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ies Checker: ensures that every group * To view this file, you'll need a copy of
Seed Discussion member has a chance to talk about Acrobat Reader. Most computers
Background his/her seed and that each group already have it installed. If yours does
A Seed Discussion is a two-part strategy member comments on each seed before not, you can download it now.
used to teach students how to engage in the next person presents a new seed for References
discussions about assigned readings. In discussion Just Read Now (n.d.). Seed Discussions.
the first part, students read selected Communicator: the only person to leave Retrieved 2008, March 5, from
text and identify "seeds" or key the group; notifies the teacher when http://www.justreadnow.com/strategie
concepts of a passage which may need the discussion is complete s/frayer.htm
additional explanation. In the second Note: Give each student a card Puckett, D. (ed.). (n.d.). A to Z Literacy
part, students work in small groups to containing a description of their role Strategies: 70 Best Practice Strategies
present their "seeds" to one another. (see example below). for Teaching Reading and Writing Across
Each "seed" should be thoroughly Teachers begin by providing each Middle Grades Content Areas. Retrieved
discussed before moving on to the next. student with the reading material and a 2008, March 5, from
Benefits set of questions about the assigned http://nms.pulaski.net/teacher_pages/a
Seed Discussions can be developed for a reading. These questions will guide _to_z_literacy_strategies.htm
variety of subjects and reading levels. students as they target possible "seeds" ADVERTISEMENT
This strategy encourages students to for discussion. Examples of such
have in-depth discussions of reading questions might include: Get our newsletter!
selections. Seed Discussions rely upon What new information does the reading enter email ad
the use of higher order thinking as selection provide?
students identify and articulate the What did you find interesting or
"seeds." This technique helps to build surprising about the selection?
communication skills as thelassroom What did you not understand in the
Strategies selection?
Seed Discussion The next step is to provide students
Background with an opportunity to write and refine
A Seed Discussion is a two-part strategy their target "seeds."
used to teach students how to engage in Students meet in their groups and
discussions about assigned readings. In assume their assigned roles. Students
the first part, students read selected begin the discussion by presenting their ADVERTISEMENT
text and identify "seeds" or key "seeds" to one another. Each "seed"
concepts of a passage which may need should be discussed by all group Our Fans Speak Up
additional explanation. In the second members before moving on to the next. "Keep up the high quality and highly
part, students work in small groups to Teachers should ask students to informative articles. Thanks!"
present their "seeds" to one another. determine the strongest and weakest - Suzanne N.
Each "seed" should be thoroughly "seeds." This discussion should include Support AdLit.org
discussed before moving on to the next. criteria for deciding upon quality "seed" Help us support the teachers of
Benefits ideas. Students can then use those struggling readers. Make a tax-
Seed Discussions can be developed for a criteria when developing "seeds" for deductible donation today.
variety of subjects and reading levels. their next discussion.
This strategy encourages students to Sample Seed Discussion Cards
have in-depth discussions of reading Community
selections. Seed Discussions rely upon Featured Sister Site
the use of higher order thinking as
students identify and articulate the
The world's leading website on learning
"seeds." This technique helps to build
disabilities and ADHD.
communication skills as the students
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discuss the "seeds" within the group.
Create and use the strategy
Introduce students to the seed
discussion strategy. Each student should
be assigned to a group composed of
varying skill levels and a role within the
group. Seed Discussions usually include
the following four roles played by
students:
Leader: responsible for calling on each
person to share his/her discussion seeds
The following link contains another
Manager: ensures that everyone has all
example of a Seed Discussion:
materials for the discussion (books,
http://nms.pulaski.net/teacher_pages/a
journals, seeds, etc.)
_to_z_literacy_strategies.htm
group. Seed Discussions usually include for discussion. Examples of such
the following four roles played by questions might include:
students: What new information does the reading
Leader: responsible for calling on each selection provide?
person to share his/her discussion seeds What did you find interesting or
Manager: ensures that everyone has all surprising about the selection?
materials for the discussion (books, What did you not understand in the
journals, seeds, etc.) selection?
Checker: ensures that every group The next step is to provide students
member has a chance to talk about with an opportunity to write and refine
his/her seed and that each group their target "seeds."
member comments on each seed before Students meet in their groups and
the next person presents a new seed for assume their assigned roles. Students
discussion begin the discussion by presenting their
Communicator: the only person to leave "seeds" to one another. Each "seed"
the group; notifies the teacher when should be discussed by all group
the discussion is complete members before moving on to the next.
Note: Give each student a card Teachers should ask students to
containing a description of their role determine the strongest and weakest
students discuss the "seeds" within the (see example below). "seeds." This discussion should include
group. Teachers begin by providing each criteria for deciding upon quality "seed"
Create and use the strategy student with the reading material and a ideas. Students can then use those
Introduce students to the seed set of questions about the assigned criteria when developing "seeds" for
discussion strategy. Each student should reading. These questions will guide their next discussion
be assigned to a group composed of students as they target possible "seeds"
varying skill levels and a role within the
.
Sample Seed Discussion Cards
Adequate Yearly Progress, Small Learning Communities, Explicit Instruction — do you know what these
phrases mean? Find these and other commonly used terms related to reading, literacy, and reading
instruction in our glossary.
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Academic English
The English language ability required for academic achievement in context-reduced situations, such as
classroom lectures and textbook reading assignments. This is sometimes referred to as
Cognitive/Academic Language Proficiency (CALP).
Accommodation
Techniques, tools, technology, and materials that allow individuals with LD to complete school or work
tasks with greater ease and effectiveness. Examples include spellcheckers, tape recorders, and extended
time for completing assignments and tests.
Accuracy
The ability to recognize words correctly when reading.
Adequate Yearly Progress (AYP)
An individual state's measure of yearly progress toward achieving state academic standards. Adequate
Yearly Progress is the minimum level of improvement that states, school districts and public schools must
achieve each year according to the No Child Left Behind Act.
Affix
The part of a word that is "fixed to" either the beginning of the word (prefix) or the ending of the word
(suffix). For example, the word disrespectful has two affixes, a prefix (dis-) and a suffix (-ful).
Age Equivalent Score
In a norm-referenced assessment, individual students' scores are reported relative to those of the norming
population. This can be done in a variety of ways, but one way is to report the average age of people who
received the same score as the individual child. Thus, an individual child's score is described as being the
same as students that are younger, the same age, or older than that student (e.g., a nine-year-old student
my receive the same score that an average 13-year-old student does, suggesting that this student is quite
advanced).
Alphabetic Principle
The basic idea that written language is a code in which letters represent the sounds in spoken words.
Analogical Problem Solving
A problem solving approach that involves remembering a similar (or analogous) problem that was solved
previously and applying the solution to the current problem.
Assessment
The process of identifying a student’s knowledge, strengths and needs to assist in determining student
placement, instructional delivery, and need for interventions. There are several types of assessments that
serve different purposes; to learn more see formal assessment, formative assessment, placement
assessment, portfolio assessment, and summative assessment.
Assistive Technology
A device, piece of equipment or system that helps bypass, work around or compensate for an individual's
specific learning disabilities.
Attention-Deficit / Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)
A neurobehavioral disorder that causes an individual to be inattentive or hperactive/impulsive, or to
display a combination of those symptoms.
Auditory Discrimination
The ability to identify the differences between spoken words and sounds that are similar.
Auditory Processing
The ability to understand spoken language.
Authentic Assessment
Authentic assessment presents students with real-world challenges that require them to apply their
relevant skills and knowledge. Authentic assessments are typically criterion-referenced rather than norm-
referenced; such evaluation identifies strengths and weaknesses, but does not compare or rank students.
Students are asked to demonstrate their knowledge, skills, or competencies in whatever way they find
appropriate.
Automaticity
Automaticity is a general term that refers to any skilled and complex skill that can be performed
automatically and with little attention, effort, or conscious awareness. With practice and good instruction,
students become automatic at word recognition and decoding, and are able to focus attention on
constructing meaning from the text.
Background Knowledge
Factual knowledge a student already understands and can build upon when exposed to new content and
concepts.
Base Words
Words from which many other words are formed. For example, many words can be formed from the base
word migrate: migration, migrant, immigration, immigrant, migrating, migratory.
Bilingual Education
An educational program in which two languages are used to provide content matter instruction. Bilingual
education programs vary in their length of time, and in the amount each language is used.
Blend
A consonant sequence before or after a vowel within a syllable, such as cl, br, or st; it is the written
language equivalent of consonant cluster.
Cloze Passage
A cloze passage is a reading comprehension exercise in which words have been omitted in a systematic
fashion. Students fill in the blanks, and their responses are counted correct if they are exact matches for
the missing words. Cloze exercises assess comprehension and background knowledge, and they are also
excellent indicators of whether the reading level and language level of the text are appropriate for a given
student.
Cognates
Words in different languages related to the same root, e.g. education (English) and educación (Spanish).
Comprehension
Understanding the meaning of text by reading actively and with purpose (for learning, understanding, or
enjoyment).
Comprehension Strategies
Techniques to teach reading comprehension, including summarization, prediction, and inferring word
meanings from context.
Comprehension Strategy Instruction
The explicit teaching of techniques that are particularly effective for comprehending text. The steps of
explicit instruction include direct explanation, teacher modeling ("think aloud"), guided practice,
and application.
Direct Explanation - the teacher explains to students why the strategy helps comprehension and
when to apply the strategy.
Modeling - the teacher models, or demonstrates, how to apply the strategy, usually by "thinking
aloud" while reading the text that the students are using.
Guided Practice - the teacher guides and assists students as they learn how and when to apply
the strategy.
Application - the teacher helps students practice the strategy until they can apply it
independently.
Connected Instruction
A systematic teaching method in which the teacher continually explains to students the relationship
between what they have learned, what they're in the process of learning, and what they will learn in the
future.
Constructing Meaning
A process of making sense of text. By connecting one's own knowledge with the print, readers "build" an
understanding of what the text is about.
Content-Area Literacy
(Also called Discipline-Area Literacy.) The advanced literacy skills required to master academic content
areas, particularly the areas of math, science, English, and history. Content-area literacy is necessary for
success at the secondary level and requires knowledge and understanding of the language, terminology,
structure, and patterns of specific academic subject areas
Context Clues
Sources of information outside of words that readers may use to predict the identities and meanings of
unknown words. Context clues may be drawn from the immediate sentence containing the word, from text
already read, from pictures accompanying the text, or from definitions, restatements, examples, or
descriptions in the text.
Continuous Assessment
An element of responsive instruction in which the teacher regularly monitors student performance to
determine how closely it matches the instructional goal.
Cooperative Learning
A teaching model involving students working together as partners or in small groups on clearly defined
tasks. It has been used successfully to teach comprehension strategies in content-area subjects.
Critical Literacy
An instructional approach that advocates the adoption of critical perspectives toward text. Critical literacy
encourages readers to actively and flexibly analyze texts, and to discuss various interpretations and
meanings.
Curriculum-based Assessment
A type of informal assessment in which the procedures directly assess student performance in learning-
targeted content in order to make decisions about how to better address a student's instructional needs.
Decoding
The ability to translate a word from print to speech, usually by employing knowledge of sound-symbol
correspondences. It is also the act of deciphering a new word by sounding it out.
Developmental Spelling
A recognition that the invented spellings of children follow a developmental pattern. As students learn
about written words, their attempts at spelling reflect an increased awareness of orthographic patterns.
Differentiated Instruction
An approach to teaching that includes planning out and executing various approaches to content, process,
and product. Differentiated instruction is used to meet the needs of student differences in readiness,
interests, and learning needs.
Digital Literacy
The ability to learn and use the computer skills required to function in the workplace and in educational
settings. Many researchers believe it will become increasingly necessary to be digitally literate to succeed
in an Internet-connected economy.
Direct Instruction
A teaching method that features highly scripted lessons and repetitive, interactive activities that teachers
present to groups of students. The method is designed to increase student skills through carefully
sequenced curriculum.
Direct Vocabulary Learning
Explicit instruction in both the meanings of individual words and word-learning strategies. Direct
vocabulary instruction aids reading comprehension.
Discipline-Area Literacy
(Also called Content-Area Literacy) - The advanced literacy skills required to master academic content
areas, particularly the areas of math, science, English, and history. Content-area literacy is necessary for
success at the secondary level and requires knowledge and understanding of the language, terminology,
structure, and patterns of specific academic subject areas.
Double-Entry Journals
Also called two-column notes. With this strategy, a student writes two kinds of notes in two columns or on
facing pages. On the left are the key ideas in the assigned reading selection, with the page on which they
occur, either directly quoted or paraphrased; on the right, the student writes his thoughts about those
ideas. Double-entry journals can be completed on paper or using word processing or other software.
Dysgraphia
Difficulty writing legibly and with age-appropriate speed.
Dyslexia
A language-based learning disability that affects both oral and written language. It may also be referred to
as reading disability, reading difference, or reading disorder. Dyslexia can also cause difficulty with
writing, spelling, listening, speaking, and math.
Dysnomia
Difficulty remembering names or recalling specific words; sometimes called a “word-retrieval” problem.
English as a Second Language (ESL)
English learned in an environment where it is the predominant language of communication.
English Language Learner (ELL)
A student whose first language is not English and who are in the process of learning English.
Explicit Instruction
The intentional design and delivery of information by the teacher to the students. It begins with the
teacher's modeling or demonstration of the skill or strategy; a structured and substantial opportunity for
students to practice and apply newly taught skills and knowledge under the teacher's direction and
guidance; an opportunity for feedback; and an opportunity for independent practice.
Expository Reading
Text that explains, informs, describes, or persuades the reader. Textbooks are an example of expository
reading. Students must understand how expository reading is constructed if they are to extract its
meaning accurately.
Expressive Language
The aspect of spoken langauge that includes speaking and the aspect of written language that includes
composing or writing.
Fluency
The ability to read a text accurately, quickly, and with proper expression and comprehension. Because
fluent readers do not have to concentrate on decoding words, they can focus their attention on what the
text means.
Formal Assessment
The process of gathering information using standardized, published tests or instruments in conjunction
with specific administration and interpretation procedures, and used to make general instructional
decisions.
Free-writes
A writing exercise used for brainstorming and to develop writing fluency. Students write non-stop for five
to ten minutes, expressing their ideas go without concern for revision, editing, or controlling the words.
Frustrational Reading Level
The level at which a readers reads at less than a 90% accuracy.
Grade Equivalent Scores
In a norm-referenced assessment, individual students' scores are reported relative to those of the norming
population. This can be done in a variety of ways, but one way is to report the average grade level of
students who received the same score as the individual child. Thus, an individual child's score is described
as being the same as students in higher, the same, or lower grades than that student For example, a
student in 2nd grade may earn the same score that an average fourth grade student does, suggesting that
this student is quite advanced.
Grapheme
A letter or letter combination that spells a single phoneme. In English, a grapheme may be one, two, three,
or four letters, such as e, ei, igh, or eigh.
Graphic Organizer
A text, diagram or other pictorial device that summarizes, organizes, and illustrates interrelationships
among concepts in a text. Graphic organizers are often known as maps, webs, graphs, charts, frames, or
clusters.
High-Stakes Assessment
High stakes assessments determine important outcomes (such as graduating from high schoo) for an
individual student. High stakes tests differ from tests given by schools to meet the requirements under No
Child Left Behind. Those tests hold states and districts accountable for porr student performane, but do
not require statea to impose personal accountability on students.
Independent Reading Level
The level at which a reader reads with about 95% accuracy.
Independent School District (ISD)
ISD is a common acronym for Independent School District, which refers to the school system the student
attends.
Indirect Vocabulary Learning
Vocabulary learning that occurs when students hear or see words used in many different contexts – for
example, through conversations with adults, being read to, and reading extensively on their own.
Individualized Education Program (IEP)
A written plan which documents the unique educational needs of a child with a disability who requires
special education services to benefit from the general edcuation program; applies to students enrolled in
public schools.
Individuals with Disabilities Education Act of 2004 (IDEA 2004)
The federal law that provides for special education and related services to eligible students with
disabilities; applies to students enrolled in public schools.
Informal Assessment
The process of collecting information to make specific instructional decisions, using procedures largely
designed by teachers and based on the current instructional situation.
Inquiry Chart
A type of graphic organizer (also called I-chart) that gives students a framework for examining critical
questions by integrating what they already know about a topic with additional information from several
sources. This strategy helps students resolve competing ideas found in separate sources and develop new
questions to explore based on any conflicting or incomplete information they find.
Instructional Reading Level
The level at which a reader reads with about 90% accuracy.
Jigsaw
A cooperative classroom learning strategy in which each member of a group leaves her home-base group
to join another group with an expert in some other aspect of a topic.
Learning Disability (LD)
A neurobiological disorder that affects the way a person of average to above-average intelligence receives,
processes, or expresses information. LD can impact one's ability to learn the basic skills of reading,
writing, or math.
Limited English Proficient (LEP)
The term used by the federal government, most states, and local school districts to identify students who
have insufficient English language skills to succeed in English-only classrooms. Increasingly, English
language learner (ELL) or English learner (EL) are used in place of LEP.
Listening Comprehension
Understanding speech. Listening comprehension, as with reading comprehension, can be described in
"levels" – lower levels of listening comprehension would include understanding only the facts explicitly
stated in a spoken passage that has very simple syntax and uncomplicated vocabulary. Advanced levels of
listening comprehension would include implicit understanding and drawing inferences from spoken
passages that feature more complicated syntax and more advanced vocabulary.
Literacy
Reading, writing, and the creative and analytical acts involved in producing and comprehending texts.
Literacy Coach
A reading coach or a literacy coach is a reading specialist who focuses on providing professional
development for teachers by providing them with the additional support needed to implement various
instructional programs and practices. They provide essential leadership for the school’s entire literacy
program by helping create and supervise a long-term staff development process that supports both the
development and implementation of the literacy program over months and years.
For more information visit the University of Kansas Center for Research on Learning website.
Striving Readers Act
Striving Readers is aimed at improving the reading skills of middle school- and high school-aged students
who are reading below grade level. Striving Readers supports the implementation and evaluation of
research-based reading interventions for struggling readers in Title I eligible schools that are at risk of not
meeting — or are not meeting — adequate yearly progress (AYP) requirements under the No Child Left
Behind Act, or that have significant percentages or number of students reading below grade level, or
both.
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Natalie Wexler
Senior Contributor
There’s been a lot of concern about phonics instruction in recent months, sparked by an
illuminating new audio documentary. But there’s another aspect of reading—comprehension—
that is equally crucial, and teacher training in that area is even more problematic.
But there’s been little discussion of the even more widespread problems with training in
comprehension instruction. True, compared to phonics, teacher-education programs are more
likely to say they cover reading comprehension. But what prospective teachers learnabout
comprehension in those courses is dangerously inaccurate.
GETTY
One reason is the influential 2001 report of the National Reading Panel. The report endorsed five
“pillars” of reading instruction, including phonics, phonemic awareness, fluency, and
vocabulary. The fifth pillar was instruction in strategies designed to boost comprehension, such
as learning to summarize or make a graphic representation of a text. While many
educators challenged the report’s findings on phonics, they embraced its endorsement of
comprehension strategies. In 2006, only 15% of teacher-training programs taught
comprehension. Ten years later that figure had risento 75%. In contrast, only 62% said they
covered phonics, and only 37%appear to cover all five "pillars."
What the report failed to mention was the strong evidence showing that the most important factor
in comprehension isn’t mastering strategies: it’s how much knowledge a reader has of the topic.
In one widely replicated experiment, students who scored poorly on a reading test but knew a lot
about baseball outperformed “good readers” who knew little about baseball—when the reading
passage was about baseball. In fact, the comprehension strategies endorsed by the panel all rely
on activating prior knowledge—which means they only work if a reader has enough background
knowledge to understand the text in the first place. But that’s one of many things prospective
teachers never learn.
In a typical comprehension lesson, a teacher focuses on a supposed skill or strategy, like making
inferences or determining an author’s purpose. But most of the things teachers spend hours on
every week were never endorsed by the National Reading Panel and have little or no data behind
them. As reading expert Tim Shanahan has observed, teaching such “skills” is like pushing the
elevator button twice: it might make you feel better, but it won’t make the elevator come any
faster.
Even when teachers focus on a strategy that is backed by evidence, they don’t implement it in the
way supported by research. Rather than putting a difficult text in the foreground and modeling
whatever strategies might help students extract its meaning, teachers put a strategy in the
foreground and choose simple texts that lend themselves to demonstrating it, without regard to
their topics. And they teach comprehension day after day, year after year—sometimes through
high school. But studies have shown that after only two weeksof strategy instruction, students
stop getting benefits.
After the teacher explains a comprehension “skill,” students go off to practice it on books at their
supposed individual reading levels—easy enough for them to read on their own or with minimal
help. But there’s no evidence that this system of leveled reading boosts comprehension, and
studies have found that kids can learn more from a text above their supposed level—if a teacher
helps them understand it. Plus, leveled reading does little to build knowledge, a process that
generally requires staying on the same topic for at least a couple of weeks. As with the texts
teachers use to model “skills,” the books children use to practice them aren’t organized by topic.
Another pervasive and dangerous misconception is the belief that students need to learn to read
before they can “read to learn”—that is, before they can start acquiring knowledge of the world,
through their own reading. As a result of this assumption, the elementary curriculum has long
been heavily weighted toward reading. That has become even more true in recent decades, due to
the advent of high-stakes testing in reading and math. Especially in schools where test scores are
low, subjects like history, science, and the arts have been squeezed out of the curriculum,
sometimes through middle school.
But the idea that kids don't need to acquire knowledge until after they’ve learned to read ignores
the fact that gaining knowledge is partof learning to read—or learning to understand what you
read. Even while they’re learning to decode, children need to listen to adults reading aloud from
sophisticated, knowledge-rich text. Otherwise, they’ll lack the knowledge and vocabulary that
will equip them to understand that kind of text once they’re able to decode it themselves. As any
parent knows, children can take in far more sophisticated concepts and language through
listening than through their own reading. That remains true, on average, through middle school.
And the longer we wait to start building kids’ knowledge, the harder it becomes to close
gaps between those lucky enough to acquire knowledge outside school and their less fortunate
peers.
In most places, the advent of the Common Core State Standards has only made things worse.
Previously, elementary students got a steady diet of fiction. In an effort to build knowledge, the
standards have called for at least 50% of their reading to be nonfiction. Most teachers, however,
have continued to focus on skills, adding new “nonfiction skills” like identifying different “text
structures.” But nonfiction assumes more background knowledge than fiction. It’s one thing to
make an inference about a fictional character’s thoughts, based on your knowledge of human
nature. It’s quite another to make an inference about, say, Brazil if you’ve never even heard of
the place.
Still, there are signs things are changing. Just a few years ago, there were no elementary literacy
curricula designed to build students’ knowledge. Now there are several—and two large urban
districts, Baltimore and Detroit, have each started implementing one, while the state of
Louisiana has been encouraging their adoption.
Ideally, prospective teachers will start getting accurate information about reading comprehension
during their training. But that may not happen anytime soon. Education schools have historically
been disconnected from scientific research on the learning process; their lack of interest in or
familiarity with phonics is only one example. The good news is that even once they’re on the
job, teachers can learn how to provide students not only with the skills they need to decode
words but also with the knowledge that can unlock their meaning.
Natalie Wexler
Senior Contributor
Natalie Wexler is the author of "The Knowledge Gap: The Hidden Cause of America's Broken
Education System—and How to Fix It," forthcoming from Avery in August 2019. She
...
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As the powerful storm system advances, UNICEF has prepositioned emergency supplies and is
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People evacuated for safety rest in a temporary cyclone relief shelter in Puri in the eastern
Indian state of Odisha on May 3, 2019, as Cyclone Fani approaches the Indian coastline.
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Tropical Cyclone Fani made landfall Friday morning, May 3, near Puri, India, lashing beaches
with rain and wind gusting up to 127 mph. As the powerful weather system advances, bringing
storm surges and flooding, tens of millions of people living in large sections of
coastal India and Bangladesh are in harm's way.
UNICEF is supporting the government and partner NGOs to ensure that coastal radio stations are
broadcasting lifesaving messages and warnings. Emergency supplies have been prepositioned to
meet humanitarian needs of up to 100,000 people in the areas of water, sanitation and hygiene;
nutrition; child protection and education. Field-based staff are ready to be deployed to affected
areas to support emergency programs for affected children and families.
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Sarah Ferguson is a writer and critic whose work has appeared in The Guardian, Elle, Vogue,
New York Magazine, Mother Jones and The New York Times Book Review, among oth...
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