UNESCO-NIGERIA TECHNICAL &

VOCATIONAL EDUCATION
REVITALISATION PROJECT-PHASE II

NATIONAL DIPLOMA IN
CIVIL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGY

HYDRAULICS AND HYDROLOGY

COURSE CODE: CEC 201

YEAR II- SE MESTER 1

THEORY/

Version 1: December 2008

1
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
WEEK 1
1.0 The importance of uniform flow in open channel 1
1.1 Mean flow velocity in uniform flow 1
1.2 Shear 5
1.3 Darcy – Weisbach’s equation 6
WEEK 2
1.4 Chezy’s and Manning’s equations 7
1.5 Factors affecting velocity distribution 19
WEEK 3
2.0 The importance of non-uniform flow in open channel 20
2.1 Application of energy Equation 22
2.2 Application of Momentum Equation 26
2.3 Specific energy 32
2.4 Equation for critical depth 32
WEEK 4
2.5 Physical concept of hydraulic jump and its location 34
2.6 Energy dissipation, weirs and venturimeters 36
WEEK 5
2.7 Concept of flow over spillways 39
WEEK 6
3.0 The importance of unsteady flow 49
3.1 Application of unsteady flow equations in channels, rivers,
backwater cones and similitude 49
WEEK 7
3.2 Application of dimensional Analysis in solving basic hydraulic
Problems 53

WEEK 8
4.0 Types of instruments for measuring precipitation 56
4.1 Use of non-recording gauges 56
4.2 Use of recording gauge 57
4.3 Advantages and disadvantages gauges 59
WEEK 9
5.0 The method of determining average precipitation over an
2
 area using precipitation data 61
5.1 Description of the following methods 61
a. Arithmetic mean method
b. Thiessen method
c. Isohyetal method
WEEK 10
5.2 Compute the average precipitation using the method in 5.1 above 65
WEEK 11
6.0 Measurement of Precipitation 68
6.1 Precipitation Data and analysis 68
6.2 Runoff 68
6.3 Rainfall analysis 70
a. Intensity of precipitation
b. Duration of precipitation
c. frequency of precipitation
d. Area extent of precipitation
6.4 Duration Curves 71
a. Intensity – duration curve
b. Intensity – duration-frequency curve
c. Depth – area – duration curve
WEEK 12
6.5 Method of estimating missing precipitation record 72
WEEK 13
7.0 Concept of evaporation and the factors affecting it. 78
7.1 Process of Evaporation 78

7.2 Factors affecting evaporation 79

a. Radiation
b. Wind
c. Temperature
d. Humidity
7.3 Measures to reduce Evaporation 80
7.4 Factors affecting Runoff 80

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 WEEK 14
7.5 The different methods of estimating evaporation 82
7.6 Transpiration 88
7.7 Evapotranspiration 86
a. Water budget determination of reservoir evaporation
b. Energy budget determination of reservoir evaporation
c. Direct measurement of evaporation by pan.
8.0 Nature of Evaporation Surfaces 89
8.1 Determination/Measurement of Evaporation 89

WEEK 15

9.0 Evaporation and Transppiration

4
 WEEK ONE

1.1 MEAN FLOW VELOCITY IN UNIFORM FLOW

Uniform type of flow in established when in a channel that is sufficiently long
has constant slope, cross section, roughness and discharge. A flow is uniform if the
parameters describing the flow are constant with distance along the path of the flow.

Velocity is the distance of the flow per unit time.

The mean velocity of flow may be measure by the following methods.

Pitot tube

Floats

Current meter

PITOT TUBE: Consists of a glass tube bent at right angle. This is dipped vertically
in flowing stream with its lower open and facing the direction of flow and upper open
end projecting above the water surface.

Fig. 1.1 Pitot tube

The mean velocity in calculated by.
V = 2gh
Where
h= height of water in the tube above
g= acceleration due to gravity

FLOATS: A float is a small object made of wood or other material which is lighter
than water and thus capable of floating on the surface. The time taken by the float to
travel a known distance is measured; the surface velocity in then calculated by
dividing the distance by the time taken to travel that distance. since the mean velocity
of flow is equal to 0.8 to 0.95 times the surface velocity, the approximate mean.
Velocity can be determined with the known surface velocity.

5

DOUBLE FLOATS: Is a better method it consists of a surface float on which is
attached a hollow metal sphere, heavier than water, and suspended from it by a cord
of known length. The mean velocity is then obtained by noting the time taken by the
float to transverse a known distance, as D/T
D = Distance and T=Time. This gives direct value of mean velocity.
Surface float

Surface
float

Hollow metal
sphere

Fig 1.2 Double float

ROD FLOAT: Is the best type of float and consists of a vertical wooden rod which is
weighed at the bottom to keep it vertical. The length of the rod is so adjusted that it
reaches the bottom of the stream (without touching the needs, sand or mud) and its top
should be above the surface. The rod will travel with a velocity equal to the man
velocity of the section.
Rod

weight

CURRENT METER: Fig. 1.3 Rod Float A current meter is an

instrument used to measure the velocity
of flow at a required point in a flowing stream. It consists of a wheel or revolving
element containing blades or cups, and a tail on which flat vanes or fins are fixed.
They are classified according to the shape of the revolving element as follows:
 Cup type
 Screw type or propeller type

6
In the cup type meter shown below, the wheel or revolving element has the form of a
series of conical cups, mounted on a spindle. The spindle is held vertical at right angle to the
direction of flow.

Electric
Cable

Tail Piece

Flow

Conical cups

Balancing weight

Fig. 1.4 Cup Type Current Meter

7
In a screw or propeller type current meter the revolving element consists of a shaft, with
its axis parallel to the direction of flow, which carries a number of curved vanes (or propeller
blades) mounted on the periphery of the shaft. This type of meter is more sensitive than cup
type because it gives higher r.p.m for the same velocity of flow.

Fig. 1.5 Screw or Propeller type current meter

 In order to measure the velocity of flow, the meter is submerged under water and the
motion of water in the stream activates it, driving the wheel (or rotatory elements) at a speed
proportional to the velocity of flow. An electric current in passed from the battery to the
wheel by means of wire. The rotation of the wheel makes and breaks the electric circuit,
which causes an electric belt to ring. Thus by counting the ringing of bell, the rotation of the
wheel and hence the velocity of flowing water is obtained.

1.2 SHEAR
When fluid flow in a medium it exhibits element of shear along its path. Shear are
forces acting on the surface of fluid and medium causing parts of the object to slide in
relation to each other e.g. the fluid and pipe/channel surface.
There is no shear force in a fluid at rest but it is in motion, shear forces can be set up
due to viscosity and turbulence which oppose motion, producing frictional effect.

1.3 DARCY – WEISBACH EQUATION

Darcy, weisbach and others proposed, on the basis of experiment the energy loss
resulting from friction.

8
From chezy:
V = C RS. Or V2 = C2 RS0

For uniform flow, S0 = Bed slope = hf

L

Where, hf = the loss of head

L = Length of channel

Velocity head = V2 = C2 R S0
2g 2g

V2 = C2 R hf
2g 2g L

hf = 2g L V2
C2 R 2g

Putting f = 2g
C2

hf = FL V2
R 2g

Which is Darcy- Weisbach equation for the head loss in pipelines.

If d = pipe diameter.

R=A = ¼ λd2 =¼d

P Λd

:. hf = fL V2
d 2g

Where,
F = friction factor
L = pipe length
d = Internal diameter
2
v /2g= Velocity head

9
 It can be shown from dimensional analysis, that f depends upon the Reynolds
number Re and another dimensionless parameter e/d, called relative roughness, where
e is the height of surface roughness on the wall of the pipe and depends on pipe
material.
The dependence of f on Re and e/d is different in laminar and turbulent flow
regimes. In laminar flow, f is dependent only Re and calculated as.
f = 64 where, Rc = pvd
Re µ
subt. 
hf = 32µ LV
pgd2

Example 1
Polymeric coagulant, undiluted, has an absolute viscosity of 0.48kg/m.s and a specific
gravity of 1.15. This fluid is to be pumped at a rate of 3.78 L/Min through 15.25m
pipe with 15.8mm internal diameter. What is the head loss due to friction.
Solution

V=Q = ____3.78 x 10-3

A 60 x λ(0.0158)2/4

= 0.321m/s
Re = ρvd = (1000)(1.15)(0.321)(0.0158)
µ 0.48
= 12.1
:. hf = 32 µLV
ρ g d2

= 32(0.48)(15.25)(0.321)
1000 x 9.806(1.15)(0.0158)2

= 26.7m

Or

f = 64 = 64 = 5.29
Re 12.1

hf = L V2 = 5.29 x 15.25 (0.32)2

d 2g 0.0158 9.81X2

= 26.82m

Example 2
10
 A 90m long ductile iron pipe with neat cement linning carries a flow of 1.5 m3/S.
What is the friction loss in the pipe? If the internal diameter of the pipe is 0.63m.
Take friction factor, f as 0.0098.
Solution.
hf = f L V2
d 2g

f = 0.0098
L = 90m
D = 0.630m
g = 9.81

V = Q = 1.5
A π(0.63)2 = 4.81m/s
4
:.
hf = A x 0.0098 X 90 X 4.812
0.63 2x9.81

= 1.65m

11
 WEEK TWO

1.4.1 THE CHEZY EQUATION

V=C R S0

Where,
V = Velocity
C = Chezy coefficient
R = hydraulic radius = A/p
S0 = Bed slope
A = Area of flow
P = Wetted perimeter
DEFINITIONS OF TERMS IN OPEN CHANNELS
- DEPTH OF FLOW (Y)
It is the vertical distance of the lowest point of a channel section (bed of the channel)
from the free surface.
- TOP WIDTH (T)
This is the width of the channel section at the free surface (i.e. the width of the liquid
surface exposed to the atmospheric pressure).
- WETTED PERIMETER (P)
This is the length of the channel boundary in contact with the flowing water at any
section.
- WETTED AREA (A)
This is the cross-sectional area of the flow section of the channel.
- HYDRAULIC RADIUS (R)
This is the ratio of the cross sectional area of flow to wetted perimeter. It is also called
hydraulic mean depth, R = A/p
- HYDRAULIC DEPTH (D)
This is the ratio of the wetted area A to the top width T, D = A/T.
- OPEN CHANNEL
This is a channel without any cover at the top. E.g. irrigation canal, rivers, stream,
flumes, open (uncovered) channels etc.
Example 1
A rectangular open channel has a width B of 4.5 and a slope of 1 vertical to 800
horizontal. Find the mean velocity of flow V and the discharge Q when the depth D of
water is 1.2m, if C is the Chezy formula is 49 in SI Units.

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 Solution
The chezy formula is V = C RS0

Hydraulic radius, R= area of flow

Wetted perimeter

BD 1.2m
B + 2D
4.5m
= 4.5 x 1.2
4.5 + 2 (1.2)
= 0.783m

Mean chezy velocity, V = C R So

= 49 0.783 X 1/800

= 1.53m/s

Discharge, Q = Area x Velocity

= BD X Velocity
= 4.5 X 1.2 X 1.53
= 8.26m3/s

Example 2
The cross – section of an open channel is a trapezium with a bottom width B of 3.6m
and side. Slope of 1 vertical to 2 horizontal. Assuming that C in the Chezy formula is
49 SI units, what will be the discharge Q if the depth of water D is 1.2m and the slope,
So if the bed is 1 in 1600.

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 1.2m

3.6m

Solution
Area of cross-section, A = ½ (8.4 + 3.6) x 1.2
= 7.2m2

Wetter perimeter, P = B + 2 √ (D2 + 4D2)

Note: Slope length

1.22 + (2X1.2)2
= 2.68
:. P = 3.6 + 2 (2.68)
= 8.96m,
Or use:
P = B + 2 √ (D2 + 4D2)
Hydraulic Radius depth, R = A = 7.2
P 8.96

= 0.804m

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 Discharge, Q = AV = AC RS0

A = 5.7m2

C = 49
R = 0.762m
S0 = 1/1500

Q = 5.7 x 49 (0.762 x 1/1500)

= 6.295 m3/S

Example 3
An open channel is V – shaped, each side being inclined at 45o to the Vertical. If the
rate of flow Q is 0.0425m3/s when the depth of water at the centre is 225mm,
calculate the slope of the channel using the chezy formula, assuming that C is 49 in SI
units.

450 225mm

Solution: Using Chezy formula

Q = AV = A C RSo

Area of flow, A = (½ bh)2 = (½ D2)2

= ½ x 0.2252 x 2
= 0.0506m2
Wetted perimeter, P = 2 x D√ 2

Or P =2 0.2252 + 0.2252

= 0.636m

Hydraulic radius, R =A
P

= 0.0506
0.636

15
 = 0.796m

From,

Q = AV = A C R So

Q_ = R S0
AC

Q2_ = R S0
A2C2

:. Slope of the channel, S0 

S0 = Q2
A2 C2 R

= (0.0425)2
(0.0506)2 x (49)2 x 0.0796

= 0.00180625
0.00256036 x 2401 x 0.0796

S0 = 0.00369 or _1_
272

Example 4
. A channel has vertical walls 1.2m apart and a semicircular invert. If the centre-line
depth is 0.9m and the bed slope is 1 in 2500, what would be the value of C I the chezy
formula I the discharge is 0.55m3/s?

2m

0.9m
0.6m

Soln:
Area of X – Section, A = π x (0.6)2 + 1.2 X 0.3 = 0.926m2
2

Wetted perimeter, P = π x 0.6 + 2X0.3 = 2.48m

Hydraulic mean depth, R = A = 0.925

P 2.48 = 0.372m

Bed slope, So = _1 _ Q = 0.55m3/S

16
 2500

:. Q = AV = AC R S0

0.55 = 0.926C 0.372 x _1__

2500

:. C = 0.55
0.926 X 0.01219836
= 48.69 ≈ 49

1.4.2 THE MANNING EQUATION

In 1889, the Irish Engineer Robert Manning presented another formula (at a meeting
of the institution of Civil Engineers of Ireland) for the evaluation of the Chezy
coefficient, C which was later simplified to

C = R1/6
n

Substituting into the Chezy equation.

V=C R S0


V = R1/6 R S0
n

= R 1/6 R½ S0½
n

V = 1 R2/3 S0½
n

This is the manning equation where, n is a constant depending on surface roughness.

It is known as Manning’s n.

The equivalent for discharge is

Q = AV = A 1 A 2/3 S0½
n p 2/3

Q = 1 A5/3 S0½
n p2/3

17
TYPICAL VALUES OF N MANNINGS ARE GIVEN BELOW.

SURFACE OF CHANNEL N(MANNING’S CONSTANT)

Smooth cement plaster or planed wood 0.010
Very smooth Concrete and planed timber 0.011
Smooth Concrete 0.012
Glazed brickwork 0.013
Vitrified clay 0.014
Brick surface lined with cement mortar 0.015
Earth channels in best condition 0.017
Straight unlined earth channel in good condition 0.020
Rivers and earth channels in fair condition 0.025
Canal and river or rough surface with weeds 0.030

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TYPICAL VALUES OF MANNING’S N
CHANNEL TYPE SURFACE MATERIAL & ALIGNMENT N (S/M1/3)
River Earth, straight 0.02 – 0.025
earth, meandering 0.03 – 0.05
gravel (75.150mm), Straight 0.03 – 0.04
gravel (75-150mm), Minding or boarded 0.04 – 0.08
Unlined canals Earth, Straight 0.018 – 0.025
Rock, Straight 0.025 – 0.045
Lined canals Concrete 0.012 – 0.017
Models Mortar 0.011 – 0.013
Perspex 0.009.

Example 1
A canal has a bottom width B of 3m and sides with a slope of 1 vertical to 2
horizontal. The slope of the bed is 1 in 5000 and the depth of water D is 1.2m. Using
the manning formula with n=0.025, Calculate the rate of discharge in m3/S.

1.2m

3m

Soln.
Bottom width, B = 3.0m
Top width =B+2xDx2
= 3.0 + (2x1.2)2
= 7.8m
Cross-sectional area, A = ½ (3 +7.8) x 1.2
= 6.48m2
Method perimeter, P = B + 2√(2D)2 + D2)
= 3 + 2√(5x1.22)
= 3 + 5.37
= 8.37m

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 Or P = 3+ (2.42 + 1.22)2
= 3 + (2.68)2
= 8.37m
Hydraulic radius = R = A = 6.48
P 8.37

= 0.774m

Using Manning’s equation

V = _1_ R2/3 S0½

n

= __1 (0.774)2/3 __ ( 1 )½_

0.025 5000

= _1 0.843 x 0.0141
0.025

= 0.477m/s

Q = AV = 6.48 x 0.477

= 3.09 m3/s

20
Example 2

The normal depth of flow in a trapezoidal concrete lined channel is 2m. The channel
base width is 5m and has side slopes of 1:2. Manning’s n is 0.015 and the bed slope,
So is 0.001. Determine the discharge Q and mean velocity V.
Solution

2m

5m

A = (b + xy)y = (5+2y)y
= (5 +2x2)2
A = 18m2
P = b + 2y 1 + X2 =5+4 1+22
= 5 + 8.94
P = 13.94m
Discharge, Q

Q = 1_ A5/3 S0½
n P 2/3

= _1_ x (18) 5/3 x 0.0011/2

0.015 (13.94)2/3
= 123.629 x 0.0316
0.0869
Q = 45m3/s

Mean velocity, V

Q = VA

V = Q = __45
A (5+4)2

V = 2.5 m/s

1.5 FACTORS AFFECTING VELOCITY DISTRIBUTION

(1) Vapour Pressure: The activity of the molecules at the surface of a liquid
creates vapour pressure which is a measure of the rate at which the molecules

21
 leaves the surface. The vapour pressure of the liquid is equal to the partial
pressure of the molecules from the liquid which is in the gas above the
surface. The number of molecules leaving is equal to the number entering.
This is known as the saturation pressure. If the molecules that leaves the
surface are more, evaporation occurs, whereas if more molecules enter,
condensation occurs.
(2) Hydraulic Shape: The wet perimeter offers resistance to flow and passage for
hard conduits contributes to cohesion, it should be held to the minimum value
consistent with the condition. The degree to which the conduit conforms to
this cohesion is a measure of its hydraulic efficiency. For a specific amount of
sides a regular polygon or half polygon is better than an irregular one and the
greater the number of sides, the greater the hydraulic efficiency. A square
closed conduit is obviously hydraulically inefficient and it’s flat side are
structurally undesirable for either internal or external load.
(3) Viscosity: It’s a property of fluid which resists relative motion and
deformation in the fluid and causes internal shear. Therefore, viscosity is a
property exhibited only under dynamic condition of motion. It is due to the
cohesiveness of the molecules in liquids for active and repeated collisions of
the molecules upon each other in a gas.
(4) Density: The density of a fluid in the mass which it possesses permit volume
since a molecule has a definite mass regardless of its state (Solid, liquid or
gas). The density is proportional to the number of molecules in a unit volume
of the fluid. Air and water in a gaseous state have a molecular spacing greater
than that in liquid or sold states.

(5) Compressibility: The compressibility of a fluid is a measure of the change in

volume of the fluid when it is subjected to external forces. It’s compressed
quantitatively by means of its bulk modulus of elasticity.
(6) Surface Energy: This which is also termed surface tension of a liquid is
caused by cohesion and adhesion of molecular. Cohesion is the forces of
attraction between molecules of the same kind and cohesion causes the
spherical shape of water droplets.
(7) Allowance for Critical Flow: Flow in an open channel at or near the critical
depth, is in different equilibrium and slight boundary irregularities may
produce marked irregularities in flow. The relation of designed depth to

22
 critical depth should always be known and where a stable margin above or
below critical depth cannot be maintained by charging the shape of the
channel or other ample free board to care for possible disturbance should be
provided.
(8) Evaporation: In hot climates, evaporation may be a major consideration in an
open channel the larger the surface, the more the evaporation losses, all other
things being equal. Evaporation also contributes to the factor affecting
velocity distribution in an open channel.
(9) Reynolds Number: This is an important factor that affects velocity
distribution of a flow about a body and the relative effect of viscosity is the
Reynolds number expressed in the dimension from a ratio between inertia
forces and viscous forces on the particles. The effect of the Reynolds number
of flow about and resultant forces on a body depend on the body shape.
(10) Fluid Resistance: Resistance to the flow of fluids is usually referred to as
frictional resistance, although it has little relation to ordinary friction between
solids. A solid body sliding down an inclined plane in a vacuum will
accelerate indefinitely. In contrast, fluid resistance increases with velocity and
rapidly approach equality with the component of gravity parallel to the slope.
Consequently, for any set of conditions, there is a maximum velocity which
will not be exceeded however so long the canal may be Q = VA.

100

80
River
40

100

75
Trapezoidal
Channel
25

23
 Circular Pipe
100

80
40

Fig. 1.6 Velocity distribution in open channels (contour numbers are expressed
as percentage of the maximum velocity).

24
 WEEK THREE

2.1 APPLICATION OF THE ENERGY EQUATION

Bernoulli’s equation may be applied to a continuous flow system. The simplest

system might be a single pipeline with a frictionless fluid discharging through it for
such a system.
P1 + V12 + Z1 = P2 + V22 + Z2 = Constant
ρg 2g ρg 2g

where _p_ is pressure head

ρg
v2 is velocity head
ρg
Z is height from an arbitrary datum
Where subscripts 1 and 2 refer to two points along any streamline, hence the
Bernoulli’s energy equation in conjunction with the continuity equations may be used
to determine the variation of pressure and velocity along any streamline.

Example 1
For the frictionless siphon shown below, determine the discharge and the pressure
heads at A and B, given that the pipe diameter is 200mm and the nozzle exit diameter
is 150mm.
A

2.44m

1.22m

B
0.l5m
2

Solution

To find discharge between subscript 1 and 2

P1 + V12 + Z1 = P2 + V22 + Z2

25
ρg 2g ρg 2g

At both 1 and 2, the pressure is atmospheric (no pumps) :. P = 0 and at 1 velocity is

negligible
:. Z1 = V22 + Z2
2g

Z1 – Zz = V22
2g
From the figure

Z1 – Z2 = 1.22 + 0.15
= 1.37m
Then
1.37 = V22
2g

V2 = 1.37 x 2 x 9.81

V2 = 5.18 m/s

Applying continuity equation

Q = VA
= 5.18 x π x 0.152
4
Q = 0.092 m3/s

Pressure head at A; applying Bernoulli’s equation along streamline from 1 to A

PA + V22 + ZA
ρg 2g

as P1 = 0 and V1 = 0 then
PA = Z1 – ZA – VA2
ρg 2g

= -2.44 – VA2
2g

Q = VA AA

VA = 0.092 / π x 0.22
4
= 2.93 m/s

VA2 = 2.932
2g 2 x 9.81

26
 = 0.44m
∴ – 2.44 – 0.44 = – 2.88m

The pressure head at B

P1 + V12 + Z1 = PB + VB2 + ZB (P1, V1  0)

ρg 2g ρg 2g

PB = (Z1 – ZB) – VB2

ρg 2g

Z1 – ZB = 1.22m

VB = VA =1.22m

VB = VA = 2.93m/s

:.PB = (Z1 – ZB) – VB2 = 1.22 – 0.44

ρg

= 0.78m

2.1.1 MODIFICATION TO BERNOULLI’S EQUATION

In practice, the total energy of a streamline does not remain constant. Energy in lost
through friction, and external energy may be added by means of a pump or extracted
by a turbine.
Consider a streamline between two points 1 and 2. If the energy head lost through
friction in denoted by hf and the external energy head added (say by a pump) is E,
then Bernoulli’s equation may be rewritten as.

H1 + E = H2 + hf

Or

P1 + V12 + Z1 + E = P2 + V22 + Zz + hf
ρg 2g ρg 2g

Example 2:
A pump delivers water from lower to a higher reservoir. The difference in elevation
between the reservoirs is 10m. The pump provides an energy head of 11m and the
frictional head losses are 0.7m. If the pipe diameter is 300mm, calculate the
discharge.

27
 Solution:
H1 + E = H2 + hf
H1 + 11 = H2 + 0.7
Or
P1 + V12 + Z1 + 11 = P2 + V22 + Zz + 0.7
ρg 2g ρg 2g

Taking P1 = P2 = 0 and V1 = 0

:. Z1 + 11 = V22 + Z2 + 0.7
2g

V22 = (Z1 – Z2) + 11 – 0.7

2g

= -10 + 11 - 0.7

V2 2 = 0.3m
2g

V2 = 0.3 x 2 x 9.81

= 2.426m/s
Applying the continuity equation
Q = AV2

= (π x 0.32) x 2.426
4
Q = 0.171 m3/s

2.2 APPLICATION OF THE MOMENTUM EQUATION

The momentum equation may be used directly to evaluate the force causing a change
of momentum in a fluid. Such application include determining forces on pipe lends
and junctions, nozzles and hydraulic and machines.
In addition, the momentum equation is used to solve problems in which energy losses
occur that cannot be evaluated directly, or when the flow is unsteady. Examples of
such problems include local head losses in pipes, the hydraulic jump and unsteady
flow in pipes and channels.

28
2.2.1 Forces Exerted On Pipework
Whenever there is a change in geometry of direction, the fluid will exert a force on
the pipe work. Those forces may be considerable, and must be resisted in order that
the pipeline does not move. For underground pipes, the forces are normally resisted
by thrust blocks which transfer the force to the surrounding earth. For exposed pipe
work, the forces are transmitted by supports at the pipe joints to the nearest structural
member (e.g. a wall or beam).

Example 1: Force Exerted by a Fire hose

Calculate the force required to hold a fire hose for a discharge of 5 l/s if the nozzle has
an inlet diameter of 75mm and outlet diameter of 25mm.
FR

P0

V1P1 V2P0

P0

The nozzle is surrounded by a control volume. The forces acting in X – direction on the
control volume are:
- The pressure force, FP on the
- The reaction force, FR fluid
Their sum must equal the momentum force, Fm.

:. FM = FP + FR

and
FM = ρg (V2 –V1)

V1 = Q = 0.005/ (π x 0.0752)
A1 4

= 1.13m/s
and

V2 = Q = 0.005/ (π x 0.0252)
A2 4

= 10.19 m/s

The pressure forces, FP = P1A1 – P0 A2 – Po (A1 – A2).

29
 To find P1

P1 + V12 = Po + V22
ρg 2g ρg 2g

P1 = V22 – V12
ρg 2g

P1 = (V22 – V12)
2g

P1 = (V22 – V12) = ρ/2 (V22 – V12)

= 103 (10.12 – 1.132)
2

P1 = 51.28 KN/m2

Fp = P1 A1
= 51.28 x 103 x π x 0.0752
4
= 0.226KN
The momentum force, fm = ρQ (V2 – V1)
Fm = 103 x 0.005 (10.19 – 1.13)
= 0.0453KN
:. The reaction force, FR = Fm – FP
FR = 0.0453 – 0.226
= - 0.181KN
FR is the force exerted by the nozzle on the fluid. The fireman must provide a force of
equal magnitude but opposite direction.

2.2.2 Force on a Pipe Bend

Example 2: Calculate the magnitude and direction of the force exerted by the pipe
bend shown below if the diameter is 600mm, the discharge is 0.3m3/s and the
upstream pressure head is 30m.
V2P2 FR

y
V1P2
30
x
Soln.
Here, the force exerted is due to the change of direction and the X – and y -
components of the force must calculated separately.

Fmx = FPX + FRx

Fmy = Fpy + FRy
And
Fmx = ρQ (V2x – V1x)
Fmy = ρQ (V2y – Viy)
Since the pipe is of constant diameter
V2 = V1 = Q = 0.3/( π x 0.62)
A 4
= 1.06m/s
Neglecting energy loss
P2 = P1 = 30 ρg = 30 x 103 x 9.81
= 294399N = 294.3KN
Pressure forces, FP
FPX = P1 A1 – 0 = 294.3 x π x 0.62 – 0
4
= 83.21KN
and
Fpy = 0 – P2A2 = -83.21KN

Momentum forces, Fm
Fmx = ρQ (0-V1) = 103 x 0.3 (-1.06)
= -0.318KN
and
Fmy = ρQ (V2 – 0) = + 0.318KN
Reaction forces, FR
FRx = Fmx – FPx
= -0.318 – 83.21
= -83.528KN
and
FRy. = Fmy – FRx
= 0.318 – (-83.21)
31
 = 83.528KN
FR = FRx2 + FRY2 = 83.5282 + 83.5282
= 118.1KN
And
Ө = tan -1 (FRY/FRX) = 1 = 450 (from negative X – direction to positive y-direction).
2.2.3 Force on a T –Junction

Example 3: Calculate the magnitude and direction of the force exerted by the T-
junction shown below if the discharge are Q1 = 0.3m3/s, Q2 = 0.15m3/s, Q3 =
0.15m3/s, the diameter are D1 = 450mm, D2 = 300mm, D3 = 200mm and the upstream
P1 500 KN/m2.

FR

1 y

2
Solution
There are changes of direction and pressure and velocity. First find the three velocities
by continuity, then apply Bernoulli’s equation to find the pressures P2 and P3. Then
apply the momentum equation.

Velocities, V1 = Q/A1 = 0.3/π x 0.452 = 1 .886m/s

4
V2 = Q/A2 = 0.15/ π x 0.32 = 2 .122m/s
4
V3 = Q/A3 = 0.15/ π x0.22 = 4 .775m/s
4

Pressures; P1 + V12 = P2 + V22 + P3 + V32

ρg 2g ρg 2g ρg 2g

:. P2 = P1 + ρ (V12 – V22) = 500 + 103 (1.8862 – 2.1222)/2

2
32
 = 499.53 KN/m2

P3 = P1 + ρ(V12 – V32) = 500 + 103 (1.8862 – 4.7752)/2

2
= 490.38 KN/m2

A1 = π(0.45)2 = 0.159m2
4

A2 = π(0.3)2 =0.071m2
4

A3 = π(0.2)2 = 0.0314m2
4

Pressure forces, Fp
Fpx = P1 A1 – 0 = 79.52KN
Fpy = Ps A3 – P2 A2 = -19.96KN

Momentum forces, fm
Fmx = 0 - ρ Q1 V1 = 0.566KN
Fmy = ρQ2 V2 + (- ρQ3V3) – 0 = -0.40KN

Reaction forces, FR
FRx = Fmx – Fpx = - 80.09KN
Fry = Fmy – Fpy = +19.50KN

:. FR = FRx2 + Fry2

= 82.43KN
And

Ө = tan-1 (Fry/FRx) = 13.70 (from negative X-direction to positive y-direction).

33
2.3 SPECIFIC ENERGY

Also referred to as specific head, is the energy at the cross-section of the channel
referred to the base of the channel.
The specific energy equation is written with respect to the channel bottom as datum
rather than an arbitrary fixed datum.
The energy at a channel section in thus
E = y + V2
2g
For steady flow it may re written as
E = y + (Q/A)2
2g
y = depth of flow
V = velocity of flow
For a rectangular section (channel).

V = Q = bq = q
A by y

Where q = discharge per unit width

b = channel width.
:.
E = y + q2
2gy2

2.4 CRITICAL DEPTH

From the specific energy curve, it can be seen that there is a point which has a
minimum specific energy, thereby indicating that below this value of specific energy
thereby indicating that below this value of specific energy the given discharge cannot
occur. The depth of flow at which the specific energy is minimum, is called critical
depth, yc

Yc = 2 E.
3

Example: The specific energy for a 4m wide channel is to be 3Nm/N. what would be
the maximum possible discharge.
Solution
Sp. Energy E = 3Nm/N

34
 b = 4m
Yc = 2 E  Yc = 2 x 3
3 3

=2m

Maximum discharge Qmax = area x velocity

Q = (b x yc) x Vc - at critical depth, Yc, the velocity will be critical

:. Vc = gyc = 9.81 x 2

= 4.43m/s

:. Q = 4 x 2 x 4.43

= 35.44 m3/s

35
 WEEK FOUR

2.5 HYDRAULIC JUMP OR STANDING WAVE

In an open channel when rapidly flowing stream abruptly changes to slowly flowing
stream, a distinct rise or jump in the elevation of liquid surface takes place, the
phenomenon is known as hydraulic jump’ (which is analogous to shock wave in
compressible fluids). The hydraulic jumps convert kinetic energy of stream rapidly
flowing into potential energy. Due to this there is a loss of kinetic energy. At the place
where hydraulic jump occurs rollers of turbulent water (eddying turbulences) from,
which cause dissipation of energy. A hydraulic jump occurs in practice at the toe of
spillways or below a sluice gate where the velocity is very high.
The hydraulic jump is also known as a ‘standing wave’ because it is, in essence, a
wave which is stationary (i.e., at stand-still) at one place. Such a standing wave is
shown in fig 4.1.

Hj = height of jump
Lj = length of jump
2 y
Specific energy
curve

Specific energy
1 curve
Hj = (y2 – y1)
V2
y2
yc
V1 P1 y1 P2
450
E
Energy lost in
Transition jump
Supercritical Supercritical
flow
flow 1
2
Lj

Fig 4.1

36
Fig. 4.2 Pronounced hydraulic jump

Fig. 4.3 Pronounced hydraulic jump

37
2.6 ENERGY DISSIPATION
The flow discharged form spillway outlet is usually highly supercritical. If this flow
were left uncontrolled, severe erosion at the toe of the dam would occur, especially
where the stream bed is of silt or clay. Therefore, it is necessary to dissipate much of
the energy, and to return the water to normal (subcritical) depth appropriate to the
stream below the dam. This is achieved by a dissipating or “stilling” device. Typical
devices of this nature are
a) Stilling basin
b) Submerged bucket
c) Ski jump /deflector bucket

a) The stilling basin

y3

. .. .
.. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. . . . . .. . .
y2

Chute block Sill

A stilling basin consists of a short level apron at the foot of the spillway, it is
constructed of concrete to resist scour. It has a cast row of chute blocks at the inlet
and sill at the outlet. The function o the basin in the decelerate the flow in ensure the
formation of an hydraulic jump within the basin. The jump dissipates much of the
energy and returns the flow to the subcritical state. The chute block, breaks the
incoming flow into a series of jets, alternate jets being lifted from the floor as they
pass over the tops of the blocks. The bill (or baffle blocks and still) provide resistance
required to reduce energy and control the location o the jump.

38
b) The submerged bucket

Rolling Surge

Tail water

A submerged bucket is appropriate when the tail water depth is too great for the
formation of an hydraulic jump. The bucket is produced by continuing the radial arc
at the foot of the spillway to provide a concave longitudinal section. The incoming
high velocity from the spillway is thus deflected upwards. The shear force generated
between this flow and the tail water leads to the formation of the ‘roller’ motions. The
reverse roller may initially slightly scour the river bed down stream of the dam.
However, the material is returned towards the toe of the dam, so the bed rapidly
stabilizes.

(c) The ski jump/deflector bucket

39
This type of dissipator has a longitudinal profile which resembles the submerged bucket.
However the deflector is elevated above the tail water level, so a jet of water is thrown clear
of the dam and falls into the stream well clear of the toe of the dam. Spillways may be
arranged in pairs, and it is then usual for the designer to angle the jets inwards, so that they
converge and collide in mid-air. This breaks up the jets, and is a very effective means of
energy dissipation.

40
 WEEK FIVE
2.7 WEIRS
A weir is a barrier in an open channel over which water flows. The edge or surface
over which the water flows is called the crest. The overflowing sheet of water is the
nappe.

If the nappe discharges into the air, the weir has free discharge. If the discharge is
partly under water, the weir is submerged or drowned.
Types of Weirs
A. Sharp – Crested Weir
A weir with a sharp upstream corner or edge such that the water springs clear of the
crest is a sharp – crested weir.

Fig 5.1 Sharp – Crested weir

All other weirs are classed as weirs not sharp crested. Sharp – crested weirs are
classified according to the shape of the weir opening, such as rectangular weirs,
triangular or v-notch weirs, trapezoidal weirs, and parabolic weirs. Weirs not sharp –
crested are classified according to the shape of their cross section, such as broad-
crested weirs, triangular weirs, and, as shown below, trapezoidal weirs.

The channel leading up to a weir is the channel of approach. The mean velocity in this
channel is a velocity of approach. The depth of water producing the discharge is the
head. Sharp crested weirs are useful only as a means of measuring flowing water. In
contrast, weirs not sharp – crested as commonly incorporated into hydraulic structures
as control or regulation devices, with measurement of flow as their secondary
function.

41
a. Rectangular Sharp – Crested Weirs
Discharge over a rectangular sharp – crested weir is given by
Q = CLH3/2
Where Q = Discharge, m3/s
C = Discharge coefficient
L = effective length of crest, m
H = measured head = depth of flow above elevation of crest, m

Head should be measured at least 2.5H up – from the weir, to be beyond the drop in
the outer surface (surface contradiction) near the weir.

b. Triangular or V – Notch Sharp – Crested Weirs

The triangular or V – notch weir (as shown below) has a distinct advantage over a
rectangular sharp – crested weir when low discharges are to be measures. Flow over a
V – notch weir starts at a point, and both discharge and width of flow increase as a
function of depth. This has the effect of spreading out the low – discharge end of the
depth – discharge curve and therefore allows more accurate determination of
discharge in this region.
Discharge is given by
Q = C1H5/2 tan θ/2
Where θ = notch angle
H = measured head, m
C1 = discharge coefficient

The head H is measured from the notch elevation to the water – surface elevation at a
distance 2.5H upstream from the weir.

Water surface Water surface

Fig. 5.2 V – notch weir

42
B. Weirs not Sharp – Crested
These are sturdy, heavily constructed devices, normally an integral part of hydraulic
project (as shown below). Typically, a weir not sharp – crested serves as the crest
section for an overflow dam or the entrance section for a spillway or channel. Such a
weir can be used for discharge measurement, but its purpose is normally one of
control and regulation of water levels or discharge, or both.
The discharge over a weir not sharp – crested is given by
Q = CLHt3/2
Where Q = Discharge, m3/s
C = Discharge coefficient
L = effective length of crest, m
Ht = total head on crest including velocity head of approach, m

Water surface

C. The Ogee – Crested Weir

Fig 5.4weir
The Ogee – crested Weirs
wasnot Sharp – Crested
developed in an attempt to produce a weir that would
not have the undesirable nappe variation normally associated with weirs not sharp –
crested. A shape was needed that would force the nappe to assume a single path for
any discharge, thus making the weir consistent for flow measurement. The Ogee –
crested weir (as shown below) has such a shape. Its crest profile conforms closely to
the profile of the lower surface of a ventilated nappe flowing over a rectangular sharp
– crested weir.
The shape of this nappe,
and therefore of an ogee crest,
depends on the head
producing the discharge.
Consequently, an ogee crest
is designed for a single total
head, called the design

43
 Head Hd. When an ogee weir is discharging at the design head, the flow glides over
the crest with no interference from the boundary surface and attains near – maximum
discharge efficiency.

Point of
Tangency

Fig 5.5 Ogee – Crested weir with vertical upstream face

D. Broad – Crested Weir

This is a weir with a horizontal or nearly horizontal crest. The crest must be
sufficiently long in the direction of flow that the nappe is supported and hydrostatic
pressure developed on the crest for at least a short distance. A broad – crested weir is
nearly rectangular in cross section. Unless otherwise noted, it will be assumed to have
vertical faces, a plane horizontal crest, and sharp right – angled edges.
Discharge over a broad – crested weir is given by
Q = CLH3/2
Where Q = Discharge, m3/s
C = Discharge coefficient
L = effective length of crest, m
H = measured head = depth of flow above elevation of crest, m

Zone of reduced pressure

Water surface

44
2.8 VENTURI METER
This is a velocity – type metering device. These meters produce a regular and
predictable fall in the hydraulic grade line that is related to flow rate. The standard
venture meter (as shown in the figure below) was developed to provide a device
with minimum head loss. Since most of the loss is associated with the diffuser
section, its angle is the major factor in determining the head loss.
Flow through a venturi meter is given by

Q = cKd22 h1 – h2

K=4 _ 2g______
π 1 – (d2/d1)2

Where Q = flow rate, m3/s

c = empirical discharge coefficient dependent on throat
velocity and diameter
d1 = diameter of main section, m
d2 = diameter of throat, m
h1 = pressure in main section, m of water
h2 = pressure in throat section, m of water

Fig. 5.7a Venturi meter

45
 Fig. 5.7b Venturi meter

2.9 ORIFICES
An orifice is an opening with a closed perimeter through which water flows. Orifices
may have any shape, although they are usually round, square, or rectangular.
Discharge through a sharp – edged orifice may be calculated from
Q = Ca 2gh

Where Q = discharge, m3/s

C= coefficient of discharge
a= area of orifice, m2
g= acceleration due to gravity, m/s2
h= head on horizontal center line of orifice, m

Fig. 5.8 Types of Orifice

46
(c)

2.10 SIPHONS
A siphon is a closed conduit that rises above the hydraulic grade line and in which the
pressure at some point is below atmospheric (as shown below). The most common use
of a siphon is the siphon spillway.

Hydraulic Gradeline

2.11 SPILLWAYS
The majority of impounding reservoirs are formed as a result of the construction of a
dam. By its very nature, the stream flow which supplies a reservoir is variable. It
follows that there would be times when the reservoir is full and the stream flow
exceeds the demand. The excess water must therefore be discharged safely from the
reservoir. In many cases to allow the water simply to overtop the dam would result in
a catastrophic failure of the structure. For this reason, carefully designed overflow
passages known as ‘spillways are incorporated as part of the dam design. The
spillway capacity must be sufficient to accommodate the largest flood discharge likely
to occur in the life of the dam. Because of the high velocities of flow often attained in
spillways there is usually some form of energy dissipation and scour prevention
system at the base of the spillway. This often takes the form of a stilling basin.

47
Fig. 5.8 Spillway

48
Fig. 5.9 Supercritical flow down spillway

49
 WEEK SIX

3.1 BACK WATER CURVE AND AFFLUX

In an open channel when the flow is uniform, the flow has constant depth at all the
sections and the surface of the free water lies parallel to bed of the channel, but when
an obstruction like a dam. Weir etc. comes across the channel width the water level
rises and it has maximum depth from the bed at some section. If y1 is the depth of
water at the point, where the water starts rising up and y2 is the maximum height of
rising water from the bed, then this increase in depth (i.e. y2 – y1) is known as ‘afflux’
and the curved surface of the liquid with its concavity upwards, is known as ‘back
water curve.
Length of back water curve:

Fig. 6.1 Back Water Curve and afflux

The length of back water curve is the distance along the bed of the channel between
the section where water starts rising to the section where water has maximum depth.

50
Similitude
To find solutions to numerous complicated problems in hydraulic engineering and
fluid mechanics model studies are usually conducted. In order that results obtained in
the model studies represent the behaviour of prototype, the following three similarities
must be ensured between the model and the prototype.
1. Geometric similarity;
2. Kinematic similarity, and
3. Dynamic similarity

1. Geometric similarity:
For geometric similarity to exist between the model and the prototype, the ratios of
corresponding lengths in the model and in the prototype must be same and the
included angles between two corresponding sides must be the same. Models which
are not geometrically similar are known as geometrically distorted models.
Let Lm = Length of model,
Hm = height of model,
Dm = diameter of model,
Am = area of model,
Vm = volume of model,
And Lp, Bp Hp Dp Ap and Vp = corresponding values of the prototype

Then, f or geometric similarity, we must have the relation:

Lm = Bm = Hm = Dm = L,
Lp Bp Hp Dp

Where L, is called the scale ratio or the scale factor.

Similarly
A1 = area ratio = Am = L12
Ap

And V1 = Volume ratio = Vm = L13

Vp

51
2. Kinematic similarity:
Kinematic similarity is the similarity of motion. If at the corresponding points
in the model and in the prototype, the velocity or acceleration ratios are same
and velocity or acceleration vectors point in the same direction, the two flows
are said to be kinematically similar.
Let (V1)m = velocity of fluid at point 1 in the model
(V2)m = Velocity of fluid at point 2 in the model
(a1)m = Acceleration of fluid at point 1 in the model
(a2)m = acceleration of fluid at point 2 in the model

Ad (V1)p(V2)p, (a1)p, (a2)p = corresponding values at the corresponding points

of fluid velocity and acceleration in the prototype.
Then, for kinematic similarity, we must have

(V1)m = (V2)m = Vr velocity ratio

(V1)p (V2)p

Similarly (a1)m = (a2)m = Vr velocity ratio

(a1)p (a2)p

• The direction of the velocities in the model and prototype should be same.
• The geometric similarity is a pre-requisite for kinematic similarity.
3. Dynamic similarity:
Dynamic similarity is the similarity of forces. The flows in the model and in
prototype are dynamically similar if at all the corresponding points, identical
types of forces are parallel and bear the same ratio. In dynamic similarity, the
force polygons fo the two flows can be superimposed by change in force scale.
Let (Fi)m = inertia force at a point in the model,
(Fo)m = visous force at the point in the model,
(fg)m = gravity force at the point in the model,
And (Fi)p, (Fp)p, (Fg)p = Corresponding values of forces at the corresponding
points in prototype.

Then for dynamic similarity, we have

(Fi)m = (Fo)m = (Fg)m …. = Fr Force ratio
The directions of the corresponding forces at the corresponding points in the
model and prototype should also be same.

52
 WEEK SEVEN
3.2 DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS
Dimensional analysis forms the basis for the design and operation of physical scale
models which are used to predict the behavior of the full sized counterparts called
prototypes. Such models which are generally geometrically similar to the prototype,
are used in the design of aircrafts, ships, submarines, pumps, turbines, harbours,
break-waters, river and estuary engineering works, spillways etc.

The basis dimensional analysis is to condense the number of separate variables

involved in a particular type of physical system into a smaller number of non-
dimensional groups of the variables.

The arrangement of the variables in the groups in generally chosen so that each group
has a physical significance.

All physical parameters can be expressed in terms of a number of basic dimensions; in

engineering the basic dimensions, mass (m), length (L) and time (T) are sufficient for
this purpose, or example.
(i) Velocity = distance = LT–1
Time

(ii) Discharge = Volume or area x velocity

Time

= L3 = L3 T-1
T
(iii) Force = Mass x acceleration

= M x length = ML
Time2 T2

= MLT-2

(iv) Acceleration = Distance = L = LT-2

Time2 T2

53
 (v) Specific weight = weight = force
Volume volume

= MLT-2
L3

= ML-2 T-2

A list of some physical quantities with their dimensional forms are shown below

PHYSICAL QUANTITY DIMENTION

LENGTH all linear measurements L
Area Length x length L2
Volume Area x length L3
1st moment of area Area x length L3
2nd moment of area Area x length2 L4
Angle A ratio: Arc/Radius 1
Strain A ratio 1
TIME T
Velocity Distance/time LT-1
Angular velocity Angle / time T-1
Acceleration Velocity / time LT-2
Angular acceleration Ang-vel / time T -2
Volume discharge Volume/ time L3 T-1
MASS M
Force Mass x accle; MLT-2
Weight Force MLT-2
Mass density Mass/volume ML-3
Specific weight Weight/volume ML-2 T-2
Pressure (intensity) Force/area ML-1 T-2
Shear stress Force/area ML-1 T-2
Elastic modulus Stress/strain ML-1 T-2
Impulse Force x time MLT-1
Momentum Mass x velocity ML2 T-2
Work, energy Force x distance ML2 T-2
Power Work/time ML2 T-3
Moment of force force x distance ML-1T-2

54
Dynamic viscosity Shear stress/vel. gradient ML-1T-1
Surface tension Energy/ area MT-2
Kinematic viscosity Dyn. Vis/mass density L2T-1

55
 WEEK EIGHT

4.0 PRECIPITATION

Precipitation consists of all forms of moisture reacting the earths surface. It

replenishes surface water bodies and serves as a recharge for aquifers. In general,
there are two forms of precipitation.
i) Liquid form – rainfall, dew, and fog
ii) Solid form – frozen type like snow, hail or sleet

The knowledge of the form and amount of precipitation in a region over time and
space occupies a significant position in hydrological studies of a region’s over time
and space occupies a significant position in hydrological studies of a region’s water
resources.

In the tropics, the man form of precipitation is rainfall, thus precipitation study in this
region is limited to rainfall, its measurement and analysis.

MEASUREMENT OF PRECIPITATION
There are basically two methods of measuring rainfall they are rain gauges and
automatic radio system.

RAIN GAUGES
Here the depth of water which accumulates on the surface is measured in millimeters
or centimeters. The rain gauges employed are the non-recording type and the
recording type.

4.1 NON RECORDING GUAGE

The non-recording gauge is made such that a funnel is mounted of a receiving bottle
and the whole proceed in a cylinder, as shown below. The funnel is usually 15- 20 cm
in diameter and the bottle and casing are placed above the ground. Whenever the

bottle is filled up the spill goes into the cylinder provided and this is measured later.
There is a graduated stick placed between the bottle and the cylinder for the purpose
of measuring rainfall depth. Readings are normally made once a day.

56
 Fig 7.1 Typical Non – Recording Gauge

Typical non-recording gauge

4.2 RECORDING GAUGES

There are three types of recording gauges commonly used in measuring the amount of
rainfall. These are tipping-bucket gauge, weighing type gauge and float decoding
gauge.
(i) Tipping- bucket gauge: The arrangement consists of a small
cylinder at the bottom of which is placed a funnel. Two
tipping buckets are placed below the funnel such that any
bucket that receives rainfall of 0.25mm empties the contents
by tipping action. As it tips over, the other bucket is raised in
position to receive incoming rainfall. The procedure is
continued while an electric circuit records the movements of
the buckets and by means of a signal transmits to a revolving
drum with a graph sheet loaded. In this may both the

intensity and weight of rainfall are recorded by a single instrument.

57
Fig. 7.2

(ii) Weighing rain gauge: This type of gauge automatically

records rain and time of occurrence. The arrangement is
similar to the tipping-bucket gauge except that here the rain
collects in a bucket and by means of a spring mechanism the
weight is transmitted onto a chart. The time is also recorded.
The record shows the accumulation of rainfall. The problem

of with this gauge is that it must be

(iii) serviced weekly.

58
 (iii) Float – type gauge: Here the gauge has a float chamber with a float. The rain
Fig. 7.3 falling raises the float and the movement in transmitted onto a notating drum
by a pen. As the water in the float chamber reaches a certain depth. It is
emptied by means of a siphon. It also requires servicing once a week, at least
change the drum.

Fig. 7.4

4.3 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF GAUGES

With the recording gauges it is possible to determine the duration and amount of
rainfall (intensity), while with the non-recording rain gauge it is not possible to
determine the intensity of the rainfall except the mean daily intensity which in most
cases is much lower than real intensity of the rainfall. For example, if rain falls twice
in a day for 30 and 20 minutes respectively and rainfall totals of 60mm and 15mm.

59
respectively, the non- recording gauge will indicate a daily intensity of 3.125mm/hr
while the recording gauge will indicate a mean intensity of 90.00mm/hr.
A disadvantage of the tipping bucket is that during the period of tipping rain in still
falling and this is not being recorded so that the total rainfall from the recording gauge
is lower than the total rain in a non – recording gauge.

FACTORS AFFECTING RAIN CATCH

i) Site selection
ii) Wind
iii) Splash
iv) Measurement errors

MEASUREMENT ERRORS ARE DUE TO

a) Use of inaccurate cylindrical gauges
b) Spilling of some water transferring it to the cylinder.
c) Inability to transfer all the water from the receiver to the
measuring cylinder.
d) Use of dirty measuring cylinder
e) Wrong reading of the meniscus of water in cylinder
f) Loss by evaporation (especially in Northern Nigerian.

60
 WEEK NINE

5.1 PRECIPITATION OVER AN AREA

MEAN DEPTH OF AREAL PRECIPITATION
Due to the variability of point rainfall and since most hydrological problems required
a knowledge of the average depth of rainfall over a large area, some procedures have
been developed to convert gauge measurements to average or mean areal rainfall.
These are:
a) Arithmetic mean method
b) Thiessen method
c) Isohytal method
a) Arithmetic mean method
This is the station average technique. It is simply the arithmetic mean of the
point stations. If there are P1, P2…….. Pn point measurements at stations 1, 2,
……………n, then the average rainfall is

P= P1 + P2 + P3 +……………………… Pn
n
or

n
P = ∑ Pr
r=1

Where, P = mean areal precipitation depth

Pr = Station or gauge readings
n = number of stations
If the gauges are distributed uniformly and if the variation of individual gauge
readings from the mean is not large, this procedure is probably as accurate as
any other method. But requires large number of gauge (uneconomically).

(b) Thiessen method

This method attempts to allow for non-uniform distribution of gauges by
providing a weighting to the rain gauge reading in proportion to the area it is
suppose to cover. The stations are plotted on a map and are connected by
straight lines. Perpendicular bisectors are drawn to the straight lines, joining

61
 adjacent stations to form polygon, as shown below. The sides of each polygon
are the boundaries of the effective area assumed for the station.

Fig. 9.1

Weighted average rainfall for the total area is computed by

P = A1 P1 + A2 P2 + A3 P3 +………. + An Pn
A A A A
Or
n
P = _1__ ∑ Ar Pr
r=1
A
Where: A = Total basin area (Km)
n = Number of gauging stations

One limitation of this method is its non flexibility since a new polygon has to
be constructed every time there is a change in the rain gauge networks.
The advantages are that if allows for uneven distribution of gauges and
enables data from the surrounding areas to be taken into consideration in
computing the mean precipitation depth over an area.

(c) Isohyetal method

62
 Here point rainfalls are plotted on a suitable map and contours (isohyets) of equal
precipitation are then drawn. The average precipitation for an area is computed by
weighting the average precipitation between successive isohyets (taken as the
average of the isohytal values) by the area between isohyets, added up and divided
by the total area

Fig. 9.1

The mean precipitation depth is given by

P = A1 P1,,2 + A2 P2,3 +………. + An Pn, n+1

A1 + A2 + ……. An

Or

n
P = _1__ ∑ _1_ (Pr + Pr + 1) Ar
A r=1 2

Where: P = Isohyets
A = Total basin area
n = Number of contour spacing
Ar = Area between isohyets

63
 WEEK TEN

5.2 COMPUTATION OF AVERAGE PRECIPITATION

a. Arithmetic mean method

Example 1: The following readings were obtained from a catchment;

Station 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Precipitation (mm): 500 540 470 685 992 811 603 534 566 489

Find the mean precipitation for a catchments using the arithmetic mean method.
Solution
Station Precipitation (mm)
1 500
2 540
3 470
4 685
5 992
6 811
7 603
8 534
9 566
10 489
∑ Pr = 6190

P = ∑Pr = 6190
n 10
= 619mm

64
Example 2
Find the mean precipitation for the catchment having the data above using the thiessen
method.
Solution
Station Observed Precipitation Pn Area, An (Km2) Pn x An X 104
1 500 160 8,000
2 540 124 6,696
3 470 158 7,426
4 685 83 5,686
5 992 98 9,722
6 821 142 11,658
7 566 193 10,924
8 603 119 7,176
9 811 171 13,868
10 534 284 15,166
A = 1532 96,322x101

n
:. P = 1 ∑ Ar Pr
A r=1

= 96,322 x 101
1532

= 629mm

65
Example 3: Find the mean precipitation for a catchments by isohyetal method.

Isohyets Area between isohyets

75.0
21
87.5
108
100.0
104
112.0
62
125.0
152
137.5
86
150.0
49
162.0

Solution

Isohyets Area between Average product

Isohyets km2 Precipitation(mm) A X P km2.mm

75
21 81.25 1706.25
87.5
108 93.75 10125.0
100
104 106.25 11050.0
112.5
62 118.75 7362.5
137.5
86 143.75 12362.5
150
49 156.25 7656.25
162.5
_____________ ___________
582 70212.50

:. Average precipitation = ∑AP = 70212.50

∑A 582

= 120.64mm

66
 WEEK ELEVEN
6.0 MEASUREMENT OF PRECIPITATION
Precipitation, including rain, snow, hail, and sleet is the primary source of water in
stream, lakes, springs, and wells. In the absence of stream – flow records,
precipitation data are the basis for estimates of flood magnitude, low flow, and basin
yield.
The US National Weather Service maintains observation stations throughout the
country and reports daily, monthly, and annual precipitation in publications of the
Environmental Data Service. The data are expressed in millimeters or inches of
rainfall per hour, day, month, or year. Time averages are arithmetic means for 30
years. Space averages are usually statewide averages of little use to engineers. Details
of rain gauges and rainfall measurement techniques may be found elsewhere.

6.1 PRECIPITATION DATA AND ANALYSIS

As noted above, precipitation is commonly expressed in terms of average intensity
during some time period. Mean annual precipitation is perhaps the commonest form
of such data.
While mean annual precipitation is useful, the variation during the year and variations
from point to point are also of major importance to the design engineer.
Probability that an n – year rain will occur at least once in the next n years is given by
P = 1 – (1 – 1/n)n

6.2 RUNOFF
Only part of the precipitation upon a catchment area will appear in the form of direct
runoff. A portion is intercepted by vegetation (from which it later evaporates), a
portion is held in depressions, and a portion infiltrates into the ground. A part of the
infiltrated water is taken up by plant life and returned to the atmosphere through
transpiration, while the remainder either moves through the ground (possibly
emerging at springs or other surface waters) or is held by capillary action.
Since runoff appears as stream flow, it may be measured directly by determining the
mean velocity and calculating the discharge. This should be done at a number of
flows covering the range from minimum to maximum. From these data a rating curve
may be constructed which relates discharge to stage, that is, stream depth. The depth
may then be measured continuously by a float in a stilling well or by a pressure –

67
 sensing device to obtain a continuous record of flow versus time. Since streams beds
change in shape, periodic recalibration of the gauge is necessary.
Long – term records not only give a better estimate of mean flow, but also permit
evaluation of the probability of successive dry years or flood flows. Two or more
successive dry years may deplete reservoirs if such events have not been considered
in their design.
When only limited runoff records are available, it may still be possible to establish
some relation between rainfall and runoff. Flow variations may then be calculated
over a period of time as a function of recorded rainfall. This procedure is much less
trustworthy than using actual runoff records and, if the procedure is used, careful
consideration should be given to the difference between point and areal rainfall. In
cases where no flow records exist, runoff records of other drainage areas of similar
characteristics may be used to estimate flow from the ungauged basin.
In considering what occurs during a rainfall – runoff event, certain factors are evident.
The initial rainfall will produce little or no runoff, since it will be lost to evaporation,
depression storage, infiltration, or other abstractive processes. This will be true
whether the intensity is high or low. Once the abstractions have been largely satisfied,
it is reasonable to assume that the runoff rate will be more or less related to the
rainfall intensity. A storm of given return period will thus produce maximum runoff if
the rainfall is distributed so that maximum intensities occur relatively late in the
event. A pattern which is often assumed is that the maximum quarter will be the third,
the second largest the second quarter, the third largest the fourth quarter, and the
smallest the first quarter. Within each quarter the intensities are distributed to yield a
gradual increase to a peak at the beginning of the third quarter followed by a gradual
decrease.

6.3 RAINFALL ANALYSIS

Precipitation are defined by
i) Duration of precipitation
ii) Intensity of precipitation
iii) Frequency of precipitation
iv) Area extent of precipitation
a) Duration of precipitation

68
 This is defined as a particular period of time during which the rain is falling it
may be in minutes, hours or days. The amount of water that has falling in
measured by rain gauges and expressed in rainfall depth.
b) Intensity of precipitation
This is the unit rainfall per hour, i.e. intensity,
i = Rainfall depth (mm)
Duration (hr) in (mm/hr.)

c) Frequency of precipitation

This is the number of times a rainfall of particular intensity and duration

occurs in a given time period.
Rainfall analysis is therefore to determine the magnitude of the run off from a
given water shed or catchment area.

d) Area extent of precipitation

This is the average precipitation over an area for a given duration. For areas
greater than 26 sq. km, the point rainfall and the aval are usually different.
Most hydrological problems involves large areas over which precipitation can
hardly be uniform. The uniformity of rainfall over an area depends on the
type, amount and duration of the storm, and size/nature of catchments.

6.4 DURATION CURVES

a. Intensity – Duration Curve
This is the plot of intensity against duration. By interpellation given the duration of
any storm, the intensity can be obtained from the intensity duration curve.
b. Intensity – Duration Frequency
Intensity duration curves are useful in the design of storm drainage system and flood
flow analysis. For purposes of comparism and generalization curves may be
formulated individually for specific frequencies or collectively to a range of
frequencies.
c. Depth – Area – Duration Curve
Is obtained by plotting the percentage of local rainfall against catchments area for
different duration of rainfall. It is used to convert a point rainfall to areal rainfall.

69
 WEEK TWELVE

6.5 ESTIMATION OF MISSING PRECIPITATION DATA

(RECORDS)
It often happens that many precipitation stations have insufficient records, or short
breaks in their records because of absence of the observer or because of faulty
instrument. It is often necessary to supplement the missing record by one of the
following techniques:
i. Arithmetic Average Method: In this method, precipitation amounts are estimated
from observations at three stations which are very close to and evenly spaced
around the station with the missing record station. A simple arithmetic average of
the precipitation at the index stations provides the estimated among if the normal
annual precipitation at each of the index station is within 10% of that for the
station with the missing record.
ii. Normal – Ratio Method: In a situation where the normal annual precipitation at
any of the index stations differs from that at the missing station by more than
10%, the amounts at the index stations are weighted by the ratios of the normal –
annual precipitation values. For instance, precipitation at station x is

Px = 1 (Nx PA + Ns PB + Nx Pc) ………………… 6.1

3 NA NB Nc
Where
Px is the missing precipitation amount at station X
N is the normal annual precipitation at stations X, A, B, C
P is the precipitation depths at stations A, B, C

Example 1
A 3 – hr storm occurred at a place and the precipitations in the neighbouring rain gauge
stations were measured as 3.8, 4.1 and 4.5cm respectively. The precipitation in the
neighbouring station could not be measured since the rain gauge bottle was vandalized.

The normal annual precipitation in the four stations were 45, 48, 53, and 50cm respectively.
Estimate the storm precipitation at the fourth station.

Solution

70
From eq. 6.1
Nx = 50cm
NA = 45
NB = 48
NC = 53
While
PA = 3.8cm
PB = 4.1cm
PC = 4.5cm

Thus
Px = 1 [ 3.8 (50) + 4.1 (50) + 4.5 (50)]
3 45 48 53
Px = 4.25cm

6.7 ADJUSTMENT OF RECORDS

The trend in the catch of a rain gauge station may slightly change after some years
due to changes in the gauge location, exposure, instrumentation or observational
procedure which affect the catch of the gauge. This change can be tested by double
mass analysis. The double mass analysis tests the consistency of the record at a station
by comparing its accumulated annual or seasonal rain fall with the concurrent
accumulated values of mean rainfall for group of surrounding stations for the number
of years of record. This comparison is easily done by plotting the cumulative annual
rainfall values of the station against the concurrent cumulative values of mean annual
rainfall of the group of surrounding stations for the number of years. From the plot,
the year in which a change in regime has occurred is indicated by the change in the
slope of the straight line plot. The consistency of the record is the ratio of the slopes
of the straight lines formed. It is important to note that a change in meteorological
causes would not cause a change in slopes as all base stations would be similarly
affected
Consistency = Slope before the change in regime
Slope after the change in regime

The rainfall records of the station prior to the change in regime are made comparable
with that of the more recent location by multiplying the recorded values of the rainfall
prior to the change in regime by the ratio of slopes of the straight lines before and

71
 after the changes. The consistency of the record of each of the base stations are
normally tested before use and those showing inconsistent records are dropped before
other stations are tested or adjusted. Considerable caution should be taken in applying
the double – mass curve analysis since plotted points always deviate about a mean
line so that changes in slope should be accepted only if marked or substanted by other
evidence.

6.8 DOUBLE – MASS ANALYSIS

The pattern of rainfall records at a station may change after a number of years due to
changes in gauge location, exposure, wind pattern, instrumentation or observational
procedures. These changes are not often recorded which may pose errors in the
analyses of such records. The consistency of record at a station is tested using Double
– mass analysis by comparing its accumulated annual mean or seasonal precipitation
with the concurrent accumulated values of mean precipitation for a group of
surrounding stations. From the plot of the cumulative annual rainfall of the station in
question against the cumulative annual rainfall of the group stations, the year in which
a change in regime has occurred is indicated by the change in slope of the straight line
plot. The rainfall records can be adjusted by multiplying the recorded values of
rainfall by the ratio of slopes of the straight lines before and after the change in
regime.

Example 2:
Annual precipitation at rain gauge station X and the average annual precipitation at 20
surrounding stations are given below. Examine the consistency of data station X.
Indicate at what year a change in regime has occurred and how to make the necessary
adjustments.

Year Annual rainfall (cm) Year Annual rainfall (cm)

Station X 20 station Station X 20 station
average average
1970 30.5 22.8 1980 28.2 33.3
1971 38.9 35.0 1981 17.3 23.4
1972 43.7 30.2 1982 22.3 36.0
1973 32.2 27.4 1983 28.4 31.2
1974 27.4 25.2 1984 24.1 23.1

72
 1975 32.0 28.2 1985 26.9 23.4
1976 49.3 36.1 1986 20.6 23.1
1977 28.4 28.4 1987 29.5 33.2
1978 24.6 25.1 1988 28.4 26.4
1979 21.8 23.6

Solution
The cumulative annual rainfalls are shown below and plotted as shown in Fig 12
below
Cummulative Annual Rainfall at Station X (cm)

Cumulative annual Rainfall – 20 stations (cm)

73
Year Cumulative rainfall (cm)
Station X 20 – Station average
1970 30.5 22.8
1971 69.4 57.8
1972 113.1 88
1973 145.3 115.4
1974 172.7 140.6
1975 204.7 168.8
1976 254.0 204.9
1977 282.4 233.3
1978 307.0 258.4
1979 328.8 282.0
1980 357.0 315.3
1981 374.3 338.7
1982 396.6 374.7
1983 425.0 404.9
1984 449.1 429.0
1985 476.0 452.4
1986 496.6 475.5
1987 526.1 508.7
1988 554.5 535.1

74
Adjustment of record prior to 1978 = ___1__ = 0.84
1.19

Cumulative rainfall 1978 – 1988 = 535.1 – 258.4 = 276.7cm

Cumulative rainfall 1970 – 1977 adjusted for changed environment

258.4 x 0.84 = 217.06cm

Cumulative rainfall 1970 – 1988 for the current environment

276.7 + 217.06 = 493.76cm

Mean annual precipitation for the current regime is

493.76 = 23.5cm
21

75
 WEEK THIRTEEN
7.0 EVAPORATION
7.1 Evaporation is defined as the passage of water from liquid to vapour at a given
surface. It is a process whereby rain or water accumulated on the surfaces of earth and
lakes are lost. It is essentially a cooling process requiring energy for its sustenance.
The energy sources are either from the sun, heat carried into the body by wind action,
heat stored in land masses or water. Knowledge of evaporation over a basin is
important in all water resources studies and planning water resource projects because;
it affects; the yield of river basins, necessary capacity of reservoirs, the size of
pumping plants, the consumption use of water by crops, and yield of ground water
supplies and estimate of storm runoff in the preparation of river forecasts.
Evaporation is a process of immense in hydrology. Evaporation process is one of the
decisive elements in planning water resources projects because it affects the yields of
river basins, capacity of reservoirs, consumptive use of water in crops, and estimate of
storm runoff in the preparation of river forecasts.
It is a process whereby rain or water accumulated on surfaces of earth and lake are
lost. It is essentially a cooling process requiring energy for its sustenance. The energy
sources are either from the sun, heat carried into the body by wind action, heat stored
in land masses or in water. Instances are however found where even when energy for
evaporation can be available the process may be balanced by condensation action if
the surrounding air is well saturated. This situation takes place especially in humid
and equatorial regions including Nigeria.
Some of the important meteorological factors which affect evaporation process are
solar radiation, wind, temperature, barometric pressure, and relative humidity.

7.2 FACTORS AFFECTING EVAPORATION

a) Temperature:
The high the temperature, the higher the rate of evaporation as a result of the
saturation vapour pressure
b) Radiation:

76
 Solar radiation affects evaporation through its effect on temperature
c) Wind:
The higher the wind velocity, the higher the rate of evaporation. This is
because, if the wind velocity is high, the turbulence in the air is more with
result that the saturated film of air containing water vapour will move easily
and the diffusion and dispersion of vapours will become easier, causing more
evaporation.
d) Humidity:
If the humidity of the atmosphere is high, the rate of evaporation is reduced.
As the airs humidity rises, its ability to absorb more water vapour decreases
and the rate of evaporation slows down.

77
7.3 MEASURES TO REDUCE EVAPORATION
The measures to be taken in order to minimize the rate of evaporation are as
follows.
i) By planting trees on the windward side of the reservoir to act as wind
breakers.
ii) By removing water weeds and plants from the periphery of the
reservoir.
iii) By creating storage reservoirs of more depth and less surface area.
iv) By spraying certain chemicals or fatty acids and formation of film
v) By straightening the stream channels to reduce the exposed area of the
water surface and hence reduce evaporation.
vi) By providing mechanical covering
vii) By creating underground water storage/reservoirs
Viii) By allowing the free flow of water. This lowers the temperature and
then reduce evaporation.
ix) By surrounding the reservoir with tall trees and forest. There will
provide cooling and thins the reduction of evaporation, and also
reduces effect of wind on the reservoir.

7.4 FACTORS WHICH AFFECT RUNOFF

The discharge from a drainage area includes both surface and groundwater flow.
Water which has entered the ground by infiltration may emerge at springs or, less
visibly, at streams or other surface waters. Dry weather flow consists of drainage from
surface impoundments and flow from groundwater, while during wet weather these
sources are augmented by direct runoff from precipitation.
Precipitation is the most important single factor affecting the discharge from a basin.
It is self – evident that the quantity of rainfall is important, but the distribution in both
time and space may be equally significant. Rains which occur during the growing
season may contribute very little to runoff and rains of low intensity may infiltrate
with production of very little surface flow.
Solar radiation affects evaporation through its effect on temperature. Low
temperatures permit accumulations of ice and snow which may produce rapid runoff
during warmer weather. Additionally, frozen ground thaws rather slowly and very
high runoff rates may occur as a result of rainfall following a period of low
temperatures.

78
Local topography and geology influence both the timing and quantity of runoff. Steep
slopes and impervious strata enhance the rate and quantity of discharge, while flat
pervious deposits offer substantial quantity for infiltration.
Evaporation is a function of temperature, wind velocity, and relative humidity.
Evaporation rates are measured with a standardized pan which is exposed to the
atmosphere. Rates are expressed in terms of depth lost per unit time and the results
are corrected to equivalent reservoir evaporation by multiplying them by a factor
which varies from time to time and place to place but which is typically about 0.7.
Evaporation form land surfaces is substantially less than that from open water, being
reduced by shading by plants and limited availability of water in the soil.
Transpiration, on the other hand, can be very significant at some seasons of the year.
Most engineer lump evaporation from land surfaces ad transpiration together in a
single quantity, evapotranspiration, since the two effects are difficult to measure
separately. A conservative approach to estimation of potential evapotranspiration, at
least on an annual basis, is to take it as being equal to evaporation from a free – water
surface with negligible heat – storage capacity.
Interception includes that precipitation which is retained on leaves, and other surfaces
and never reaches the ground. Its magnitude can be substantial on annual basis,
interception may substantially reduce runoff peaks, since most interception occurs at
the beginning of storm events. In urban hydrology, interception is sometimes
considered as an initial abstraction from the rainfall or lumped with either depression
storage or infiltration.

79
 WEEK FOURTEEN
7.5 METHODS OF ESTIMATING EVAPORATION
a. Direct Methods:
These are carried out by measurements from evaporation pans and
evaporimeter measurement correlation with climatic variables such
as humidity, wind, temperature and solar radiation data.
Evaporation from a pan is usually higher than that for a lake
surface for the same unit area. On account of this a relation has
been found linking the two:
Lake evaporation = Cpan (evaporation pan value)
The value of Cpan for the standard US National Weather Service
class A pan is 0.7 but varies during the year from month to month
(range of 0.67 – 0.82).
There are various types of pan in use depending on installation.
Typical ones are;
i. USWB class A pan, which is a land type is made of
unpainted galvanized iron 122cm in diameter and 25.4cm
deep. It is usually fixed on a 15cm high wooden stand to let
air circulate beneath the pan. It is filled to a depth of 20cm
and the pan is refilled when the water depth has fallen to
18cm. Evaporation is computed as the difference between
the observed levels adjusted for any precipitation measured
in standard rain gauge.
ii. The Colorado sunken pan is 91.5m square and 46cm deep.
iii. The GG1 – 300, the standard pan in the former USSR has a
depth of 60cm and diameter of 61.8cm.
iv. The floating type is no longer in use in most stations because
of observational difficulties, installation and operational

80
 expenses. However the common ones in use are 91.5cm
square, 45cm deep mounted on a raft floating in water.
v. Evaporimeter can be used to measure directly evaporation
loss but the readings obtained are often erratic.
b. Empirical Formulae
When the temperature of air is the same as the water temperature,
an empirical formula in the form is used.
Ea = K(es – ea)f(u)
Where Ea = Open water evaporation in mm/day
K = Constant,
es = Saturation vapour pressure of air at
t0C (mmHg);
u = Wind speed at same standard height (m)
A general valid empirical relation developed for this condition is Ea
= 0.35 (es – ea) (0.5 + 0.5U2)
Where U2 is the wind speed at 2m height
A commonly used empirical formula however is that developed by
Meyer given as

Ea = K (es – ea) (1 + w)
10
Where w = wind speed in miles/hr and measured at 25ft above
surface, K is between 0.36 for lakes and 0.5 for small puddles and
shallow pans.

Some of the other common formulae are;

i. Penman:
Ev = 0.35 (1 + U2/100) (es – ea)

Where U2 = wind speed in miles/day at 2m

Ev = in mm/day
81
ii. Lake Hefner formula for lakes is:
Ev = 2.3U2 (es – ea)
P
Where Ev = in mm/day: U2, e2 measured at 2m
U2 = in miles/day; P = the barometric pressure in the same
units as e.
Example 1
For an area, during the month of December, the average air temperature
was found to be 54.10F with a relative humidity of 74%. The average
speed was 6.8mph. Calculate the evaporation in the month per unit area
of a proposed reservoir.

Solution
From psychometric Table, es = 14.3mb
But 1mb = 0.02953 ins of mercury
Relative humidity = 100 ea
es
hence ex = 14.3 x 0.02953 = 0.422 in Hg
RH = 74%, ea = 0.74 x 0.422 = 0.312 in Hg
Using the formula
Ea = K (es – ea) (1 + w)
10
Ea = 0.36 (0.422 – 0.312) (1 + 6.8/10)
Ea = 0.067 in day
Or
0.067 x 31 = 2.06 ins x 25.4mm
= 52.32mm month

Table 7.5 Sample of Vapour Pressures at various temperatures

Temperature mb mmHg
(0F)

82
32 6.11 4.57
40 8.36 6.35
50 12.19 9.14
60 17.51 13.21
70 24.79 18.30
80 34.61 26.16
90 47.68 36.07
100 64.88 49.28

83
7.6 TRANSPIRATION
Plants absorb water through their root systems and release it to the
atmosphere through pores in the leaf system. This is known as
transpiration. Transpiration process is controlled by the actions of solar
radiation, temperature, wind velocity and vapor pressure gradients. The
process is also dependent on plant type and density. During transpiration,
two process have to be recognized with respect to plants and soils:
i. The wilting point – this is a stage of wilting reached by a plant and
never to recover even in humid conditions.
ii. Field Capacity – the amount of water retained in a soil against
gravity after the cessation of percolation process.
Transpiration process is not much between the field capacity and wilting
point and the process is also slow after the wilting point is reached.
Large scale measurements of transpiration are usually made which
combine evaporation and transpiration known as Evapotranspiration.

7.7 EVAPOTRANSPIRATION
This is the combined evaporation and transpiration. It is also known as
consumptive use of crops defined as the total water lost from cropped or
(irrigated) land due to evaporation from the soil and transpiration by the
plants. Potential evapotranspiration is defined as the evapotranspiration
from vegetation when the roots are receiving unlimited water covering
the soil.
Evapotranspiration is estimated usually by
i. Theoretical method based on the physics of the atmospheric press
ii. Analytical approach through energy or water budget methods, and
iii. Empirical relationships
Briefly mentioned here are three methods
a. Water Budget Method

84
 The method attempts to balance the incoming and outgoing water in
the catchment areas. This consists of measuring the rainfall in the area
and then gauging of stream draining the area. The equation is of the
form
Ep = P + I + Gw – O + S

Where Ep = Evapotranspiration
P = Total precipitation
I = Inflow to the surface
O = Surface outflow
G = Groundwater flow
S = Change in storage for both surface and
ground systems
b. Energy Budget Method
This is a method which lists all the thermal processes and variables
in the area to form an equation. It requires dead of instrumentation.
c. Empirical Method
Empirical relations can be used to estimate consumptive use of
crops. An example is Blancy – criddle given as

Where U= the consumptive use of water (mm)

As = constant applicable to a particular crop

B= summation of monthly consumptive use factors for a

given season. This can be expressed as
B = ∑ (tp/100)
Where t = mean monthly temp 0F
P = monthly day time (hrs) given as
percentage of year.

85
 Other Formula are in use such as penman’s and Thorntwaite’s
formulae.
Example 2
Determine the consumptive use of corn for the month of June if the
average temperature is 70%. An average day time hour in percentage is
30.0. Assume mean monthly consumptive coefficient of 0.9 for corn.

Solution
B = 70 x 30
100
Ucorn = 0.9 x 21 = 18.9 x 25.4 = 48cm of water.

86
8.0 NATURE OF EVAPORATION SURFACES
8.1 DETERMINATION/MEASUREMENT OF EVAPORATION
a) Direct measurement of evaporation
The instrument commonly used for direct measurement of evaporation is evaporation
pan. There are many types of pans in use today;
i. U.S weather Bureau class A land Pan
ii. Bureau of plant industry sunken pan
iii. Colorado sunken pan
iv. U.S geological survey floating pan
v. GGI – 3000, the USSR standard pan
vi. The young pan.
The most common one in use is the standard U.S weather Bureau class A pan. This is
a cylindrical pan made of unpainted galvanized iron or stainless steel 1220mm in
diameter and 254mm deep. It is exposed and supported on a well – ventilated wooden
frame about 150mm above ground surface to let air circulate beneath the pan. The
water level is filled to a depth of 200mm and it is observe every morning with a
micrometer placed in a stilling well in order to have a calm water surface. The water
is refilled when the depth has fallen to 180mm, while evaporation is computed as the
difference between observed level, adjusted for any precipitation measured in a
standard rain gauge.

b) Water budget determination of reservoir Evaporation (storage equation)

This is also known as water-balance method. In this method, a balance sheet of all
water entering and leaving a particular drainage basin is maintained. The difference
between the inflow and outflow from the catchments can only be accounted for
i) By evaporation and transpiration
ii) By a drainage in the storage within the catchments either in surface lakes and
depressions or in underground aquifers.
iii) By a difference in the underground flow into and out of the catchments.
This method is a measurement of continuity of flow of water. This is true for any time
interval and applies to any drainage basin and ot the earth surface as a whole.
According to horton, the water-balance equation may be written as
E=I - 0 -S
Where
E = Evaporation

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 I = inflow or precipitation
O = outflow as total run off
S = Depression storage or change in reservoir content or
change in storage.
This method is difficult to use and inaccurate under most conditions, particularly for
short averaging time periods. Some of the most difficult terms to measure are change
in storage, beep age, ground water flow and adverted flows.

c) Energy budget determination of reservoir evaporation

This is also known as energy – balance method. It is similar to the water –
balance method except that it deals with the continuity of flow of energy
instead of water. The method like the water budget approach employs a
continuity equation and involves solving an equation which lists all the
sources and sinks of thermal energy and leaves evaporation as the only
unknown, the energy budget equation for a reservoir may be expressed as.
Qn = Q0 – Qv + Qh + Qe.
Where:
Qn : net radiation absorbed by water body
Q0 : Change in energy stored in the water body
Qv : net energy adverted by moving water
Qh : sensible treat transferred to the atmosphere
Qe : Energy used in evaporation
The equation ignores chemical and biological heating processes, heat lost by
conduction through the bottom of the water body, as well as explicit
accounting of possible energy transfers during any condensation.

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 WEEK FIFTEEN
15.0 EVAPORATION AND TRANSPIRATION
These are processes by which moisture is returned to the atmosphere. In
evaporation, water changes from liquid to gaseous form. In transpiration, plants give
off water vapor during synthesis of plant tissue..
Evapotranspiration, commonly termed consumptive use, refers to the total
evaporation from all sources such as free water ground, and plant-leaf surfaces. on an
annual basis, the consumptive use may vary from 38cm/ year for bareen land to 89cm/
year for heavily forested areas and 40 in/year in tropical and subtropical regions.
Evapotranspiration is important because, on a long-term basis, precipitation minus
evapotranspiration equals runoff.
Evaporation may occur from free-water, plant, or ground surfaces. of the
three, free-water surface evaporation is usually the most important. It must be
considered in the design of a reservoir, especially if the reservoir is shallow, has a
relatively large surface area, and is located in a semiarid or arid region. Evaporation is
a direct function of the wind and temperature and an inverse function of atmospheric
pressure and amount of soluble solids in the water.
The rate of evaporation is dependent on the vapor-pressure gradient between
the water surface and the air above it. This relation is know as Dalton’s law. The
Meyer equation (Eq. (21.125)1. developed from Dalton’s law, is one of many
evaporation formulas and is popular for making evaporation-rate calculations.
E = C(eX –es) (21.125)
Ψ = 1÷0.1w (21.126)
Where E = Evaporation rate, in 30-day month
C = Empirical coefficient, equal to 15 for small, shallow pools and 11 for
large deep reservoirs.
ew = Saturation vapor pressure, in or mercury, corresponding to monthly mean
air temperature observed at nearby stations for small bodies of shallow
water or corresponding to water temperature instead of air temperature for
large bodies of deep water.
e2 = actual vapor pressure, in of mercury, in air based on monthly mean air
temperature and relative humidity at nearby stations for small bodies of
shallow water or based on information obtained about 30ft above the water
surface for large bodies of deep water.
w = Monthly mean wind velocity, mi/h at about 9m above ground.

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 As an example of the evaporation that may occur from a large reservoir, the
mean annual evaporation from Lake Mead is 1,8m.
Evaporation from free-water surfaces is usually measured with an
evaporation pan. This pan is a standard size and is located on the ground near the
body of water whose evaporation is to be determined. The depth of water in this pan
is checked periodically and corrections made for factors other than evaporation that
may have raised or lowered the water surface. A pan coefficient is then applied to the
measured pan evaporation to get the reservoir evaporation.
The standard evaporation pan of the National weather Service, called a Class
A Level Pan, is in widespread use. It is 4 ft in diameter and 10 in deep. It is positioned
6 in above the ground. Its pan coefficient is commonly taken as 0.70, although it may
vary between 0.60 and 0.80, depending on the geographical region. Annual
evaporation from the pan ranges from 25 in Maine and Washington to 120 in along
the texas-Mexico and California Arizona borders.
Evaporation rates from reservoirs may be reduced by spreading thing
molecular films on the water surface. Hexadeconal, or cetyl alcohol, is one such film
that has been effective on small reservoirs where there is little wind. On large
reservoirs, wind tends to push the film to the shore. Since hexadeconal is removed by
wind, birds, insects, aquatic life, and biologic attrition, it must be applied periodically
for for maximum effectiveness. Hexadeconal appears to have no adverse effects on
either humans or wildlife.
Evaporation from ground surfaces is usually of minor importance, except in
arid, tropical, and subtropical regions having high water tables and where it pertains
to the determination of initial soil-moisture conditions in a runoff analysis.
(D.R. maidment, “Hendbook of Hydrology,” McGraw-Hill, Inc., New York
(books megraw-mill.colm).

15.1 Run off

This is residual precipitation remaining after interception and
evapotranspiration loses have been deducted. It appears in surface channels, natural or
manmade, whose flow is perennial or intermittent. Classified by the path taken to a
channel, runoff may be surface, subsurface, or groundwater flow.
Surface flow moves across the land as overland flow until it reaches a
channel, where it continues as channel or stream flow. After joining stream flow, it
combines with the other runoff components in the channel to form total runoff.
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 Subsurface flow, also known as interflow, subsurface runoff, subsurface
storm flow, and storm seepage, infiltrates only the upper soil layers without joining
the main groundwater body. Moving laterally, it may continue underground until it
reaches a channel or returns to the surface and continues as overland flow. The time
for subsurface flow to reach a channel depends on the geology of the area. commonly,
it is assumed that subsurface flow reaches a channel during or shortly after a storm.
Subsurface flow may be the major portion of total runoff for moderate or light rains in
a arid regions since surface flow under these conditions is reduced by unusually high
evaporation and infiltration.
In practice, direct runoff and base flow are the only two divisions of runoff
used. The basis for this classification is travel time rather than path. Direct runoff
leaves the basin during or shortly after a storm, whereas base flow from the storm
may not leave the basin for months or even year.
Runoff is supplied by precipitation. The portion of precipitation that
contributes entirely to direct runoff is called effective precipitation, or effective rain if
the precipitation is rain. That portion of the precipitation which contributes entirely to
surface runoff is called excess precipitation, or excess rain. Thus, effective rain
includes subsurface flow, whereas excess rain is only surface flow.
The two major characteristics that affect runoff are climatic and drainage-basin
factors. The number of factors is an indication of the complexity of accurately
determining runoff.:
1. Climatic characteristics
a. Precipitation – form (rain, hail, snow, frost, dew), intensity, duration, time
distribution, seasonal distribution, areal distribution, recurrence interval,
antecedent precipitation, soil moisture, direction of storm movement.
b. Temperature – variation, snow storage, frozen ground during storms, extremes
during precipitation.
c. Wind-Velocity, direction, duration
d. Humidity.
e. Atmospheric pressure
f. Solar radiation.

2. Drainage-basin Characteristics

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 a. Topographic – size, shape, slope, elevation, drainage net, general location,
land use and cover, lakes and other bodies of water, artificial drainage,
orientation, channels (size, shape of cross section, slope, roughness, length).
b. Geologic – soil type, permeability, ground-water formations, stratification.

15.1.1 Methods for Runoff Determinations

The method selected to determine runoff depends on its applicability to the
area of concern, the quantity and type of data available, the detail required in the final
answer, and the accuracy desired. Applicability depends on the characteristics of the
particular area and the assumptions from which the method was developed. Quantity
and type of data available refer to the length, details, and completeness of the
hydrologic records, which may be either precipitation or stream flow, an example o
the variation of detail in the final result may be found in the determination of flood
runoff. Several methods yield only peak discharge; others given the complete
hydrograph. Accuracy is limited by the cost of performing analyses and assumptions
made in the development of a method.
The methods that follow area a convenient means for solving typical runoff
problems encountered in water resources engineering. One method pertains to minor
hydraulic structures, the second to major hydraulic structures. A minor structure is
one low const and of relatively minor importance and presents small downstream
damage potential. Typical example are small highway and railroad culverts and low-
capacity storm drains. Major hydraulic structures are characterized by their high cost,
great importance, and large downstream damage potential. Typical examples of major
hydraulic structures are large reservoirs, deep culverts under vital highways and
railways, and high-capacity storm drains and flood-control channels.
(a) Method for determining runoff for minor Hydraulic structures
The most common means for determining runoff for minor hydraulic
structures is the rational formula.
Q = CIA
Where Q = Peak discharge, m3 /s
C = runoff coefficient = percentage of rain that appears as direct
runoff.
I = Rainfall intensity, mm/h
A = Drainage area, acres
The assumptions inherent in the rational formula are:

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 1. The maximum rate of runoff for a particular rainfall intensity occurs if the
duration of rain-fall is equal to or greater than the time of concentration is
commonly defined as the time required for water to flow from the most
distant point of a drainage basin to the point of low measurement..
2. The maximum rate of runoff from a specific rainfall intensity whose
duration is equal to or grater than the time of concentration is directly
proportional to the rainfall intensity.
3. The frequency of occurrence of the peak discharge is te same as that o the
rainfall intensity from which it was calculated.
4. The peak discharge per unit area decreases as the drainage area increases,
and the intensity of rainfall decreases as its duration increases.
5. The coefficient of runoff remains constant for all storms on a given
watershed.

TABLE ….. COMMON RUNOFF COEFFICIENTS

Type of Runoff
Drainage area Coefficient C
Business:
Downtown areas 0.070 – 0.95
Neighborhood areas 0.50 - 0.70
Residential:
Single – family areas 0.30 – 0.50
Multunits, detached 0.40 – 0.60
Multunits, attached 0.60 – 0.75
Surburban 0.25 – 0.40
Apartment dwalling areas 0.50 – 0.70
Industrial:
Light areas 0.50 – 0.80
Heavy areas 0.60 – 0.90
Parks, cemeteries 0.10 – 0.25
Playgrounds 0.20 – 0.35
Railroad-yard areas 0.20 – 0.40
Unimproved areas 0.10 – 0.30
Streets:
Asphaltic 0.70 – 0.95
Concrete 0.80 – 0.95
Brick 0.70 – 0.85
Drives and walks 0.75 – 0.85
Roofs 0.75 – 0.95
Lawns:
Sandy soil, flat, 2% 0.05 – 0.10
Sandy soil, avg 2-7% 0.10 – 1.15
Sandy soil, Steep, 7% 0.15 – 0.20

(b) Method for determining runoff major Hydraulic Structures

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The unit-hydrograph method, pioneered in 1932 by leRoy K. Sherman, is a
convenient, widely accepted procedure for determining runoff for major hydrolic
structures

It permits calculation of the complete runoff hydrograph from anay rainfall

after the unit hydrograph has been established for the particular area of concern.
The unit hydrograph is defined as a runoff hydrograph resulting from a unit
storm. A unit storm has practically constant rainfall intensity for its duration, termed a
unit period, and a runoff volume of 1 in (water with a depth of 1 in over a unit area,
usually 1 acre). Thus, a unit storm may have a 2 – in/h effective intensity lasting ½ h
or a 0.2-mm/h effective intensity lasting 5h. the significant part of the definition is not
the volume but the constancy of intensity; Adjustments can be made within unit-
hydrograph theory for situations where the runoff volume is different from 1 in, but
corrections for highly variable rainfall rates cannot be made.
The unit hydrograph is similar in concept to determining a set of factors for
a specific drainage basin. The set consists of one factor for each variable that affects
runoff. The unit hydrograph is much quicker, easier, and more accurate than any such
set of factors. The method is summarized by the formula.
Effective rain X unit hydrograph = runoff . the unit hydrograph thus is the
link between rainfall and runoff. It may be though of as an integral of the many
complex factors that affect runoff. The unit hydrograph can be derived from rainfall
and stream-flow data alone.
Assumptions made in the development of unit-hydrograph theory are:
1. Rainfall intensity is constant for its duration or a specified period of time.
This requires that a storm of short duration, termed a unit storm, be used for
the derivation of the unit hydrograph.
2. The effective rainfall is uniformly distributed over the drainage basin. This
specifies that the drainage area be small enough for the rainfall to be
essentially constant over the entire area. if the watershed is very large,
subdivision may be required; the unit-hydrograph theory is then applied to
each subarea.
3. The base o the hydrograph of direct runoff is constant for any effective
rainfall of unit duration. This needs no clarification except that the base of a
hydrograph, that is, the time of storm runoff, is largely arbitrary since it
depends on the method of base-flow separation.

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4. The ordinates of the direct runoff hydrographs of a common base time are
directly proportional to the total amount of direct runoff represented by each
hydrograph. This is basically the principle of superposition or
proportionality. It enables calculation of the runoff for a storm of any
intensity or duration from a uit storm, which is of fixed intensity and
duration. A given storm may be resolved into a number of unit storms. The,
the runoff may be calculated by superimposing that number of unit
hydrographs.
5. The hydrograph of direct runoff for a given period of rainfall reflects all the
combined physical characteristics of the basin (Commonly referred to as the
principle of time invariance). This assumption implies that the characteristics
of the drainage basin have not changed since the unit hydrograph was derived.
Because this applies with varying degrees of accuracy to watersheds, the
characteristics of the drainage basin must be fixed or specified. Daily and
weekly variations in initial soil moisture are probably the greatest source of
error in this method since they are largely unknown. Man-made alterations and
stream-flow conditions can be accounted for much more easily.
For ease of manipulation, the unit hydrograph is frequently expressed in
histogram form as a distribution. Since the unit hydrograph is derived for a unit storm
of specific duration, it may be used only for storms divided into unit periods of that
length. Usually; because of storm variations, the unit period must be different from
that for which he unit hydrograph was derived. This requires the recalculation of the
unit hydrograph for the new unit period. This is accomplished by offsetting two S
hydrographs by a time equal to the duration. of the desired unit period. An S
hydrograph is a representation of the cumulative percentages of runoff that occur
during a storm which as a continous constant rainfall. It is calculated by cumulatively
plotting the distribution percentages that make up the distribution graph.a the
distribution percentages for the new unit hydrograph are determined by taking the
difference between mean ordinates for the two offset S hydrographs and dividing by
the new unit period.
Transposition of a unit hydrograph from one basin to another similar basin
may be made by correlating their respective shape and slope factors. This method was
developed by Franklin F. Snyder (transactions of the American Geophysical Union,
vol. 19, pt 1 pp. 447 – 434). Also, since S hydrographs are a characteristic of a
drainage basin, those from.

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 Various basins may be compared to obtain an idea of the variations that might
exist when transposing data from one basin to another.
In the application of the unit-hydrograph methods, a loss rate must be
established to determine effective rain. This loss, during heavy storms, usually
considered to be entirely infiltration. The infiltration capacity of a soil may be
determined experimentally by lysimeter of infiltrometer (R. K. Linsley et al,
“Hydrology for Engineers,” 3rd ed., McGraw-Hill, Inc. New York (books. Mcgraw-
hill.com).

15.2 Groundwater.
Groundwater is subsurface water in porous strata within a zone of saturation.
It supplies about 20% of the United States water demand. Where groundwater is to be
used as a water-supply source, the extent of the groundwater basin and the rate of
which continuing extractions may be made should be determined.
Aquifers are groundwater formations capable of furnishing an economical
water supply. Those formations from which extractions cannot be made economically
are called aquicludes.
Permeability indicates the ease with which water moves through a soil and
determines whether groundwater formation is an aquifer or aquiclude.
The rate of movement of groundwater is given by Darcy’s law;
Q = K1A

Where Q = flow rate, ga/day

K = Hydraulic conductivity ft/day or m/day
I = Hydraulic gradient ft/ft or m/m
A = Cross-sectional area, perpendicular to direction of flow, ft2 or m2
Hydraulic conductivity is a measure o the ability of a soil to transmit water. It is a
nonlinear function of volumetric soil water content and varies with soil texture. Many
methods are available for determining hydraulic conductivity (See D.R. Maidment,
“Handbook of Hydrology” McGraw. Hill, Inc. New York (books mcgraw-hill.com).
Transmissibility is another index for the rate of groundwater movement and
equals are product of hydraulic conductivity and the thickness of the aquifer.
Transmissibility indicates for the aquifer as a whole what hydraulic conductivity
indicates for the soil.

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 An aquifer whose water surface is subjected to atmospheric pressure and may
rise and fall with changes in volume is a free of unconfined aquifer. An aquifer that
contains water under hydrostatic pressure, because of impermeable layers above and
below it, is a comfined or artesian aquifer. If a well is frilled into an artesian aquifer,
the water in this well will rise to a height corresponding to the hydrostatic pressure
within the aquifer. Frequently. This hydrostatic pressure is sufficient to cause the
water to jet beyond the ground surface into the atmosphere. An artesian aquifer is
analogous to a large-capacity conduit with full flow in that extractions from it cause a
decrease in pressure, rather than a change in volume. This is in contrast to a free
aquifer, where extractions cause a decrease in the elevation of the groundwater table.

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