receiver, or
in the feedback. Specific communication barriers are discussed below and classified into mechanical
barriers, physical barriers, psychological barriers, sociological barriers and linguistic barriers.

Web This web page cites various reasons why interpersonal communications may fail.
link
No. 14 http://www.skillsyouneed.com/ips/barriers-communication.html

Web This links us to a comprehensive study of the various types of barriers.

link
No. 15 http://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/business-communication/4-different-types-of-barriers-to-
effective-communication/1004/

Video A short funny film that deals with communication types, process and barriers.
No. 21
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zdqkCfuvdpo
(I) Mechanical Barriers

A mechanical barrier is due to a problem in machinery or instruments used to transmit the message. These
are technical sources of interference in the communication process.

(II) Physical Barriers

Some physical barriers are environmental factors that create difficulty in the communication process, such
as earthquake, floods, heavy rains etc. Noise in a classroom affects the teaching process. Tiredness,
sleepiness, ill-health comes in the way of proper communication and understanding. Physical disability of
an individual can slow down the communication process.
Video This video is a demonstration of using the "Still Face" Experiment, in which a mother denies her
No. 22 baby attention for a short period of time, and how prolonged lack of attention can move an infant
from good socialization, to periods of bad but repairable socialization.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=apzXGEbZht0

Q. Write a short note on the language barrier.

Q. Write a short note on semantic barriers to communication.

(III) Semantic and Linguistic Barriers

These barriers arise due to the nature of the language being used in communication. Words often evoke
different responses. Poorly chosen words, lack of coherence, poor organization of ideas, unnecessary
jargon, verbosity, clichés, overloaded ideas and awkward sentence structure can block the smooth flow of
communication. In English language, there are a number of words which often confuse us. It does so,
because of the various meanings attached to a particular word. We find words that often confuse us, with
pronunciation, meaning, phonemes and word structure. Uses of jargon, unfamiliar technology, and
specialized words create another type of language barrier. Code language evolved by certain groups of
people can mar communication flow for those unfamiliar with the code. Inadequacy of unknown languages
can act as a barrier because the receiver does not know the language.

Video A collection of television and movie clips that serve as examples of common verbal barriers to
No. 23 communication.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=w2vkWwvf7NY

Web An essay on the Semantic Barriers in people’s communication in the English Language
link http://www.ukessays.com/essays/english-language/the-semantic-barriers-in-peoples-
No. 16 communication-english-language-essay.php

Q. Human beings themselves are responsible for making communication ineffective. Explain in
light of the personal and psychological barriers. Give examples to support your answer.
 Q. ‘Socio psychological barriers can be overcome only by one’s own efforts’. ‘Discuss the
statement giving examples of any three socio psychological barriers.

Q. Write a short note on any two psychological barriers to communication.

Q. ‘Socio-psychological barriers can be overcome only one’s own efforts’. Discuss the statement
giving examples of any three Socio-psychological barriers.

Q. Write a short note on prejudice and closed mind as barriers to communication.

(IV) Socio- Psychological Barriers

Problems of understanding, interpretation and response to communication also arise from both socially
learned attributes and our personal attributes. These are called socio-psychological barriers. While
sociological barriers arise from the circumstances and environment in which an individual grows,
psychological barriers are related to the mind of an individual which controls the behavior. Some of the
obvious and frequent barriers are mentioned below:

(i) Self Image, Self Centered, and Allness: Often people have high self image or low self image. Individuals
belonging to this know-it-all attitude tend to believe that they know everything about any subject and thus
do not have an ear to others. This malady affects the sender too.

(ii) Snap Reactions: It is a reaction passed quickly and without deliberation. Impulsive reactions spoken in a
sharp or rude voice can act as a problem with the communicator. The listener too can react quickly without
letting the sender complete his speech.

(iii) The Halo Effect and Horns Effect: means a tendency to allow one's judgment of another person, to be
unduly influenced by an unfavourable (horns) or favourable (halo) impression based on appearances,
interactions and knowledge. An individual either likes because of his preferences or dislikes due to his
prejudice. It can bring about favoritism or partiality, both of which ruin the communication process.

(iv) Rigidity, Closed Mind: This refers to people who are intolerant of the beliefs and opinions of others; and
also are obstinately unreceptive to new ideas. A rigid mind is resistant to change. A closed mind likes to
follow one’s own ideas.

(v) Emotions: Negative emotions like fear, tension, anxiety, anger, nervousness, jealousy can distort the
message to a large extent. On the other hand, positive emotions such as joy, happiness, excitement
interfere less with the flow of communication.

(vi) Impatience: The pace of the system moves at a faster rate, so the individuals become impatient. Hasty
reading and limited understanding of communication creates a barrier. Impatience leads to hasty judgments
or wrong decisions or inappropriate conclusions.

(vii) Distrust, Fear, and Threat: In an environment containing such forces, the message will be viewed with
skepticism. In line of threats, people tend to be defensive.
(viii) Status Barrier may be professional or social. The high and low hierarchy in an organisation, superior and
subordinate relationship impedes the free flow of information.

(ix) Tendency to Stereotype and jump to conclusions: Caste, class, race are some other sociological
barriers observed throughout the world. People tend to categorize others on the basis of caste (high/low),
the financial status (rich class/poor class), nationality (Indian/American etc.), religion (Jew/Muslim), colour
too (whites/blacks) etc. These notions of different categories build a barricade which hamper
communication and contribute to the sociological barriers.

(x) Inattentive listening: If the receiver is preoccupied with some thing else and is concerned with other
issues, he may fail to react to the message, talk, bulletin, notice or circular. Since the receiver is not able to
give sufficient attention, the message may fail to register in his mind.
(xi) Prejudice: Prejudice is a preconceived opinion of feeling, which is usually irrational. Prejudice is very
dangerous and has the potential to bring animosity into the team and to break team spirit. The reason for a
prejudice may be the speaker's race, religion, age or appearance. A prejudiced person will not make any
effort to listen and understand.

(xii) Loss of retention: Retaining messages in the memory is a difficult process. It applies to both oral and
written messages that are circulated. However, if a copy of the written message is available, persons can
refer to it again and again. It is said that people remember:

• 10 % of what they read

• 20 % of what they hear
• 30 % of what they see
• 50 % of what they see and hear
• 70 % of what they say
• 90 % of what they say as they perform the task

Web Further reading material on psychological barriers.

link
No. 17 http://work.chron.com/psychological-barriers-communication-8309.html

Video A video depicting barriers to effective communications.

No. 24
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GEeIjAkcbws

(V) Cross Cultural Barriers

Culture can be understood as the sum total of the ways of living built by a group and transmitted from one
generation to another. Cross cultural barriers arise because there are significant differences amongst
people. These differences are reflected in some of the following areas:
(i) Languages are a direct reflection of culture and every language is unique in its own way. For example,
idioms and phrases of one language can hardly ever be translated in another language; it is not possible to
get an exact translation of 'Every dog has its day' in Hindi. Moreover, even in the same language
connotations of words differ from culture to culture- 'yes' for an American usually means 'yes I agree’,
whereas to an Asian, like the Japanese it means 'yes I am listening'.

(ii) Concept of time also varies from culture to culture. Asians have a very relaxed attitude towards time
whereas Europeans and most specially, Germans are very particular about time in both their personal and
professional relationships.

(iii) Concept of space can be understood as the distance between speakers. This concept of space differs
from culture to culture. For example, North Americans view personal space as a right and therefore one
can see them patiently waiting in queues; on the other hand, in cultures like Indians space belongs to all
and thus they jostle for space when boarding trains or entering theaters or malls.
(iv) Non verbal communication also differs from culture to culture. Body language, gestures, attire,
connotations of colour etc. have different meanings depending on the culture. For instance, the thumbs up
sign have a positive connotation in most cultures but in the Arabian country it is an obscene gesture; white
is worn during weddings in European countries whereas in a country like India it is the colour of mourning.
(v)
Video An animated video on what makes for good intercultural communication, what is cross cultural
No. 25 awareness and why are diversity issues important.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PSt_op3fQck

Video A short movie about cultural misunderstandings made by a group of German students.
No. 26
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SYbynThuONs

Video A video on the stereotypes in Intercultural Communication.

No. 27
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LQQtoyStMe4

Web Essay on some important Socio-Psychological Barriers to Communication.

link
No. 18 http://www.shareyouressays.com/94713/8-important-socio-psychological-barriers-to-
communication-explained
Q. Write a short note on environmental barriers to communication

Q. Any two physical barriers to communication.

Environmental or physical barriers to communication

Environmental or physical barriers to communication are any part of the environment or surroundings that
can prevent communication or getting in touch with another person or something else. There are a huge
number of environmental barriers to communication.

Time/ Place/ Space/ Climate and Noise are the generally accepted barriers to communication. These
factors are powerful enough to block or alter the communication of a message completely.

Time:

Time lag and the amount of time it takes for a message to travel across the world is one of the most major
barriers to communication and how things are communicated. Communication and the speed of
communication is the most major factor. The modern world has seen huge leaps in the speed of
communication in the recent years.

Space

The space in between the communications and the size of the area is also a major factor in the process of
communication. Space can act as a barrier and an aid to communication
 Place:

The place is also a factor that affects suitability of the communications on offer. For example a place that
has a bad environment and causes people to be irritable can cause people to lack in the communication
end as they are unhappy. In the opposite side of things a good environment can lead to calmer and better
communication between people.

Climate

Warm weather or cold weather can cause affects on people's perceptions and their abilities to make
decisions. Different climates affect people's views in different ways and can be a barrier to communication
caused by environment.

Q. Discuss any two main barriers to communication. Why are they considered unhealthy in an
organisation?

Organizational Barriers

Organizational structures of firms are designed to support company’s objectives. Besides, organizations
prescribe systems – a set of policies, procedures and norms of behaviour (code of conduct) to reinforce
achievement of corporate objectives. These are further supplemented by a comprehensive system of
performance appraisals, rewards and punishment. A few major organizational barriers are:

(1) Organizational policy: Policies underpin strategy and facilitate their implementation.
Organizational policy should support flow of information in all directions – external and internal
communication covering downward, upwards and horizontal communications. If flow of communication is
not supported by firms’ policy, it will not be smooth and adequate for the healthy functioning of the
organization.

(2) Organizational rules and regulations: Some rules and regulations of the firm may come in the
way of free flow of communication and may require provision of proper channels of communication. Such
rules and procedures may inhibit the flow of communication and need to be updated to bring them in line
with the demands of strategies and their accomplishment.

(3) Status relationship: Greater the difference in the level of status of the functionaries, greater is the
possibility of breakdown of communication between them. If a person has to be frequently interacting with
senior personnel, his job gradation needs to be reviewed.

(4) Complexity of organization structure: Tall organizations comprising of many layers of

organization structure, delay flow of messages from sender to the receiver. It increases the risk of distortion
of the message en route. In such firms, usually upwards communication suffers very badly.

Web This page gives us an overview of communication in the digital world and the barriers therein.
link
No. 19
 http://genius.com/Ols-252-organizational-behavior-communication-in-the-digital-world-
annotated/

Video A short film explaining the communication barriers that people tend to face at the workplace.
No. 28

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9GqWfGav7ic

OVERCOMING BARRIERS TO COMMUNICATION

Potential Barrier in communication (Cultural Differences)

Cultural differences can cause many problems in an effective discussion, for example: If two people are
trying to have a discussion and both speak different languages, it would be extremely difficult to
communicate, in different cultures hand signs represent gestures that the British take politely. Religious
issues can accelerate a normal discussion into a debate.

How to overcome

There are some ways of resolving these, some of which are the following: learn their language, hire an
interpreter, carry a translating dictionary, Instead of trying to communicate with hand signs and offend
them, research some different signs that mean something polite and respectful, these are all ways that can
solve the problems of effective communication in cultural differences.

Potential Barrier in communication (Distractions)

Distractions are one of the most annoying potential barriers; sometimes they are inescapable or
unpreventable. However, some of them can be avoided, for example: mobile phones, people arriving late,
changing the subject, talking about a different topic, some of these are preventable though.

How to overcome

Some distractions are unpreventable, but are some are avoidable, for example: turn mobile phones off,
arrive on time or come in quietly. Some of the distractions that are inescapable are as follows: road works
outside, mobile phone, someone arriving late.

Potential Barrier in communication (Incorrect spelling/grammar)...

Incorrect spelling is a potential barrier in communication because it can be misinterpreted as something

else and an important message might not be passed on, this can happen in any written forms of
communication, for example: email, snail- mail, memo, etc.

How to overcome

There are a number of ways to overcome incorrect spelling/grammar; firstly the spellchecker is useful for
simple spelling and grammar mistakes. Next, proofreading is important as this is more accurate than
spellchecker because machines do not know what context is suitable; finally, a second opinion is the best
option to overcome this barrier, getting a friend to check the work over ensures better work.

Potential Barrier in communication (Terminology)

Using the wrong terminology is very poor quality communication; it can lead to misunderstanding of an
important issue, terminology that is too simple, example, thingy and stuff, is far too vaguer terminology to
understand, if someone is having a technical discussion about something they need to use technical
terminology. The wrong terminology can also result in loss of interest.

How to overcome

There is no easy way to correct terminology; use same level of technical language, provide audience with
information about the topic to make communication easier, example: handouts.

Potential Barrier in communication (Loss of interest)

Loss of interest is the cause of poor communication, meaning a boring issue is being discussed or incorrect
terminology is being used. The subject might not be relevant to people in the audience, talking too quietly,
talking in a monotone.

How to overcome
There are numerous ways to overcome loss of interest, for example: talking in different tones relevant to
the subject, interact with the audience, use interesting slideshows, video clips, and pictures. Loss of interest
is only caused by: a boring subject, the wrong terminology, talking in monotone, these problems can easily
be solved.

Potential Barrier in communication (Organizational barriers)

Organizational barriers arise in an organization and have a direct impact on employee productivity and
morale.

How to overcome

Firms must provide facilities for meeting and conference rooms, complaint / suggestion schemes etc. They
should encourage open door policies by senior managers and executives. Companies should also organize
gatherings for social, cultural and sport activities as they also contribute to better flow of information at both
informal and formal levels.
Case Studies:

Identify the barriers and ways to overcome them.

Q. 1) Dharamdas was never known to have made a mistake in his accounts and was well known for his
clear head for mathematical work. His manager was, therefore puzzled when he was told that Dharamdas
just could not work with the new calculating machine with which he was required to work.

Ans. Resistance to change, psychological barrier. Dharamdas can be given training to help him get
acquainted with the new calculating machine and also shown how using his mathematical skills on the new
machine can get him a better opportunity in his career.

Q. 2) Manager Prabhu believed that managers can only communicate with their clerks by using a “memo”
paper. The clerks were used to receiving ‘memos’ for coming late, for not doing their work properly, for
taking leave without permission. Typist Gonsalves received a “Memo” of congratulations when his first son
was born. There is a lot of resentment.

Ans. Overemphasis on written communication, Superiority complex, Status barrier, Organizational barrier.
Manager Prabhu needs to develop interpersonal skills and better people skills to keep his staff motivated.
He should learn to identify situations where written communication is necessary and where oral
communication would be effective.

Q. 3) Mr. Babu had been a successful manufacturer for twenty years. He used glass containers for his
products. When a salesman visited him to show a new plastic container which was more durable and which
cost less. Mr. Babu refused to listen to him and mockingly asked the salesman if he knew more about his
business than he did.

Ans. (iv) Rigidity, Closed Mind, Psychological barrier. Mr. Babu is intolerant of the beliefs and opinions of
others; and is also obstinately unreceptive to new ideas. A rigid mind is resistant to change. A closed mind
likes to follow one’s own ideas. Mr. Babu needs to be open to know and learn about new inventions and
technologies to avoid being rendered obsolete.

1.6 TECHNIQUES TO IMPROVE COMMUNICATION

Video Jay Walker explains why two billion people around the world are trying to learn English.
No.29
http://video.ted.com/talk/podcast/2009/None/JayWalker_2009-480p.mp4

GOOD LISTENING SKILLS

Q. Why is ‘Listening’ an important skill for effective communication?

Listening is a significant part of communication process. Communication cannot take place until and unless
a message is heard and retained thoroughly and positively by the receivers/listeners. Listening is a
dynamic process. Listening means attentiveness and interest perceptible in the posture as well as
expressions. Listening implies decoding (i.e., translating the symbols into meaning) and interpreting the
messages correctly in communication process.

You may have heard the adage, “We have two ears but only one mouth”—an easy way to remember that
listening can be twice as important as talking. As a student, you most likely spend many hours in a
classroom doing a large amount of focused listening, yet sometimes it is difficult to apply those efforts to
communication in other areas of your life.

The importance of listening extends far beyond academic and professional settings. Understanding how to
practice good communication even in your day to day life, among friends, family, and significant others, is
important for a number of reasons: fostering good self-esteem, maximizing productivity, improving
relationships, and even becoming a better speaker.

It’s easy to mistake listening as a simple, passive task, but it requires more than just the ability to absorb
information from someone else. Listening is a process, and an active one.

Listening is the most important part of communication, because if you fail to understand the message being
expressed to you, you will also fail in providing a substantial and meaningful response. This is the root
cause of many arguments, misunderstandings, and complications, whether at home, school, or work.

Listening is a skill of critical significance in all aspects of our lives--from maintaining our personal
relationships, to getting our jobs done, to taking notes in class, to figuring out which bus to take to the
airport. Regardless of how we're engaged with listening, it's important to understand that listening involves
more than just hearing the words that are directed at us. Listening is an active process by which we make
sense of, assess, and respond to what we hear.

Being able to take control of the listening process will turn you into a better communicator, overall.

General Listening Types:

Q. Differentiate between empathetic listening and critical listening.

Q. Write a short note on two types of listening.

The two main types of listening - the foundations of all listening sub-types are:

Discriminative Listening
Comprehensive Listening

Discriminative Listening

Discriminative listening is first developed at a very early age – perhaps even before birth, in the womb.
This is the most basic form of listening and does not involve the understanding of the meaning of words or
phrases but merely the different sounds that are produced. In early childhood, for example, a distinction is
made between the sounds of the voices of the parents – the voice of the father sounds different to that of
the mother.

Discriminative listening develops through childhood and into adulthood. As we grow older and develop and
gain more life experience, our ability to distinguish between different sounds is improved. Not only can we
recognise different voices, but we also develop the ability to recognise subtle differences in the way that
sounds are made – this is fundamental to ultimately understanding what these sounds mean. Differences
include many subtleties, recognising foreign languages, distinguishing between regional accents and clues
to the emotions and feelings of the speaker.

Being able to distinguish the subtleties of sound made by somebody who is happy or sad, angry or
stressed, for example, ultimately adds value to what is actually being said and, of course, does aid
comprehension. When discriminative listening skills are combined with visual stimuli, the resulting ability to
‘listen’ to body-language enables us to begin to understand the speaker more fully – for example
recognising somebody is sad despite what they are saying or how they are saying it.

Example

Imagine yourself surrounded by people who are speaking a language that you cannot understand.
Perhaps passing through an airport in another country. You can probably distinguish between different
voices, male and female, young and old and also gain some understanding about what is going on around
you based on the tone of voice, mannerisms and body language of the other people. You are not
understanding what is being said but using discriminative listening to gain some level of comprehension of
your surroundings.

Comprehensive Listening

Comprehensive listening involves understanding the message or messages that are being communicated.
Like discriminative listening, comprehensive listening is fundamental to all listening sub-types.

In order to be able use comprehensive listening and therefore gain understanding the listener first needs
appropriate vocabulary and language skills. Using overly complicated language or technical jargon,
therefore, can be a barrier to comprehensive listening. Comprehensive listening is further complicated by
the fact that two different people listening to the same thing may understand the message in two different
ways. This problem can be multiplied in a group setting, like a classroom or business meeting where
numerous different meanings can be derived from what has been said.

Comprehensive listening is complimented by sub-messages from non-verbal communication, such as the

tone of voice, gestures and other body language. These non-verbal signals can greatly aid communication
and comprehension but can also confuse and potentially lead to misunderstanding. In many listening
situations it is vital to seek clarification and use skills such as reflection aid comprehension.

Specific Listening Types

Discriminative and comprehensive listening are prerequisites for specific listening types. Listening types
can be defined by the goal of the listening. The three main types most common in interpersonal
relationships are:

Informational Listening (Listening to Learn)

Critical Listening (Listening to Evaluate and Analyse)
Therapeutic or Empathetic Listening (Listening to Understand Feeling and Emotion)

In reality you may have more than one goal for listening at any given time – for example, you may be
listening to learn whilst also attempting to be empathetic.

Informational Listening

Whenever you listen to learn something, you are engaged in informational listening. This is true in many
day-to-day situations, in education and at work, when you listen to the news, watch a documentary, when a
friend tells you a recipe or when you are talked-through a technical problem with a computer – there are
many other examples of informational listening too.

Although all types of listening are ‘active’ – they require concentration and a conscious effort to understand.
Informational listening is less active than many of the other types of listening. When we’re listening to learn
or be instructed we are taking in new information and facts, we are not criticising or analysing.
Informational listening, especially in formal settings like in work meetings or while in education, is often
accompanied by note taking – a way of recording key information so that it can be reviewed later.

Critical Listening

We can be said to be engaged in critical listening when the goal is to evaluate or scrutinise what is being
said. Critical listening is a much more active behaviour than informational listening and usually involves
some sort of problem solving or decision making. Critical listening is akin to critical reading; both involve
analysis of the information being received and alignment with what we already know or believe. Whereas
informational listening may be mostly concerned with receiving facts and/or new information - critical
listening is about analysing opinion and making a judgement.

When the word ‘critical’ is used to describe listening, reading or thinking it does not necessarily mean that
you are claiming that the information you are listening to is somehow faulty or flawed. Rather, critical
listening means engaging in what you are listening to by asking yourself questions such as, ‘what is the
speaker trying to say?’ or ‘what is the main argument being presented?’, ‘how does what I’m hearing differ
from my beliefs, knowledge or opinion?’. Critical listening is, therefore, fundamental to true learning.

Many day-to-day decisions that we make are based on some form of ‘critical’ analysis, whether it be critical
listening, reading or thought. Our opinions, values and beliefs are based on our ability to process
information and formulate our own feelings about the world around us as well as weigh up the pros and
cons to make an informed decision.

It is often important, when listening critically, to have an open-mind and not be biased by stereotypes or
preconceived ideas. By doing this you will become a better listener and broaden your knowledge and
perception of other people and your relationships.
Therapeutic or Empathic Listening

Empathic listening involves attempting to understand the feelings and emotions of the speaker – to put
yourself into the speaker’s shoes and share their thoughts.

Empathy is a way of deeply connecting with another person and therapeutic or empathic listening can be
particularly challenging. Empathy is not the same as sympathy, it involves more than being compassionate
or feeling sorry for somebody else – it involves a deeper connection – a realisation and understanding of
another person’s point of view.
Counsellors, therapists and some other professionals use therapeutic or empathic listening to understand
and ultimately help their clients. This type of listening does not involve making judgements or offering
advice but gently encouraging the speaker to explain and elaborate on their feelings and emotions. Skills
such as clarification and reflection are often used to help avoid misunderstandings.

We are all capable of empathic listening and may practise it with friends, family and colleagues. Showing
empathy is a desirable trait in many interpersonal relationships – you may well feel more comfortable
talking about your own feelings and emotions with a particular person. They are likely to be better at
listening empathetically to you than others, this is often based on similar perspectives, experiences, beliefs
and values – a good friend, your spouse, a parent or sibling for example.

Other Listening Types

Although usually less important or useful in interpersonal relationships there are other types of listening that
we engage in.

Appreciative Listening

Appreciative listening is listening for enjoyment. A good example is listening to music, especially as a way
to relax.
.
Rapport Listening

When trying to build rapport with others we can engage in a type of listening that encourages the other
person to trust and like us. A salesman, for example, may make an effort to listen carefully to what you are
saying as a way to promote trust and potentially make a sale. This type of listening is common in situations
of negotiation.

Selective Listening

This is a more negative type of listening, it implies that the listener is somehow biased to what they are
hearing. Bias can be based on preconceived ideas or emotionally difficult communications. Selective
listening is a sign of failing communication – you cannot hope to understand if you have filtered out some of
the message and may reinforce or strengthen your bias for future communications.

Q. What are the four stages in the process of listening?

Stages of Listening

Probably the simplest way to start thinking about listening is to break down the process into stages. In
practice, no one would keep strictly to these stages, but reflecting on them should improve a person’s
listening skills.
Step 1

The first step is to open yourself to the 'incoming message', to let down your defences as far as possible,
and try to sense the real, underlying meaning of what is being said. Listen for ideas, implications and
feelings as well as the facts. As well as being able to hear, you must also want to, or at least be willing to,
listen. The more serious the conflict, the greater your resistance will be to this step. Taking brief notes may
help to focus your attention; but it can also distract you. If in doubt, don't.

Step 2

The second step is to begin to interpret, or reconstruct, what is being said, remembering always that words
have different meanings to different people. Keep asking yourself whether or not you understand the
message. Do your best to listen with full attention, and withhold judgement and criticism at this stage. Don't
jump to conclusions before the story is complete.

Step 3

The third step is to evaluate what is being said, only after you have made a reasonably objective
interpretation of the message. At this point you should reflect on the information and options being
presented, and sift the evidence. Unfortunately, judging often starts far too early in the listening process,
especially when the topic has emotional implications or when there has been a long history of painful
conflict. Unskilled listeners close their ears to words they do not want to hear.

Step 4

The fourth stage is responding. Here you demonstrate that you have truly been listening. Reassuring the
speaker that you have been giving him full attention is a critical aspect of constructive listening. Feedback
is usually given by asking for clarification or for more information, or at least giving some visible
acknowledgment by smiling or frowning. This responding or reacting stage will have a major influence on
the negotiating process.

Video In our louder and louder world, says sound expert Julian Treasure, "We are losing our listening."
No. 30 In this short, fascinating talk, Treasure shares five ways to re-tune your ears for conscious
listening — to other people and the world around you.

http://www.ted.com/talks/julian_treasure_5_ways_to_listen_better

Web A NYT newspaper article on “The Science and Art of Listening”.

link
No. 20 http://www.nytimes.com/2012/11/11/opinion/sunday/why-listening-is-so-much-more-than-
hearing.html?_r=0
Q. Comment on the difference between hearing and listening. What are the benefits of active
listening in personal and professional life?

Q. Comment on the difference between Hearing and Listening. What are the benefits of active listening?

Q. Write a short note on the features of listening and hearing.

Q. ‘Hearing’ is natural; 'listening' needs effort. Explain the statement, giving reasons for your
answer.
Q. "Hearing is natural, listening needs effort:' Explain the statement with reference to techniques
to be an effective listener.

Listening is Not the Same as Hearing

Hearing refers to the sounds that you hear, whereas listening requires more than that: it requires focus.
Listening means paying attention not only to the story, but how it is told, the use of language and voice, and
how the other person uses his or her body. In other words, it means being aware of both verbal and non-
verbal messages. Your ability to listen effectively depends on the degree to which you perceive and
understand these messages.

Listening differs from hearing in sense that:

Hearing implies just perceiving the sounds while listening means listening with understanding
whatever you are listening. Both the body as well as mind is involved in listening process.
Listening is an active process while hearing is a passive activity.
Hearing is an effortless activity while listening is an act requiring conscious efforts, concentration
and interest. Listening involves both physical and psychological efforts.

Web A wiki page which explains the listening process and has further links to various types of listening.
link
No. 21 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Listening

Q. What are the causes of poor listening? What steps should one take to ensure good listening?

The act of "listening" may be affected by barriers that impede the flow of information. These barriers include
distractions, an inability to prioritize information, a tendency to assume or judge based on little or no
information (i.e., "jumping to conclusions), and general confusion about the topic being discussed. Listening
barriers may be psychological (e.g., the listener's emotions) or physical (e.g., noise and visual distraction).
However, some of the most common barriers to effective listening include low concentration, lack of
prioritization, poor judgement, and focusing on style rather than substance.

Low Concentration
Low concentration, or not paying close attention to speakers, is detrimental to effective listening. It can
result from various psychological or physical situations such as visual or auditory distractions, physical
discomfort, inadequate volume, lack of interest in the subject material, stress, or personal bias. Regardless
of the cause, when a listener is not paying attention to a speaker's dialogue, effective communication is
significantly diminished. Both listeners and speakers should be aware of these kinds of impediments and
work to eliminate or mitigate them.

When listening to speech, there is a time delay between the time a speaker utters a sentence to the
moment the listener comprehends the speaker's meaning. Normally, this happens within the span of a few
seconds. If this process takes longer, the listener has to catch up to the speaker's words if he or she
continues to speak at a pace faster than the listener can comprehend. Often, it is easier for listeners to stop
listening when they do not understand. Therefore, a speaker needs to know which parts of a speech may
be more comprehension intensive than others, and adjust his or her speed, vocabulary, and sentence
structure accordingly.

Lack of Prioritization

Just as lack of attention to detail in a conversation can lead to ineffective listening, so can focusing too
much attention on the least important information. Listeners need to be able to pick up on social cues and
prioritize the information they hear to identify the most important points within the context of the
conversation.

Often, the information the audience needs to know is delivered along with less pertinent or irrelevant
information. When listeners give equal weight to everything they hear, it makes it difficult to organize and
retain the information they need. For instance, students who take notes in class must know which
information to writing down within the context of an entire lecture. Writing down the lecture word for word is
impossible as well as inefficient.

Poor Judgement

When listening to a speaker's message, it is common to sometimes overlook aspects of the conversation or
make judgments before all of the information is presented. Listeners often engage in confirmation bias,
which is the tendency to isolate aspects of a conversation to support one's own preexisting beliefs and
values. This psychological process has a detrimental effect on listening for several reasons.

First, confirmation bias tends to cause listeners to enter the conversation before the speaker finishes her
message and, thus, form opinions without first obtaining all pertinent information. Second, confirmation bias
detracts from a listener's ability to make accurate critical assessments. For example, a listener may hear
something at the beginning of a speech that arouses a specific emotion. Whether anger, frustration, or
anything else, this emotion could have a profound impact on the listener's perception of the rest of the
conversation.

Focusing on Style, Not Substance

The vividness effect explains how vivid or highly graphic an individual's perception of a situation. When
observing an event in person, an observer is automatically drawn toward the sensational, vivid or
memorable aspects of a conversation or speech.

In the case of listening, distracting or larger-than-life elements in a speech or presentation can deflect
attention away from the most important information in the conversation or presentation. These distractions
can also influence the listener's opinion. For example, if a Shakespearean professor delivered an entire
lecture in an exaggerated Elizabethan accent, the class would likely not take the professor seriously,
regardless of the actual academic merit of the lecture.

Cultural differences (including speakers' accents, vocabulary, and misunderstandings due to cultural
assumptions) can also obstruct the listening process. The same biases apply to the speaker's physical
appearance. To avoid this obstruction, listeners should be aware of these biases and focus on the
substance, rather than the style of delivery, or the speaker's voice and appearance.

Effective listening requires both deliberate efforts and a keen mind. Effective listeners appreciate flow of
new ideas and information. Organizations that follow the principles of effective listening are always
informed timely, updated with the changes and implementations, and are always out of crisis situation.
Effective listening promotes organizational relationships, encourages product delivery and innovation, as
well as helps organization to deal with the diversity in employees and customers it serves.

"Man's inability to communicate is a result of his failure to listen effectively." Carl Rogers

The third facilitative aspect of the relationship is empathic understanding. This means that the therapist
senses accurately the feelings and personal meanings that the client is experiencing and communicates
this understanding to the client. When functioning best, the therapist is so much inside the private world of
the other that he or she can clarify not only the meanings of which the client is aware but even those just
below the level of awareness. This kind of sensitive, active listening is exceedingly rare in our lives. We
think we listen, but very rarely do we listen with real understanding, true empathy. Yet listening, of this very
special kind, is one of the most potent forces for change that I know." (Rodgers, 1980)
 To improve your communication skills, you must learn to listen effectively. Effective listening gives you an
advantage and makes you more impressive when you speak. It also boosts your performance.

Web A comprehensive write-up on how can one develop effective listening skills.
link
No. 22 http://wikieducator.org/Listening_Skills

Q. Write a short note on effective listening.

Effective Listening Skills

1. Discover your interests’ field.

2. Grasp and understand the matter/content.
3. Remain calm. Do not lose your temper. Anger hampers and inhibits communication. Angry people jam their
minds to the words of others.
4. Be open to accept new ideas and information.
5. Jot down and take a note of important points.
6. Work upon listening. Analyze and evaluate the speech in spare time.
7. Rephrase and summarize the speaker’s ideas.
8. Keep on asking questions. This demonstrates that how well you understand the speaker’s ideas and also
that you are listening.
9. Avoid distractions.
10. “Step into the shoes of others”, i.e., put yourself in the position of the speaker and observe things from his
view point. This will help creating an atmosphere of mutual understanding and improve the exchange of
ideas in communication process.

Video In this soaring demonstration, deaf percussionist Evelyn Glennie illustrates how listening to music
No. 31 involves much more than simply letting sound waves hit your eardrums.

http://www.ted.com/talks/evelyn_glennie_shows_how_to_listen
 Q. ‘We have two ears and only one tongue in order that we may hear more and speak less’. Explain
this statement in terms of characteristics of a good listener.

Characteristics of Good and Effective Listener

Good and effective listener tries to give maximum amount of thought to the speaker’s ideas being
communicated, leaving a minimum amount of time for mental exercises to go off track. A good listener:

1. Is attentive- A good listener must pay attention to the key points. He should be alert. He should avoid any
kind of distraction.
2. Does not assume- A good listener does not ignore the information he considers is unnecessary. He
should always summarize the speaker’s ideas so that there is no misunderstanding of thoughts of
speakers. He avoids premature judgments about the speaker’s message.
3. Listens for feelings and facts- A good listener deliberately listens for the feelings of the speaker. He
concentrates totally on the facts. He evaluates the facts objectively. His listening is sympathetic, active and
alert. He keenly observes the gestures, facial expression and body language of the speaker. In short, a
good listener should be projective (i.e. one who tries to understand the views of the speaker) and empathic
(i.e. one who concentrates not only on the surface meaning of the message but tries to probe the feelings
and emotions of the speaker).
4. Concentrates on the other speakers kindly and generously- A good listener makes deliberate efforts to
give a chance to other speakers also to express their thoughts and views. He tries to learn from every
speaker. He evaluates the speaker’s ideas in spare time. He focuses on the content of the speaker’s
message and not on the speaker’s personality and looks.
5. Opportunism- A good listener tries to take benefit from the opportunities arising. He asks “What’s in it for
me?”
To conclude, effective listening enhances the communication quality. It makes all attentive. It encourages
optimistic attitude, healthy relations and more participation. It leads to better decision- making in an
organization. Effective listening is directly related to our ability to do team work. It must be noted that “We
listen at about an efficiency rate of 25 percent maximum, and we remember only about 50 percent of what
is delivered during a ten minute speech/lecture/communication.”

Video Amongst his different entrepreneurial talents, Jim Breyer, Managing Partner of Accel Partners,
link talks about the importance of Zuckerberg's listening skills that have helped him effectively lead
No. 32 Facebook to success.

http://ecorner.stanford.edu/authorMaterialInfo.html?mid=1504

Benefits of active listening

Listening is key to all effective communication, without the ability to listen effectively messages are easily
misunderstood – communication breaks down and the sender of the message can easily become frustrated
or irritated.

Listening is so important that many top employers provide listening skills training for their employees. This
is not surprising when you consider that good listening skills can lead to: better customer satisfaction,
greater productivity with fewer mistakes, increased sharing of information that in turn can lead to more
creative and innovative work.

Many successful leaders and entrepreneurs credit their success to effective listening skills. Richard
Branson frequently quotes listening as one of the main factors behind the success of Virgin. Effective
listening is a skill that underpins all positive human relationships, spend some time thinking about and
developing your listening skills – they are the building blocks of success.

Good listening skills also have benefits in our personal lives, including a greater number of friends and
social networks, improved self-esteem and confidence, higher grades at school and in academic work and
even better health and general well-being. Studies have shown that, whereas speaking raises blood
pressure, listening brings it down.

1-In the workplace

a) Employee’s perspective

For the employee, listening:

-Expands capacity and knowledge

Great listening skills make an employee more competent and capable, regardless of his position. The more
an individual can get information out of the meetings, the instructions, and reports provided to him, the
more efficient and successful he will at completing his tasks. By listening effectively, he s able to grasp the
t exact information he needs in order to execute his work without committing regrettable mistakes. Also as
a result, listening enriches know-how and knowledge and helps fulfilling job requirements through
progressive learning.
-Intensifies successful conversation
Another advantage of effective listening for an employee is that he becomes a better team player. If
employees take the time to listen to each other, to their suggestions, warnings, advice and informational
inputs, it allows them and the departments they work in to coordinate better, to avoid misunderstandings,
and build profitable relationships among workers. Furthermore, effective listening reduces risks of inter-
personal conflicts in a workplace creates an environment of peace, respect which facilitates enduring
success for the whole enterprise
-Saves time and money
Effective listening not only reduces risks of misunderstanding and mistakes that could be very damaging to
the business, it saves time and money for all departments forming a collaborative workforce. How? … by
avoiding the trouble and inconvenience of starting a task or a project over again, just because the directives
given were misunderstood. Employees do not waste precious time and a specific budget allocated to a
specific project, given that time and money are the two most important resources in business.

b) Leader/boss’s perspective

For a manager, listening:

- Helps detects and solve problems quickly

As a leader, an entrepreneur should always be attentive to what employees have to say, whether it
concerns the mechanism, the processes or the project of a business platform. In the workplace, they are
the first ones to spot flaws and come up with suggestions for amelioration. It is up the manager to grasp
and distinguish necessary and useful information to take the actions needed. In the same perspective, with
“good ears”, he’s able to make better decisions and to discover more about all aspects of the company.
-Confers respect and trust
By listening to staff members, a leader shows great respect and care to them. As a result, he gains the trust
and esteem of workers and achieve referent power as mentioned by French & in Raven in the article “the
bases of social power”. As an appreciated leader, he gets people to open up and is able to collect useful
information about them and their capabilities.
- Enhances motivation and encouragement
Listening gives a leader the power and ability to encourage and motivate employees. Moreover, a boss
who listens stimulates his subordinates in reaching their maximal potential and at the same time a
maximum success. This is way to inspire a level of commitment in people and the feeling of membership.
Sometimes, it only take for a boss to listen to someone and give feedback showing understanding , for the
same person to feel he’s part of a group, to find the encourage to overcome some difficulties he might find
at work.
- Allows better negotiations terms and resistance overcoming
A leader also assumes the role of a negotiator and often faces problematic situations in negotiations: When
the parties are more focusing on imposing their ideas and getting approval for their suggestions and
propositions, they miss important information such as the underlying demands and offer of each group. The
meeting can continue on for the interlocutors to realize at the end that they did not manage to come to an
agreement. Knowing how to listen effectively keeps negotiators from committing these types of errors and
capture useful information that will be able to use against the opponent and bend his offer at their benefit.

c) Customer’s perspective

For the relations customers have with the company, listening:

-Strengthen customer relationships and facilitates products and services improvement

By putting in place a system to collect customers’ feedback on the usage of a product or a service, the
company let the consumers know that their opinion matters and gain their loyalty. Furthermore, the
suggestions, critics and experience are used to ameliorate the products and services and innovate.
(drawn from Communication in Organizations, by Dalmar Fisher)

2-In the classroom

a) Student’ perspective
Overall, effective listening contribute to the student’s progress and the immediate and observable
advantages are that it :
-Enriches knowledge
-Allows to sort, select and retain essential information
For more information about the subject, click here.

b) Teacher’ perspective
As for the teacher who has the responsibility of guiding instructing students, when he listens he s able to:
- Uncover areas of misunderstanding and flaws, in which students with whom students struggle more
- Improve teaching skills because the instructor learns to what method students respond better.
GOOD WRITING SKILLS

Writing skills are an important part of communication. Good writing skills allow you to communicate your
message with clarity and ease to a far larger audience than through face-to-face or telephone
conversations.

You might be called upon to write a report, plan or strategy at work; write a grant application or press
release within a volunteering role; or you may fancy communicating your ideas online via a blog. And, of
course, a well written CV with no spelling or grammatical mistakes is essential if you want a new job.

Today, when anyone can be their own publisher, we see more and more examples of poor writing skills
both in print and on the web. Poor writing skills create poor first impressions and many readers will have an
immediate negative reaction if they spot a spelling or grammatical mistake. As just one example, a spelling
mistake on a commercial web page may cause potential customers to doubt the credibility of the website
and the organisation.

For many of us it will have been a long time since we were taught any writing skills and a refresher may be
needed. This section aims to make you think about grammar, spelling and punctuation, how to plan your
writing, and the various processes and checks to go through before pressing print or broadcasting your
message online.

Grammar, Spelling and Punctuation

Correct grammar, punctuation and spelling are key in written communications. The reader will form an
opinion of you, the author, based on both the content and presentation, and errors are likely to lead them to
form a negative impression.
If you are unconvinced about the importance of accurate writing, think of the clues we use to identify spam
emails, “phishing” websites, and counterfeit products: poor grammar and spelling. Similarly, some
employers state publicly that any CV containing spelling or grammatical mistakes will be rejected
immediately, whilst a BBC news article quotes research that calculates spelling mistakes cost online
businesses “millions” in lost sales.
In addition, checking for poor writing and spelling mistakes should be seen as a courtesy to your readers
since it can take them much longer to understand the messages in your writing if they have to think and re-
read text to decipher these.

Therefore, all written communications should be re-read before sending to print, or hitting the send button
in the case of emails, as it is likely that there will be errors. Do not assume that spelling and grammar
checkers will identify all mistakes as many incorrect words can indeed be spelt correctly (for example, when
“their” is used instead of “there” or “principle” instead of “principal”) or entire words may be missing. If at all
possible, take a break before re-reading and checking your writing as you are more likely to notice
problems when you read it fresh.
Even if you know spelling and grammar rules, you should still double check your work since our brains tend
to work faster than our fingers can type and accidental typographical errors inevitably creep in.

Web A guide to effective Written Communication that involves expressing yourself clearly, using
link language with precision; constructing a logical argument; note taking, editing and summarising;
No. 23 and writing reports.

http://www.kent.ac.uk/careers/sk/written-communication.htm

Improving Your Writing Skills

A trick to checking your work and improving your writing skills is to read your work aloud. Reading text
forces you to slow down and you will pick up problems with the flow that your eye would otherwise skip
over.

Another way to improve your writing skills is to read. However, the best way to improve is to write. Try
writing practice pieces that you do not even need to show anyone else. As your confidence as a writer
grows, you may feel happy to show your writing to friends or others and, when you do, ask for their honest
feedback and constructive criticism. You might even find a friend or colleague willing to act as a writing
mentor to work with you as your writing skills develop.

Web A guide to improving reading (skimming and scanning) skills.

link
No. 24 http://www.bbc.co.uk/skillswise/topic/skimming-and-scanning

READING SKILLS

Describe some of the chief characteristics of listening and reading skills and importance of these
skills in communication.

The importance of reading

Reading is an extremely important skill. It is by reading that you learn much of what you need to know for
your different school subjects. Reading is also an excellent way to improve your general English. You can
only learn from reading, however, if what you read is not too difficult. For this reason, it is important to know
what makes texts difficult and how you can improve your chances of understanding them.
Q. State two obstacles to faster reading.

Q. Discuss some of the barriers to effective reading.

What makes texts difficult to understand?

Most of your reading difficulties will be caused by a problem on the list below. Of course, when two or more
of these problems happen together, your chances of understanding will be even smaller.

the text has many unknown words

the text has long, complicated sentences
the text is about a topic you know nothing about
the text is about a topic you find boring
the text has small print, long paragraphs, no pictures
the text has been badly written
you are feeling tired
you are distracted
you don't know the important cohesion markers
you don't know why you have been asked to read the text

Web Many people have trouble with reading. Reading is hard for some people and it can take time.
link Reading is a process of the brain where you look at symbols on a page, and your mind sees the
No. 25 patterns of characters and understands the meaning in them. If you develop good reading skills,
it'll be very helpful to your future. A few steps and tips to get started

http://www.wikihow.com/Improve-Your-Reading-Skills

How to understand more of what you read?

You can do nothing about some of the reading difficulties: for example, you can’t change the print in a book
or make poor writing better. But there are many things you can do that will give you a better chance of
understanding what you read. Here are some suggestions:
1. Know your reading purpose - The way you read a book or a text depends very much on your reasons for
reading it. This is why it is so important to know your reading purpose. You should read a question in your
math exam differently from an entry in an encyclopedia which you are looking at quickly to find out the date
of an event. The kind of reading you do in class or for your homework is different from how you read a
novel for pleasure in the summer vacation.

If you know your reading purpose - perhaps by looking first at the questions you must answer after reading
- you can choose the best reading method.

If your teacher gives you something to read and doesn't tell you what you need to find out from the text or
what you will do after the reading, ask her (or him)!

Q. Bring out the differences between skimming and scanning.

2. Choose the appropriate reading speed - ESL students often take a long time to do their work because
they read everything slowly and carefully. Often, however, one of the following speed reading methods will
be the best choice:
Skimming - this is reading a text quickly to find out what information it contains. You should skim
when, for example, you want to check if a text has the information you need to answer some
questions or write a project. It is often enough to look at the first (and last) sentences in each
paragraph.
Scanning - this is reading quickly to find a specific piece of information. You should scan when, for
example, you are looking for the answer to a question which you know is in the text.

In general, students should be trying to increase their reading speed.

3. Get background information - Find something out about the topic you have to read. The more
background information you have, the easier it will be to understand the text. You can get this background
information background in your own language. For example, if you are studying the Italian Renaissance,
you could read an encyclopedia or textbook in your own language to find out the most important details
about this historical period. Your parents may also be able to give you useful background information. Talk
to them in your language.

You can sometimes get background information from the text itself. Many writers include a conclusion or
summary; if you read this first, it may give you a good start.

4. Use all the information in the book - Good textbooks are well-organised, with titles, sub-titles,
introductions, summaries or conclusions. Many books also have pictures with captions. Look at all these
first before starting to read.

Another aspect of good writing is that each paragraph has a topic sentence. A topic sentence is a
sentence, usually the first one in a paragraph, which contains the main idea of the paragraph. If you
concentrate on understanding the topic sentence, this may help you to understand what comes next.

5. Increase your vocabulary - Of course, reading itself is an excellent way to improve your vocabulary, but
there are many other things you can do. The better your vocabulary, the easier you will find your reading.

6. Use your dictionary sensibly - A common mistake of ESL students is to look up each unknown word in
the texts they are given to read. Occasionally this is necessary - for example, when reading examination
questions. But it takes a long time and can be very boring. It can even make understanding more difficult
because by the time you reach the end of the paragraph you have forgotten what you read at the
beginning!

7. Learn the important words that organise text - When you read texts in your science or history books,
you will find that most good writers organise their writing with cohesion markers (also called transition
words). These are words that connect different parts of the writing and help writers structure their thoughts.
If you learn the important cohesion markers, you will find it easier to understand the text.

Here are some important cohesion markers: also, therefore, except, unless, however, instead, (al)though,
furthermore, moreover, nevertheless, on the other hand, as a result, despite, in conclusion.

8. Choose the right place to read - You can’t really expect to understand a difficult book if you are trying to
read in the same room with the television on and your little brother distracting you. The same goes for
reading in the bus on the way to school.
You also can’t expect to read a textbook and listen to music at the same time. Try to find a quiet and
comfortable place with good light, and your dictionaries and other materials nearby.

9. Choose the right time to read - If you have a difficult text to read for homework, it’s probably best to do
this first. If you leave it until last when you are tired, you will find it even more difficult.
Important: If you have tried the advice above and you still cannot understand a text, then it is simply too
hard for you. Stop reading and ask someone to help you (your ESL teacher, for example!). Nobody likes to
give up, but you will just be wasting your time if you continue to work at a text that is beyond you.

Web A wiki page on speed reading, and on several techniques used to improve one's ability to read
link quickly.
No. 26
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speed_reading

What to read?

Often you have to read what your teachers tell you to read. But as you know, reading is an excellent way to
improve your English, and so you should try to do some extra reading each week. Here is some advice on
how to choose what to read:

Try not to read something too difficult - There should be no more than about 6-10 new words
per page; reading for pleasure should not be hard work!
Reading easy books is good for you -You will improve your reading skills even if you read
simple books, as long as you read lots of them. (But you may find you don't really enjoy stories
written in English that has been over-simplified.)
Try to read some non-fiction - Reading non-fiction books or magazines will help you learn some
of the words you need to do well in your subject classes. There are millions of pages of non-fiction
on the World Wide Web!
Choose something that is interesting to you - This is clear. In fact, if you are really interested in
a topic, you will probably be able to understand texts that would normally be too difficult for you.
Surf the internet - You can learn a lot of English just by surfing around on the websites that
interest you. This is particularly true if the webpages contain pictures that help you understand the
writing.

EFFECTIVE SPEAKING

Video Apple CEO Steve Jobs is well known for his electrifying presentations. Communications coach
No. 33 Carmine Gallo discusses the various techniques Jobs uses to captivate and inspire his audience
— techniques that can easily be applied to your next presentation.

http://www.cbsnews.com/videos/present-like-steve-jobs/

Q. Write a short note on techniques to improve public speaking.

Q.
advice will you give him about writing and speaking?
Q. Write a short note on the characteristics of a good speaker.

Q. ‘Good speaking skills are not innate. They used to be learned, practiced and constantly
evaluated’. How does one learn to speak effectively?

Q. Write a short note on the techniques to improve public speaking.

Q. How can one be an effective speaker?

1. Know what communication really is. Communication is the process of transferring signals/messages
between a sender and a receiver through various methods (written words, nonverbal cues, spoken words).
It is also the mechanism we use to establish and modify relationships.

2. Have courage to say what you think. Be confident in knowing that you can make worthwhile
contributions to conversation. Take time each day to be aware of your opinions and feelings so you can
adequately convey them to others. Individuals who are hesitant to speak because they do not feel their
input would be worthwhile need not fear. What is important or worthwhile to one person may not be to
another and may be more so to someone else.

3. Practice. Developing advanced communication skills begins with simple interactions. Communication
skills can be practiced every day in settings that range from the social to the professional. New skills take
time to refine, but each time you use your communication skills, you open yourself to opportunities and
future partnerships.
4. Engage Your Audience. Make eye contact. Whether you are speaking or listening, looking into the
eyes of the person with whom you are conversing can make the interaction more successful. Eye contact
conveys interest and encourages your partner to be interested in you in return.

Video How to overcome fear of public speaking? The main thing that one should understand is that
No. 34 public speaking is a skill that can be learnt and improved.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dK5q3gdS0o4

One technique to help with this is to consciously look into one of the listener’s eyes and then move to the
other eye. Going back and forth between the two makes your eyes appear to sparkle. Another trick is to
imagine a letter “T” on the listener’s face, with the cross bar being an imaginary line across the eye brows
and the vertical line coming down the center of the nose. Keep your eyes scanning that “T” zone.
5. Use gestures. These include gestures with your hands and face. Make your whole body talk. Use
smaller gestures for individuals and small groups. The gestures should get larger as the group that one is
addressing increases in size.

Don’t send mixed messages. Make your words, gestures, facial expressions and tone match. Discipline
someone while smiling sends a mixed message which is ineffective. If you have to deliver a negative
message, make your words, facial expressions, and tone match the message.

Be aware of what your body is saying. Body language can say so much more than a mouthful of words.
An open stance with arms relaxed at your sides tells anyone around you that you are approachable and
open to hearing what they have to say.
Arms crossed and shoulders hunched, on the other hand, suggest disinterest in conversation or
unwillingness to communicate. Often, communication can be stopped before it starts by body language that
tells people you don't want to talk.

Appropriate posture and an approachable stance can make even difficult conversations flow more
smoothly.
Manifest constructive attitudes and beliefs. The attitudes you bring to communication will have a huge
impact on the way you compose yourself and interact with others. Choose to be honest, patient, optimistic,
sincere, respectful, and accepting of others. Be sensitive to other people's feelings, and believe in others'
competence.

Develop effective listening skills: Not only should one be able to speak effectively; one must listen to the
other person's words and engage in communication on what the other person is speaking about. Avoid the
impulse to listen only for the end of their sentence so that you can blurt out the ideas or memories your
mind while the other person is speaking.

Use Your Words

Enunciate your words. Speak clearly and don’t mumble. If people are always asking you to repeat
yourself, try to do a better job of articulating yourself in a better manner.

Pronounce your words correctly. People will judge your competency through your vocabulary. If you
aren’t sure of how to say a word, don’t use it.

Use the right words. If you’re not sure of the meaning of a word, don’t use it. Grab a dictionary and start a
daily habit of learning one new word per day. Use it sometime in your conversations during the day.

Slow your speech down. People will perceive you as nervous and unsure of yourself if you talk fast.
However, be careful not to slow down to the point where people begin to finish your sentences just to help
you finish.

Use Your Voice

Develop your voice – A high or whiny voice is not perceived to be one of authority. In fact, a high and
soft voice can make you sound like prey to an aggressive co-worker or make others not take you seriously.
Begin doing exercises to lower the pitch of your voice. Try singing, but do it an octave lower on all your
favorite songs. Practice this and, after a period of time, your voice will begin to lower.

Animate your voice. Avoid a monotone and use dynamics. Your pitch should raise and lower periodically.
Radio DJ's are usually a good example of this.
Use appropriate volume. Use a volume that is appropriate for the setting. Speak more softly when you are
alone and close. Speak louder when you are speaking to larger groups or across larger spaces.

Try to speak fluently and try to make sure people can hear you when you speak.
Make sure you're using proper grammar.

Video A speech of a lifetime and life itself comedically written and presented by Valedictorian Carl
No. 35 Aquino, a 2010 graduate from West Hall High School. He humorously relates the four years of
high school to a rubix cube with some music in the background.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lCN6FjqDcHg

Video Stay hungry...Stay foolish. Amazing Steve Jobs Speech at Stanford.

No. 36
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gO6cFMRqXqU

Q. You are newly, appointed as a manager of your company and have four years of previous experience.
The company has around 400 staff members. You have decided to the very just and fair towards your
staff and you want to create a healthy environment for each one to grow. Mention various measures you
would take and points you would remember to be a successful managers and a good communicator.

Communicating is easy, but communicating well takes skill. Thinking beyond basic language rules and
facilitating effective, positive exchanges of information is something not everyone can do. Fortunately, good
communication habits come with regular practice, so if you know what it takes to sharpen your skills, you
can proudly communicate like all the great orators and writers before you. Remember these seven things
that good communicators always do, and make sure you’re doing them!

1. Get personal

Most of the time, people don’t care about what you’re saying unless you’re saying something they find
valuable on a personal level. That personal level doesn’t have to be deep, it just has to exist.

Good communicators establish a personal connection by focusing on how their message may impact the
other person. For example, good communicators in the marketing industry always explain how the
company’s products or services will benefit the customer. This gives the audience a reason to listen and
remember what the marketer has said.

2. Represent facts
Inaccurate information is worthless, so if you’re not sure about something you’re saying, either don’t say it
or at least admit that you’re not sure about it. Sometimes, we can get carried away with a conversation and
begin spewing out random things we’ve heard but don’t know to be true. Although this may seem harmless,
regularly offering inaccurate information not only leads people to believe things that aren’t true, it discredits
you as a valuable source of information, and sharing information is what communicating is all about.

3. Be specific

Good communicators cut to the chase and understand the value of brevity. You may love to talk, but that
doesn’t mean others want to hear it. If you have something to say, say it. Ambiguity and superfluous words
are likely to bore people and discredit you, causing your message to get lost in a cloud of noise. Good
communicators always respect people’s time and choose simple, straightforward words.

4. Ask questions

Whether the conversation is with one person or many, good communicators always ask questions. Most
importantly, they question their audience to confirm that their point has been understood.

Of course, it can get irritating if someone continually asks us “Do you know what I mean?” or “Get what I’m
saying?” Such questions may come off as condescending, but there are friendlier, more subtle ways to ask
for confirmation. Instead of putting the focus on your audience’s ability to understand, put the focus on
yourself by asking “Am I explaining this well?” This invites the other person to ask for clarification without
feeling incompetent.

5. Ask for clarification

While it’s necessary to make sure others understand your own points, good communication also requires
you to understand their points. The same way you think the information you share is important, your
conversation partner likely believes the same and would love for you to truly comprehend what they’re
saying. Furthermore, understanding their message is vital to responding appropriately.

Many people are afraid to ask for clarification for fear of offending the other person, but that fear is
unneeded. Everyone comes from a different background, so everyone associates different words, phrases,
and even body language with different meanings. If you aren’t sure what someone means, ask for
clarification! Simply asking “What do you mean?” is not only a good way to understand better, it’s also a
great vehicle for moving conversations forward.

6. Listen

A big part of communicating well is responding appropriately to what someone else communicates. This
requires knowing how to actively listen and making every effort to understand what they’re telling you. If
you don’t listen and then respond inappropriately, that can make people feel unimportant and literally
unheard. In addition to responding appropriately, attentive listening makes the exchange enjoyable for your
conversation partner.
MCQ The link below has a multiple choice quiz on Methods of Communication and Techniques to
No. 1
improve Communication.
http://www.purposegames.com/games?u=316082&so=mp

MCQ The link below has a multiple choice quiz on the Communication Process, Barriers and Channels
No. 2
of Communication.
http://www.purposegames.com/game/communicate-much-game

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