WASAC KADAHOKWA

SOUTHERN PROVINCE

HUYE DISTRICT

UNIVERSITY OF RWANDA

COLLEGE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

SCHOOL OF SCIENCES

DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY

OPTION OF ENVIRONMENTAL CHEMISTRY

NAMES: NIZEYIMANA Celestin

Reg.No: 213001669

SUPERVISOR: MUNYAMAHORO Jonas

HUYE, JULY 2015

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 DEDICATION

To my Almighty God

To my Parents

To my Brothers and Sisters

To my Friends and relatives

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DECLARATION

I, NIZEYIMANA Celestin, student of University of Rwanda, college of science and technology,

school of sciences, Department of chemistry in Environmental chemistry option hereby declare
that this internship report is mine and it is a result of my daily work I conducted in a monthly
training at WASAC Kadahokwa Water Treatment Plant from 02nd July to 31st July, 2015 as
required by the University of Rwanda in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Award of
Bachelor’s degree in Chemistry.

I NIZEYIMANA Celestin

Signature.......................................................

Date…………………………………………

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Acknowledgement

First of all I thank the almighty God for His blessing and mercy to me. My appreciation is
addressed to the people who have contributed their time, efforts, ideas and encouragement in
order to accomplish this internship work successfully. I want to thank the Managing Director of
Kadahokwa water treatment plant to give us chance to complete our internship at Kadahokwa
WTP. I deeply thank to Mushinda Léonard in charge of water quality analysis and water
controlling department, Mme Aloysie Kanzayire in charge of bacteriology department because of
their kind cooperation during internship period and other laboratory technicians in the water
quality analysis and water controlling in this institution for their support and assistance during
this internship work and they provided me the practical knowledge of the water treatment plant,
without their guidance and help I could not completed our internship.
I also like to thank other workers and staff of Kadahokwa WTP for their cooperation with me.
I would like to extend my special thanks to my parents because of their advice, material and
moral support they gave us during this internship. I thank all people participated near or far so
that I could accomplish my intended task. Finally I want to thank head of department of
chemistry Prof. Muhizi Theoneste and lecturers in department of chemistry for their assistance.

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Abstract

Internship provides students the opportunity to test their interest in a particular zone and also
provides students high level of practical knowledge. University of Rwanda has added this
internship program for the graduating students to introduce them to the professional life. I got an
opportunity to complete my internship at Kadahokwa WTP. It started on 2nd July, 2015 and
ended on 31th July, 2015 which included 230 working hours. There we worked and visited
different units of KADAHOKWA WTP. I got practical knowledge about WTP plants and
observed its operating system. I was lucky because during this internship period, I got a chance
to visit a Dam of Kadahokwa WTP, water management plant and other auxiliary components of
water treatment. I gathered practical experience about different major department such as the
maintenance which is include pompist, electricians, plumber; Epuration in charge of water
purification; Quality control which is include :physical-chemical unit in charge of physical-
chemical analyses and bacteriological unit in charge of bacteriological analyses. I gathered
practical knowledge about different types of equipment and experiment used water treatment
such as jar test, dose preparation and solution preparation. Inside the report, I described about my
experiences at Kadahokwa WTP.

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 Training Schedule
Table 1 contains our training schedule at Kadahokwa water treatment plant (KWTP). The
Internship started on 02nd July, 2015 and ended on 31th July, 2015. The total working hours is 230 hours.
Table 1. Training schedule.
Day Start/end time Break time Activities site Total
Thursday, 02/07/15 07h-17h 12h-13h Plant site 9
Friday, 03/07/15 07h-17h 12h-13h Bacteriology 9
Saturday, 04/07/15 07h-17h 12h-13h Epuration 9
Monday, 06/07/15 07h-17h 12h-13h Physico-chem lab 9
Tuesday, 07/07/15 07h-17h 12h-13h Physico-chem lab 9
Wednesday, 08/07/15 07h-17h 12h-13h Physico-chem lab 9
Thursday, 09/07/15 07h-17h 12h-13h Physico-chem lab 9
Friday, 10/07/15 07h-17h 12h-13h Physico-chem lab 9
Saturday, 11/07/15 07h-17h 12h-13h Physico-chem lab 9
Monday, 13/07/15 07h-17h 12h-13h Epuration 9
Tuesday, 14/07/15 07h-17h 12h-13h Epuration 9
Wednesday, 15/07/15 07h-17h 12h-13h Epuration 9
Thursday, 16/07/15 07h-17h 12h-13h Epuration 9
Friday, 17/07/15 07h-17h 12h-13h Epuration 9
Saturday, 18/07/15 07h-17h 12h-13h Epuration 9
Monday, 20/07/15 07h-17h 12h-13h Physico-chem lab 9
Tuesday, 21/07/15 07h-17h 12h-13h Physico-chem lab 9
Wednesday 22/07/15 07h-17h 12h-13h Physico-chem lab 9
Thursday, 23/07/15 07h-17h 12h-13h Physico-chem lab 9
Friday, 24/07/15 07h-17h 12h-13h Physico-chem lab 9
Saturday, 25/07/15 07h-17h 12h-13h Physico-chem lab 9
Monday, 27/07/15 07h-17h 12h-13h Bacteriology 9
Tuesday, 28/07/15 07h-17h 12h-13h Bacteriology 9
Wednesday, 29/07/15 07h-17h 12h-13h Bacteriology 9
Thursday, 30/07/15 07h-17h 12h-13h Bacteriology 9
Friday, 31/07/15 07h-12h - Plant site 5

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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYM

BOD5: Biochemical Oxygen Demand

Cfu: Colony Forming Unit

COD: Chemical Oxygen Demand
CTA: complete Alkalimetric Title
EDTA: Ethylene Diamine TetraAcetate
EWSA: Energy Water and Sanitation Authority
FTU: Formazin Turbidity Unit
KWTP: Kadahokwa water treatment plant
NTU: Nephelometric Turbidity Unit
PAN: Peroxy Acetic Nitrogen(1-(2 pyridylazo)- 2 naphthol)
ppm: part per million
TA: Total Alkalinity
TCa: Total Calcium hardness
TDS: Total Dissolved Solid
TH: Total Hardness
TMg: Total Magnesium hardness
TOC: Total Organic Carbon
T.W: Treated Water
TSS: Total Suspended Solid
R.W: Raw Water
UR: University of Rwanda
WHO: World Health Organisation
WTP: Water Treatment Plant
WWTPs: Wastewater Treatment Plants

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Table of Contents
DECLARATION ...........................................................................................................................................................3

Acknowledgement .........................................................................................................................................................4

Abstract .........................................................................................................................................................................5

Training Schedule ........................................................................................................................................................6

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYM .........................................................................................................7

TABLE OF FIGURE ................................................................................................................................................. 11

List of table.................................................................................................................................................................. 11

CHAP I. GENERAL INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................... 11

I.1.Organization of report. ...................................................................................................................... 12
I.1.1. METHODOLOGY .................................................................................................................... 12
I.2. Literature review............................................................................................................................... 13
I.3. OBJECTIVES OF INTERNSHIP .................................................................................................... 13
I.4. WASAC Background ....................................................................................................................... 14
I.4.1.WASAC History ......................................................................................................................... 15
I.5. LOCATION AND BACKGROUND OF KADAHOKWA WATER TREATMENT PLANT ....... 16
I.5 .1. Study area and description ........................................................................................................ 16
I.5.2. ORGANISATION OF THE KWTP .......................................................................................... 17
I.5.3. Kadahokwa water treatment plant process ................................................................................ 18
I.5.3.1. Intake ...................................................................................................................................... 18
I.5.3.2. Cascade aeration ..................................................................................................................... 18
I.5.3.3. Lab test and chemicals preparation ......................................................................................... 19
I.5.3.4. Coagulation and flocculation .................................................................................................. 20
I.5.3.5. Sedimentation tank ................................................................................................................. 20
I.5.3.6. Filtration and disinfection ....................................................................................................... 21
I.5.3.7. Pumping system ...................................................................................................................... 22
I.5.4.KADAHOKWA DAM ............................................................................................................... 23
I.5.4.1. Treatment at the dam water intake .......................................................................................... 23

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CHAP II. WATER TREATMENT PROCESS AND WATER QUALITY
CONTROL .................................................................................................................................................................. 24
II.1. Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 24
II.2. Water purification ........................................................................................................................... 25
II.3. Processes for water treatment .......................................................................................................... 25
II.4. Treatment Methods ......................................................................................................................... 26
II.4.1. Physical Unit Operations .......................................................................................................... 27
II.4.2. Chemical Unit Processes .......................................................................................................... 27
II.4.3. Biological Unit Processes ......................................................................................................... 29
II.5. PARAMETER OF WATER ANALYSIS ....................................................................................... 30
II.5.1. Color ......................................................................................................................................... 30
II.5.2. BOD and COD ......................................................................................................................... 30
II.5.3. TDS and TSS ............................................................................................................................ 31
II.5.4. Metals ....................................................................................................................................... 31
II.5.5. Sulphur and Sulphide ............................................................................................................... 31
II.5.6.TURBIDITY ............................................................................................................................. 31
II.5.7. ALKALINITY.......................................................................................................................... 32
II.5.8. HARDNESS ............................................................................................................................. 32
II.6. WATER QUALITY CONTROL AND CHARACTERISTICS ..................................................... 32

CHAPTER III: SAMPLING TECHNIQUES AND METHODS OF ANALYSIS ................................................... 33

III.1.INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................................... 33
III.2.The chemical used for water treatment in KWTP ........................................................................... 34
III.2.1.Coagulant ................................................................................................................................. 34
III.2.2. POTASSIUM PERMANGANATE ........................................................................................ 35
III.2.3. POLYMERS ........................................................................................................................... 36
III.2.4. Calcium hydroxide (lime) ....................................................................................................... 37
III.2.5. Chlorine Chemicals Used for Water Disinfection .................................................................. 37
III.3. SAMPLING ................................................................................................................................... 38
III.3.1.SAMPLING TECHNIQUES ................................................................................................... 38
III.3.2.MATERIALS USED IN SAMPLING ..................................................................................... 39
III.3.3. MATERIALS FOR ANALYSES ........................................................................................... 39
III.4. THE PHYSICO-CHEMICAL SECTION ...................................................................................... 40
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 III.4.1.JAR TEST ................................................................................................................................ 40
III.5. DAIRY PARAMETERS WATER MEASUREMENT ................................................................. 44
III.5.1. MEASUREMENT OF TURBIDITY ...................................................................................... 44
III.5.2.MEASUREMENT OF pH ....................................................................................................... 44
III.5.3.MEASUREMENT OF WASTE CHLORINE ......................................................................... 44
III.6. PROCESS OF MEASURING OF METALS AND IONS IN RAW AND TREATED WATER
AT KWTP ............................................................................................................................................... 45
III.6.1. Measuring Aluminum, Iron and fluoride ................................................................................ 45
III.6.2. Measuring of zinc.................................................................................................................... 48
III.6.3. MANGANESE MEASURING ............................................................................................... 49
III.6.4. MEASURING OF SILICA ..................................................................................................... 50
III.6.5. Nitrogen ammonia (NH3 –N) ................................................................................................. 51
IIII.6.6. MEASURING OF NITRATE (NO3-) ................................................................................... 52
III.6.7. Phosphates (PO43-)................................................................................................................. 53
III.6.8. Sulfates (SO42-) ....................................................................................................................... 54
III.7. VOLUMETRIC TITRATION ....................................................................................................... 55
III.7.1. TOTAL ALKALINITY (TAC) .............................................................................................. 55
III.7.3. MEASUREMENT OF TOTAL HARDNESS (TH) ............................................................... 57
III.8.THE BACTERIOLOGICAL SECTION ........................................................................................ 58
III.8.1. Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 58
III.8.2. BACTERIOLOGY OF WATER SAMPLES ......................................................................... 58
III.8.3. STEPS OF BACTERIOLOGICAL ANALYSIS .................................................................... 59
III.9. RESULTS AND COMMENT ...................................................................................................... 63

CHAP IV. CONCLUSION ......................................................................................................................................... 65

IV.1. PROBLEMS .................................................................................................................................. 65
IV.2. RECOMMENDATION ................................................................................................................. 66

References ................................................................................................................................................................... 67

APPENDICES ............................................................................................................................................................ 68

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TABLE OF FIGURE
Figure 1 . Kadahokwa storage tank of 600 m3 ............................................................................................ 17
Figure 2.Control valves chamber ................................................................................................................ 19
Figure 3. Cascade aeration .......................................................................................................................... 19
Figure 4. Chican room ................................................................................................................................ 20
Figure 5. Flocculation tank ......................................................................................................................... 20
Figure 6. Inlet floculation ........................................................................................................................... 20
Figure 7. Big flocs settle out of the water in decantation tank .................................................................... 21
Figure 8. Pumping system........................................................................................................................... 23
Figure 9. Kadahokwa Dam water intake ..................................................................................................... 24
Figure 10. Cooler box ................................................................................................................................. 39
Figure 11. Glass botlle ................................................................................................................................ 39
Figure 12. Marker ....................................................................................................................................... 39
Figure 13. Orthotolidine bottle.................................................................................................................... 39
Figure 14. Spectrophotometer ..................................................................................................................... 40
Figure 15. 2100P Turbidimeter ................................................................................................................... 40
Figure 16. pH meter .................................................................................................................................... 40
Figure 17. Kadahokwa water sampling materials ....................................................................................... 40
Figure 18. Jar test apparatus at Kadahokwa WTP ...................................................................................... 42
Figure 19. |Gang stirrer ............................................................................................................................... 42
Figure 20. Petri dish .................................................................................................................................... 60
Figure 21. Autoclave ................................................................................................................................... 60
Figure 22. Oven .......................................................................................................................................... 60
Figure 23. Analytical balance ..................................................................................................................... 60
Figure 24. Kadahokwa bacteriological apparatus ....................................................................................... 60

List of table
Table 1. Training schedule. ........................................................................................................................... 6
Table 2. water treatment levels and Process ............................................................................................... 26
Table 3. Biological Treatment Processes .................................................................................................... 30
Table 4.Wasac guidelines limit of water standard value............................................................................. 32
Table 5. RESULTS FOR BACTERIOLOGICAL ANALYSIS OF DIFFERENT SAMPLE .................... 63
Table 6. JAR TEST RESULT ..................................................................................................................... 64

CHAP I. GENERAL INTRODUCTION

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The internship program is designed to provide students engaged in a field experience with an
opportunity to share their insights. University of Rwanda has added this internship program for
the graduating students to introduce them to the professional life, to explore the links between
students’ academic preparation and their field work, and to assist participants in developing and
carrying out the major research project which will serve to culminate their internship experience.
Internships are individualized and tailored to the needs and interests of each student in the
program. As part of the internship experience, I select Kadahokwa water treatment plant as an
interest to serve as a transition from the academic experience to the professional setting, taking to
an entry level of functioning within the practice for water treatment plant.
Since the internship is designed to meet our needs and interests, This requires careful thought,
planning, and an initiative on my part to locate an appropriate water treatment site.

I.1.Organization of report.

This report at Kadahokwa WTP is divided into four chapters; the first chapter deals with General
introduction. The second chapter deals with water treatment process and water quality control the
third is sampling techniques and methods of analysis. The fourth chapter is related to the
conclusion problems encountered and recommendations.

I.1.1. METHODOLOGY
The different techniques are used, include:
 Interview
Interviews were held with different workers mainly in three departments of KADAHOKWA
Water Treatment Plant such as physico-chemical parameters analysis, bacteriological parameters
analysis and epuration departments.
 Documentation
Different documents were consulted to learn more about the quality control of water and its
treatment in WASAC Kadahokwa Water Treatment Plant.
 Observation

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We tried to observe the way activities were done in different departments of the plant organs
particular in department of physico-chemical parameters analysis, bacteriological parameters
analysis and epuration (Water purifying unit).
 Participation
It was required to participate in the named departments with other employees to gain knowledge
and practice different experiments.
 Data processing and analysis
The necessary result obtained and their interpretations on a daily basis using the above
mentioned techniques was recorded and written in a note book and were finally analyzed to
make final report.

I.2. Literature review

Water (chemical formula: H2O) is a transparent fluid which forms the world's streams, lakes,
oceans and rain, and is the major constituent of the fluids of organisms. As a chemical
compound, a water molecule contains one oxygen and two hydrogen atoms that are connected by
covalent bonds. Water is a liquid at standard ambient temperature and pressure, but it often co-
exists on Earth with its solid state, ice; and gaseous state, steam (water vapor). Water is one of
the most fundamental valuable natural resource on earth for survival of life.
None of the organism known can exist without water. Water resources comprising of surface
water (river and lakes), groundwater, and marine and coastal waters support all living things
including human beings. Water on Earth moves continually through the water cycle of
evaporation and transpiration (evapotranspiration), condensation, precipitation, and runoff,
usually reaching the sea. Evaporation and transpiration contribute to the precipitation over land.
Water used in the production of a good or service is known as virtual water.

I.3. OBJECTIVES OF INTERNSHIP

I.3.1.The main objectives

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The aim of this internship is to permit students to practice theoretical or academic knowledge
required during four years of student and to familiarize to professional realities. To provide the
student an opportunity to apply knowledge, skills and experiences gained during the academic
program to a professional setting. I chose a water treatment plant for this industrial training for a
close observation of a water treatment plant and application of my academic knowledge in
practical field. In the internship, I have focused on my main target that was to get a complete
overview of KWTP.
I.3.2. The specific objectives are:
● To apply theory in a practical environment.
● To establish groundwork and provide networking for professional development and
growth in a career.
● To further help students recognize their own strengths and weaknesses both personally
and professionally.
● To facilitate students as they assess personal ambitions in their chosen field.
● To prepare students for employment or graduate education.

I.4. WASAC Background

Referring to the Prime Minister’s Order N° 87/03 dated on 16/08/2014 determining modalities of
transfer of responsibilities, and property of Energy, Water and Sanitation Authority (EWSA)
hence making WASAC and REG two independent separate companies legally incorporated in
Rwanda under Law N°07/2009 of 27/04/2009 relating to companies;

The Water and Sanitation Corporation (WASAC) is the entity setup to manage the water and
sanitation services in Rwanda as a result of the Government of Rwanda (GoR) decision to
unbundle the national utility former EWSA.

The reform is intended to deliver a water and sanitation utility sufficiently focused to deliver new
infrastructure; efficient and effective service delivery; build a strong people capability;
and meet key national milestones. It is expected to reverse the status quo that includes inadequate
planning and investments; inefficient and wasteful operations; inadequate institutional

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management focus; improve viability and autonomy; and establish a sustainable and customer-
centric utility to deliver an important mandate that touches people of all walks of life.

I.4.1.WASAC History

WASAC is a company that distributes water in Rwanda. As a national utility, the company has
been in existence since 1976, as ELECTROGAZ. ELECTROGAZ was founded in 1939 as
“REGIDESO” by the colonial masters supplying water, electricity and gas to RWANDA-
URUNDI with its Headquarters in Bujumbura. The company was later divided into REGIDESO
Rwanda and REGIDESO Burundi in 1963.

In 1976, REGIDESO Rwanda became ELECTROGAZ and was granted the monopoly for the
production and distribution of water and electricity in the country. After the 1994 genocide, there
was an increase in urban settlements, thus increased demand for water and electricity. The
installed capacity for water and electricity supply could not sustain the increased demand, which
called for further investments.

In 1999, a law was passed removing the monopoly on electricity and water supply. This
encouraged independent power producers to start their operations. In 2003, ELECTROGAZ was
placed under a management contract with Lahmayer International to manage and restructure
ELECTROGAZ in collaboration with Hamburg Water Works for 5 years. This lasted for only
two years and in March 2006 the management contract was terminated and it reverted to the
Government of Rwanda.

The Board of Directors of the company was asked to appoint new management and restructure
the utility to meet the needs of the nation better. Under the new management, ELECTROGAZ
has grown, repositioned and become innovative to serve the customer. Under law N°43-44/2008
of 09/09/2008, ELECTROGAZ was split into RECO (Rwanda Electricity Corporation) and
RWASCO (Rwanda Water and Sanitation Corporation).

Based on the law no 43/2000 of 7/Dec/2010, the National parastatals charged with water and
electricity distribution RECO & RWASCO have been merged and given the name EWSA that is
Energy, Water and Sanitation Authority.

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I.5. LOCATION AND BACKGROUND OF KADAHOKWA WATER
TREATMENT PLANT
I.5 .1. Study area and description

Kadahokwa water treatment plant located in Mpare cell, Tumba Sector, Huye district, Southern
province of Rwanda. it is located at 4 kilometers from University of Rwanda Huye Campus and
6 Km from Butare city. The Kadahokwa water treatment plant was created in July 1980 and
started working in July 1983 with a treatment capacity of 100 m3 per day from The Stream of
Kadahokwa located at the latitude and longitude coordinates of -2.6422 and 29.7373. It was an
extension of the Ngoma WTP constructed in 1950 to treat water from Huye source with a
treatment capacity of 228 m3 per day.
In 1997, the pumping system (raw water) used from intake had been replaced by the transport by
gravity system. In 2005, the Kadahokwa WTP rehabilitation and extension works were focused
on increasing the overall water treatment capacity.
It constructed in order to supply treated water to MPARE, TONGA and HUYE. Now it has a
capacity to treat 5000 m3 per day with storage tank of 600 m3. Its intake is near water treatment
plant from KADAHOKWA River where its name comes. In the Kadahokwa WTP input, the raw
water inflow from intake is aerated by use of a waterfall, before the water treatment chemicals
are added. The chemicals used are aluminum sulfate as coagulant, polymer as an aid coagulant,
potassium permanganate as oxidizing agent, calcium hypochlorite as disinfectant and oxidizing
agent and lime as pH corrector and hardness remover.

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Figure 1 . Kadahokwa storage tank of 600 m3
Mixing of chemicals is performed by the baffles and the mechanized agitators. In sedimentation
tank the heavy flocs are allowed to settle. The remaining impurities are detained in rapid sand
filters and the clean water is stored in reservoirs and distributed by pumping.

I.5.2. ORGANISATION OF THE KWTP

Operation of the mechanical and electrical equipment in water treatment plants requires a limited
number of technicians with medium-level skills. In contrast, monitoring of water quality requires
a small number of highly-qualified technicians that may not be easy to obtain in remote areas and
small residential populations. Then, Kadahokwa WTP is composed by three departments:
❖ Department of Maintenance which is include pompist, electricians, plumber
❖ Department of Epuration in charge of water purification
❖ Department of Quality control which is include :physical-chemical unit in charge of
physical-chemical analyses and bacteriological unit in charge of bacteriological
analyses
Each department has its own working room in the Kadahokwa water treatment plant (WTP)
building. The Kadahokwa WTP is directed by:
The head of Kadahokwa WTP, Five team office of water purifying, one secretary-store keeper
Three pompists, one chef of maintenance, one bacteriologist, one person who works in physic-
chemical unit

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I.5.3. Kadahokwa water treatment plant process

KADAHOKWA treatment plant treats water by the following steps:

● Intake
● Cascade aeration
● Lab test and chemicals preparation
● Coagulation and flocculation
● Sedimentation
● Filtration and disinfection
● Pumping system

I.5.3.1. Intake

KADAHOKWA water treatment plant receives water from KADAHOKWA River and
NYAMASHARAZA River. KADAHOKWA intake now is located at high elevation where water
treatment plant located at 2 km from water treatment. This system is used because it allows water
to move by gravity for water treatment without pumps, and the machines that require electricity
are not necessary for economic purpose. Intake, they are a reservoir dam with pre-decantation in
order to remove materials those don't dissolve in water before it arrives at water treatment plant.

I.5.3.2. Cascade aeration

KADAHOKWA water treatment plant has water in two pipes flow near the gate in constructed
steps this is called cascade aeration. KWTP also has valves control chamber that consists two
pipes one for KADAHOKWA intake another for NYAMASHARAZA each one has valve to
control the water flow and water meter to measure the volume of the flow of water. It has also
other not connected pipe reserved for another intake. This system of cascade aeration system has
an objective to treat water by removing dissolved gas content by increasing oxygen content.
In summary the cascade aeration system has the following purpose:
● Increase content of oxygen (O2)
● Decrease carbon dioxide content (CO2)
● Decrease hydrogen sulfide content (HS)
● Volatile organic compounds
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 ● To remove bad odor contained in raw water

Figure 2.Control valves chamber Figure 3. Cascade aeration

I.5.3.3. Lab test and chemicals preparation

Before the treatment of raw water, the turbidity must be tested to check amount of suspended
particles in water. After turbidity measuring, jar test take place in order to determine optimum
required of coagulate and PH required for treating water. All chemicals are prepared and injected
in water by using shican room. After jar test, the optimum required coagulate is calibrated and
inject in water to form floc in water treatment .The most coagulate usually used is aluminum
sulfate (Al2 (SO4)3) called alum for flocculation. Then, polymer is also used to increase speed
of flocculation. As usually, the flocculation depends on PH its regulation require the addition of
lime; preparation of lime is made on saturation tank of conical shape located outside near the
gate. Chlorine is prepared for water pathogen disinfection. The controlled dosage pump and
agitators for the chamber of mixing chemicals are set to be in shican; the first for alum, second
for polymer and the third for chlorine.

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Figure 4. Chican room
I.5.3.4. Coagulation and flocculation

Flocculation tank is a way water passed from shican mixed with coagulant and lime goes for
mixing and to favorite the formation of flocs. The mixing is done by electrical mechanical
agitator. At the inlet of flocculation tank there is a small flocculation tank equipped with pipe for
addition of water coagulation.

Figure 5. Flocculation tank Figure 6. Inlet floculation

I.5.3.5. Sedimentation tank

KADAHOKWA River which have large amount of suspended particles, those particles are
observed in flocculation process that take place in flocculation tank. After this process, the water
is conveyed to sedimentation tank and the small flocs become bigger, finally, the density of
water is being greater than the density of flocs, then they float in form of ponds above the water.
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In sedimentation tank sedimentation depend on flow velocity, cross section of the tank and
surface loading. To treat a large amount of water, high volume of tank is required. Water utilities
require conducting source water assessments to determine the potential source of pollution. This
should reduce or possibly eliminate the pollution of drinking water resources.

Figure 7. Big flocs settle out of the water in decantation tank

I.5.3.6. Filtration and disinfection
Disinfection
After sedimentation at the outlet, they are a small chamber with a small pipe came from shican
room for conducting chemicals especially chlorine to water in sedimentation tank. This chlorine
is used to disinfect water. This system prefers to add chlorine after sedimentation due to avoid
using large amount of chlorine that can be settled in a sedimentation tank.
Filtration process
When disinfection is completed water is conveyed in rapid sand filter for the reason that the
small flocs which don’t settle in sedimentation tank to be removed. Now KADAHOKWA water
treatment plant use new filter with a quick system of washing; washing take between 15 to 30
minutes where the old filter time necessary to clean it was 21 days. KADAHOKWA filters are
rapid sand filter with a sand of 80 cm of height for removing small flocs at top, gravel of 10 cm
of height at bottom of sand for preventing sand to enter in small cylindrical in charge for
filtration and backwashing called filter bottom. Water flows over a rectangular channel and flow
over the filter. And after filtration water pass through filter bottom to small blue tank in order to
regulate water for avoiding the flow with sand. After, water is conducted by sky blue pipe into a
storage tank before pumping.

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Backwashing
This new filters have rapid backwashing system; in bottom filters are connected with two pipes
one for backwash water pumped from storage another is for conducting air from air pumping
required for backwashing . When those pipes are opened air and water pass from bottom to top
of filter and waste water from backwashing are taken by backwashing gutter to chocolate pipes
to backwashing water storage. Those backwashing have another important to conduct overflow
water from filter pipe to backwashing water storage

I.5.3.7. Pumping system

As KADAHOKWA water treatment plant is located in valley and treated water is supplied at
higher elevation than water treatment plant this mean that there is required energy for
transportation. Water to transport is transported by using a pump which pumps water from
storage in pumping room. Water is pumped for two destinations: MPALE and TONGA. Pumps
are grouped according to pumping destinations for MPARE they are three pumps connected in
parallel one pump has 4 stages for increasing pressure four times equipped with electrical motor
and one pump has a capacity of 55m3 per hour head pressure of 149m. And the one of TONGA
they are three connected also in parallel the same as for MPARE and one pump has a capacity of
97 m3 per hour.
One pump has a two control valves for controlling inlet and outlet flow, air valve to decrease air
when its amount become bigger, it have also tape for air evacuation .
In Pumping system, the water must be pumped from plant directed into pipes or holding tanks
that facilitate to avoid adding contaminants to the water, this physical infrastructure must be
made from appropriate materials and constructed so that accidental contamination does not occur

22
Figure 8. Pumping system
I.5.4.KADAHOKWA DAM

Kadahokwa River is the surface water. Then, when water of better quality is not available,
surface water stored in dammed reservoirs often provides the best solution for providing water
supplies. This is particularly true for mountainous areas, where conveying water in tanker trucks
from distant areas is the only other option for providing water, especially where groundwater
sources of acceptable quality are not available.

Artificial lakes (often called dams or reservoirs) are created by constructing dams on flowing
rivers, and the water impounded in such structures often is used for multiple purposes. If they are
present, water also can obtain from natural lakes.

I.5.4.1. Treatment at the dam water intake

Proper selection of the intake depth is a first step in the treatment process. It should be located at
a depth in the water column that allows the smallest quantities of suspended materials (e.g., iron,
manganese) to be present in the water being withdrawn from the dam throughout the year. The
water temperature should be as low as possible. These goals can be best achieved by constructing
a intake tower in the dam with intake structures at various depths, thereby allowing the

23
withdrawal of water from different depths throughout the annual cycle, depending on the quality
of the water at given depth.

Figure 9. Kadahokwa Dam water intake

CHAP II. WATER TREATMENT PROCESS AND WATER QUALITY

CONTROL
II.1. Introduction
Water treatment is, collectively, the industrial scale processes that make water more acceptable
for an end-use, which may be drinking, industry, or medicine. Water treatment is unlike small-
scale water sterilization that campers and other people in wilderness areas practice. Water
treatment should remove existing water contaminants or so reduce their concentration that their
water becomes fit for its desired end-use, which may be safely returning used water to the
environment.

The processes involved in treating water for drinking purposes to provide a safe source of water
supply may be solids separation using physical processes such as settling and filtration, and
chemical processes such as disinfection and coagulation.

For most people, the term "water treatment" refers to potable water production from raw water,
whereas "wastewater treatment" refers to the treatment of polluted water, where the pollution
could be from human waste, industry, agricultural waste or other sources of pollution.
24
When people first began settling in one place and growing crops for sustenance, it was invariably
near water sources like rivers, lakes, or groundwater springs. Water was needed for drinking,
preparing food, cleaning, bathing, irrigating crops, and a variety of other tasks, so it was
important to have ready access to this resource.

II.2. Water purification

Water purification is defined as the removal of contaminants from untreated water to produce
drinking water that is pure enough for the most critical of its intended uses, usually for human
consumption. The Substances that are removed in this process of water treatment include
suspended solids, bacteria, algae, viruses, fungi, minerals such as iron, manganese and sulfur,
and other chemical pollutants such as fertilizers.

Measures taken to ensure water quality not only relate to the treatment of the water, but to its
conveyance and distribution after treatment as well. It is therefore common practice to have
residual disinfectants in the treated water in order to kill any bacteriological contamination
during distribution.

World Health Organization (WHO) guidelines are generally followed throughout the world for
drinking water quality requirements. In addition to the WHO guidelines, each country or territory
or water supply body can have their own guidelines in order for consumers to have access to safe
drinking water

II.3. Processes for water treatment

A combination selected from the following processes is used for municipal drinking water
treatment worldwide:

● Pre-chlorination for algae control and arresting any biological growth

● Aeration along with pre-chlorination for removal of dissolved iron and manganese
● Coagulation for flocculation
● Coagulant aids, also known as polyelectrolyte - to improve coagulation and for thicker
floc formation
● Sedimentation for solids separation, that is, removal of suspended solids trapped in the
floc.

25
 ● Filtration for removing particles from water
● Desalination: Process of removing salt from the water
● Disinfection for killing bacteria.

There is no unique solution (selection of processes) for any type of water. Also, it is difficult to
standardize the solution in the form of processes for water from different sources. Treatability
studies for each source of water in different seasons need to be carried out to arrive at most
appropriate processes.

II.4. Treatment Methods

The water can be treated in a number of different ways depending on the level of treatment
required.

These levels are known as preliminary, primary, secondary and tertiary (or advanced).

The mechanisms for treatment can be divided into three broad categories: physical, chemical and
biological. Which all include a number of different processes (Table 2). Many of these processes
will be used together in a single treatment plant.

Treatment Level Description Process

Preliminary Removal of large solids such as rags, sticks, grit Physical
and grease that may damage equipment or result
in operational problems
Primary Removal of floating and settleable materials such Physical and chemical
as suspended solids and organic matter
Secondary Removal of biodegradable organic Biological and
matter and suspended solids chemical
Tertiary/advanced Removal of residual suspended Physical, chemical and
solids / dissolved solids biological

Table 2. water treatment levels and Process

26
II.4.1. Physical Unit Operations
Common physical unit operations include among other processes screening, sedimentation,
clarification and aeration.

II.4.1.1 Screening
Screening is the first treatment station, both for surface and wastewater.

It is used to remove large solids such as plastics, cloth, polythene which may damage process
equipment, reduce the effectiveness of the contaminate waterways.

Its purpose is to:

● Protect the structure downstream against large objects which could create obstructions in
some of the facility's units.
● Easily separate and remove large matter carried along by the raw water,which might
negatively affect the efficiency of later treatment procedures or make their
implementation more difficult.

II.4.1.2. Aeration
Aeration is required in biological treatment processes to provide oxygen to the microorganisms
that breakdown the organic waste. Two main methods are used for this, either mechanical
agitation of the water so that air from the atmosphere enters the water, or by introducing air into
the tank through diffusers. It facilitate for removal of dissolved iron and manganese.

II.4.1.3. Sedimentation and Filtration

The flocs formed in flocculation are large enough to be removed by gravitational settling, also
known as sedimentation. This is achieved in a tank referred to as the sedimentation tank, settling
tank or clarifier. Sedimentation is also used to remove grit and suspended solids, to produce
clarified effluent, and to thicken the sludge produced in biological treatment. Flocculation and
sedimentation should remove most of the suspended solids and a portion of the BOD.

II.4.2. Chemical Unit Processes

Chemical unit processes are always used with physical operations and may also be used with
biological treatment processes, although it is possible to have a purely physico-chemical plant

27
with no biological treatment. Chemical processes use the addition of chemicals to the water to
bring about changes in its quality. They include pH control, coagulation, chemical precipitation
and oxidation.

II.4.2.1. pH Control
It is necessary to adjust the pH in the treatment process to make the water pH neutral. This is
particularly important if biological treatment is being used, as the microorganisms used in
biological treatment require a pH in the range of 6.5-8.5 and will be killed by highly acidic or
alkali wastewater. Various chemicals are used for pH control. For acidic wastes (low pH) sodium
hydroxide, sodium carbonate, calcium carbonate or calcium hydroxide, may be added among
other things. For alkali wastes (high pH) sulfuric acid or hydrochloric acid may be added. Acids
can cause corrosion of equipment and care must be taken in choosing which acid to use.
Hydrochloric acid is probably better from an environmental viewpoint but can corrode stainless
steel therefore plastic or appropriately coated pumps and pipes must be used.

II.4.2.2. Chemical Coagulation and Flocculation

Coagulation is a complex process but generally refers to collecting into a larger mass the minute
solid particles dispersed in a liquid. Chemical coagulants such as aluminium sulphate (alum) or
ferric sulphate may be added to wastewater to improve the attraction of fine particles so that they
come together and form larger particles called flocs. A chemical flocculent, usually a
polyelectrolyte, enhances the flocculation process by bringing together particles to form larger
flocs, which settle out more quickly Flocculation is aided by gentle mixing which causes the
particles to collide.

Coagulation is a process to neutralize charges and then to form a gelatinous mass to trap (or
bridge) particles thus forming a mass large enough to settle or be trapped in the filter.

Flocculation is gentle stirring or agitation to encourage the particles thus formed to agglomerate
into masses large enough to settle or be filtered from solution.

II.4.2.3. Disinfection and Sterilization

Water disinfection means the removal, deactivation or killing of pathogenic microorganisms.
Microorganisms are destroyed or deactivated, resulting in termination of growth and

28
reproduction. When microorganisms are not removed from drinking water, drinking water usage
will cause people to fall ill.

Sterilization is a process related to disinfection. However, during the sterilization process all
present microorganisms are killed, both harmful and harmless microorganisms.

It is accomplished both by filtering out harmful micro-organisms and also by adding disinfectant
chemicals. Water is disinfected to kill any pathogens which pass through the filters and to
provide a residual dose of disinfectant to kill or inactivate potentially harmful micro-organisms
in the storage and distribution systems. Possible pathogens include viruses, bacteria and other
cryptosporidium.

II.4.3. Biological Unit Processes

Biological treatment is an important and integral part of any water treatment plant that treats
water from either municipality or industry having soluble organic impurities or a mix of the two
types of water sources.

The obvious economic advantage, both in terms of capital investment and operating costs, of
biological treatment over other treatment processes like chemical oxidation; thermal oxidation
etc. has cemented its place in any integrated wastewater treatment plant.

Biological treatment using aerobic activated sludge process has been in practice for well over a
century.

Increasing pressure to meet more stringent discharge standards or not being allowed to discharge
treated effluent has led to implementation of a variety of advanced biological treatment processes
in recent years.

The objective of biological treatment of industrial water

To remove or reduce the concentration of organic and inorganic compounds.

Biological treatment process can take many forms (Table2) but all are based around
microorganisms, mainly bacteria.

29
 Treatment Processes Definition

Suspended-growth processes e.g. The microorganisms are maintained in suspension in the

activated sludge liquid

Attached-growth processes or The microorganisms are attached to some inert medium

fixed-film processes such as rock or inert plastics

Combined processes A combination of suspended-growth

and fixed-film

Table 3. Biological Treatment Processes

II.5. PARAMETER OF WATER ANALYSIS

II.5.1. Color
Many surface waters are colored, due primarily to decomposition of organics, metallic

Salts or colored clays. This color is considered as apparent color as it is seen in the

Presence of suspended matter, whereas true color is derived only from dissolved

Inorganic and organic matters. Samples can be centrifuged and/or filtered to remove turbidity in
order to measure true color.

II.5.2. BOD and COD

Measurement of the oxidisable organic matter in wastewater is usually achieved through
determining the 5-day biological oxygen demand (BOD5), the chemical oxygen demand (COD)
and total organic carbon (TOC). BOD5 is an indication of the quantity of dissolved oxygen used
by microorganisms in the biochemical oxidation of the organic matter in the wastewater over a
5-day period at 200C. The test has its limitations but it still used extensively and is useful for
determining approximately how much oxygen will be removed from water by an effluent or how
much may be required for treatment. COD is often used as a substitute for BOD as it only takes a
few hours not five days to determine.

30
COD is a measure of the oxygen equivalent of the organic material chemically oxidized in the
reaction and is determined by adding dichromate in an acid solution of the wastewater.

II.5.3. TDS and TSS

Wastewater can be analyzed for total suspended solids (TSS) and total dissolved solids (TDS)
after removal of coarse solids such as rags and grit. A sample of wastewater is filtered through a
standard filter and the mass of the residue is used to calculate TSS. Total solids (TS) are found
by evaporating the water at a specified temperature.

II.5.4. Metals
A number of metals are listed in the national environmental quality standards for wastewater,
including cadmium, chromium, copper, iron, lead, mercury, nickel and zinc. Many metals, which
are usually only available naturally in trace quantities in the environment, can be toxic to
humans, plants, fish and other aquatic life. Phosphorus, Total Nitrogen, Nitrate and Ammonia.
These parameters are all used as a measure of the nutrients present in the wastewater, as a high
nutrient content can result in excessive plant growth in receiving water bodies, subsequent
oxygen removal and the death of aquatic life.

II.5.5. Sulphur and Sulphide

Textile dyeing uses large quantities of sodium sulphate and some other sulphur containing
chemicals. Textile wastewaters will therefore contain various sulphur compounds and once in the
environment sulphate is easily converted to sulphide when oxygen has been removed by the
BOD of the effluents. This is a problem because hydrogen sulphide can be formed which is a
very poisonous gas, it also has an unpleasant smell of rotten eggs. The presence of sulphides in
effluents can interfere with biological treatment processes.

II.5.6.TURBIDITY
Turbidity is a measure of water clarity how much the material suspended in water decreases the
passage of light through the water. Suspended materials include soil particles (clay, silt, and
sand), algae, plankton, microbes, and other substances. These materials are typically in the size
range of 0.004 mm (clay) to 1.0 mm (sand). Turbidity can affect the color of the water.

The turbidity is measured by using Turbidimeter in NTU (Nephelometric Turbidity Units).

31
 II.5.7. ALKALINITY

Alkalinity is a measure of the capacity of water to neutralize acids .Alkaline compounds in the water
such as bicarbonates, carbonates, and hydroxides remove H+ ions and lower the acidity of the water
(which means increased pH).They usually do this by combining with the H+ ions to make new
compounds. Without this acid-neutralizing capacity, any acid added to a stream would cause an
immediate change in the pH. Measuring alkalinity is important in determining a stream's ability to
neutralize acidic pollution from rainfall or wastewater. It’s one of the best measures of the sensitivity
of the stream to acid inputs.
II.5.8. HARDNESS
Calcium and magnesium dissolved in water are the two most common minerals that make water
"hard." The hardness of water is referred to by three types of measurements: grains per gallon,
milligrams per liter (mg/L), or parts per million (ppm)

II.6. WATER QUALITY CONTROL AND CHARACTERISTICS

In Rwanda,wasac generate the guidelines limit of water standard value according to WHO,the
treated water should have the following characteristics ( TABLE 3)

Table 4.Wasac guidelines limit of water standard value

No PARAMETER TO BE CHARACTERISTICS PARAMETER TO CHARACTERISTICS

MEASURED BE MEASURED

1 TOTAL COLIFORMS 0 cfu/100ml 20 NITRITES 0.05 mg/l

2 FECAL COLIFORMS 0 cfu/100ml 21 NITRATES 15 mg/l

3 E.COLI 0 cfu/100ml 22 AMMONIACAL NITR 0.05 mg/l

4 FECAL STREPTOCOCCUS - 23 PHOSPHATES 5 mg/l

5 pH 6.5<pH<8.5 24 COPPER 1 mg/l

6 TURBIDITY <5 NTU 25 ZINC 3 mg/l

7 SUSPENDED MATTER 0 mg/l 26 SALINITY -

32
8 RESIDUAL FREE CHLORINE 0.2-0.5 mg/l 27 SILICA IND

9 TA 0 28 FLUORIDE 1.5 mg/l

10 TAC 3 29 CYANIDE 0.02 mg/l

11 TH 3.2 30 NICKEL 0.02 mg/l

12 T Ca 1.6 31 TDS -

13 T Mg 1.6 32 CHROMIUM 0.05 mg/l

14 Calcium 80 mg/l 33 BROMINE 5 mg/l

15 Magnesium 100 mg/l 34 SULFATES 250 mg/l

16 Dissolved oxygen - 35 CHLORIDES 250 mg/l

17 Organic Matter 2 mg/l 36 ALUMINIUM 0.2 mg/l

18 Iron 0.3 mg/l 37 TEMPERATURE 25 0c

19 Manganese 0.1 mg/l 38 IODE N.D

Table 4: Wasac guidelines for water quality

CHAPTER III: SAMPLING TECHNIQUES AND METHODS OF

ANALYSIS
III.1.INTRODUCTION
Generally, most small-scale treatment systems routinely sample both the raw water source being
treated and the treated water being produced. This is done to identify variations in the source
water as well as to ensure the treatment system is adequately treating the water. Without
sampling both locations (raw and treated), it is difficult to determine where the problem is when
a noticeable change takes place in the quality of the treated water. The quality of the source
water may change, or a problem may occur with the performance of the treatment system, or
both.

33
III.2.The chemical used for water treatment in KWTP
III.2.1.Coagulant
Coagulants are chemicals that are used to assist with the removal of color and turbidity present in
untreated, raw water. They do this by forming settleable particles in the form of flocs, which are
then removed in downstream clarification or filtration treatment processes. Coagulants may be
classified as being inorganic or organic. Inorganic coagulants include those commonly used
chemicals that rely on aluminium or iron. Organic coagulants include the so-called
polyDADMAC (poly diallyl dimethyl ammonium chloride) range of cationic polymers. These
are special and expensive chemicals that are sometimes used in direct filtration plants when the
low doses required make their use economical. However, they can sometimes be used in
combination with inorganic types, often with spectacular and money-saving results.

➔ Aluminium sulfate

It is a chemical compound Al2 (SO4)3. It is soluble in water and is mainly used as a flocculating
agent in the purification of drinking water and water treatment plants,

Preparation

Aluminium sulfate may be made by adding aluminium hydroxide, Al (OH ) 3 , to sulfuric acid,
H2SO4:

2 Al (OH ) 3  3H 2 SO4  Al2 (SO4 ) 3 .6H 2O

or by heating aluminum metal in a sulfuric acid solution:

2 Als  3H 2 SO4  Al2 (SO4 ) 3  3H 2 ( g )

Mechanism for aluminium sulfate

Depending on the pH after the coagulant is added, the reactions below take place:

With aluminium-based coagulants, the metal ion is hydrolyzed to form aluminium hydroxide
floc as well as hydrogen ions. The hydrogen ions will react with the alkalinity of the water and in
the process, decrease the pH of the water as can be seen from Equation below for alum.

Al2 ( SO 4 ) 3 .18H 2O  2 Al 3  3SO42  18H 2 O  2 Al (OH ) 3  6 H   3SO42  12 H 2 O

34
Then, the above hydrolysis reaction typically takes place at a dosed water pH in the range 5.8
to 7.5, depending on the particular coagulant. Color and colloidal matter is removed by
adsorption onto/within the metal hydroxide hydrolysis products that are formed, and is
sometimes referred to as sweep-floc coagulation.

If an excess of alum is added so that the dosed water pH is less than 5.0, then the metal ions
(Al3+) will directly neutralize the negatively charged organic compounds and colloids in the raw
water. This allows the organic molecules to contribute to floc formation and is often referred to
as enhanced coagulation and is often done to boost the removal of disinfection by-product
precursors

III.2.2. POTASSIUM PERMANGANATE

Potassium permanganate (KMnO4) is used primarily to control taste and odors, remove color,
control biological growth in treatment plants, and remove iron and manganese. In a secondary
role, potassium permanganate may be useful in controlling the formation of Trihalomethanes by
oxidizing precursors and reducing the demand for other disinfectants.

Although potassium permanganate has many potential uses as an oxidant, it is a poor disinfectant
(Ability to Form a Residual).

It is not desirable to maintain a residual of KmnO4 because of its tendency to give water a pink
color. Although potassium permanganate can inactivate various bacteria and viruses, it is not
used as a primary or secondary disinfectant when applied at commonly used treatment levels.
Potassium permanganate levels that may be required to obtain primary or secondary disinfection
could be cost prohibitive. However, potassium permanganate is used in drinking water treatment
to achieve a variety of other purposes including:

❏ Oxidation of iron and manganese

❏ Oxidation of taste and odor compound
❏ Control of nuisance organisms

35
Potassium permanganate for Iron and Manganese Oxidation

Permanganate will oxidize iron and manganese to convert ferrous (2+) iron into the ferric (3+)
state and 2+ manganese to the 4+ state.

The oxidized forms will precipitate as ferric hydroxide and manganese hydroxide.

The precise chemical composition of the precipitate will depend on the nature of the water,

Temperature and pH.

The classic reactions for the oxidation of iron and manganese are:

3Fe   KMnO4  7 H 2O  3FeOH 3 s   MnO2 s   K   5H 

3Mn   KMnO4  7 H 2O  5MnO2 s   2 K   4H 

These reactions show that alkalinity is consumed through acid production. This consumption of

alkalinity should be considered when permanganate treatment is used along with alum
coagulation, which also requires alkalinity to form precipitates.

III.2.3. POLYMERS
A polymer is a very large organic molecule; it is a chain of monomer subunits. Some of the
monomer molecules have positive or negative charges. Polymer chains vary in length from
thousands to millions of monomer units. If each monomer molecule was the size of a pearl, the
chain length of most polymers would be 400 to 8,000 feet long. In wastewater treatment
processes, polymers are used to coagulate suspended solids and produce large curds of solid
materials (floc).

Mechanism of Polymers in water treatment plant

Water treatment polymers are synthetic, organic flocculants that are used for clarification,
thickening or dewatering applications. Three forms are available:

● Nonionic polymers - exhibit neutral behavior in solution

● Anionic polymers - attract positively charged ions in solution
● Cationic polymers - attract negatively charged ions in solution

36
Polymer chains act to attract the fine particles suspended in a liquid, forming larger groups,
called "flocs". If these flocs develop sufficient density, they will precipitate during settling,
leaving behind a clear liquid. Alternatively low density flocs may be used to separate undesirable
particulates from the water and be skimmed from the surface, leaving clear water behind. The
nature of the target particles, the properties of the liquid, including pH, electrical conductivity,
hardness, and added chemicals, will determine the most effective polymer type to use. If the
water system is being treated microbial, after flocculation, the polymer needs to be non-toxic to
the bacteria, and preferably, biodegradable.

III.2.4. Calcium hydroxide (lime)

Calcium hydroxide occurs as white and odorless crystals or powder. It causes high pH in a
water solution. The substance is stable under ordinary conditions of use and storage but absorbs
readily carbon dioxide from air to form calcium carbonate. If it is heated for decomposition and
it will form caustic fumes of calcium oxide

Function of lime in water treatment

It is dosed at the start and end of the treatment process.

The pre-dose increases the alkalinity for optimal coagulation as well as the hardness and
buffering capacity of water (resistance to change in pH). Very soft water can cause corrosion in
piping and plumbing fixtures.

The post-dose is to raise the pH to within drinking water guidelines and the optimum level for
the residual disinfectant

III.2.5. Chlorine Chemicals Used for Water Disinfection

Chlorine chemicals are very effective against bacteria, viruses and fungi that contaminate water

Four types of chlorine chemicals are commonly used in agriculture: Sodium Hypochlorite and
Calcium hypochlorite,

III.2.5.1. Sodium hypochlorite NaOCl 

Sodium hypochlorite is a yellowish liquid with an active chlorine concentration of 10-15% pH

around 13.0. It is not very stable,
37
and when it comes in contact with air, light or high temperatures, the chlorine evaporates and
therefore its concentration in water decreases. The chemical reaction with water is:

NaOCl  H 2 O  HOCl  Na  OH 

Due to its high pH , sodium hypochlorite increases water pH . The reaction of sodium

hypochlorite with water results in two forms: HOCl (hypochlorous acid) and OCl  .

The ratio between HOCl and OCl  depends on the pH . HOCl is a much more effective

disinfectant than OCl  (100 time more effective), and since this form is predominant in a pH
range of 3.0-6.7, the treated water should be acidified.

III.2.5.2. Calcium Hypochlorite

It is a solid chemical used as a disinfectant and bleaching agent. It is used to store chlorine for
long periods of time without having to resort to chlorine gas .It is marketed as chlorine powder or
bleach powder for water treatment and as a bleaching agent.

This compound is relatively stable and has greater available chlorine than sodium hypochlorite
(liquid bleach).

III.3. SAMPLING
The major problem in all sampling procedure is to obtain a representative sample. The sampler
decides the strategies to use according to the analyses required. Generally, for trace metal
analyses, particulate matter is first removed from the sample by filtration and centrifugation. The
preservation reagent may be added to the sample and the sample is stored in the appropriate
container under the condition which minimizes the contamination or loss of analyte. The sample
container must be very washed and rinsed by distilled water for physicochemical analyses, for
bacteriological analyses in order to avoid the contamination of collected sample.

It is advisable that the filtration be performed as soon as possible after collection of the sample.
After pre-treatment the sample must be stored at 4oC.

III.3.1.SAMPLING TECHNIQUES
Wastewater sampling is generally performed by one of two methods, grab sampling or
composite sampling.
38
Grab sampling is just what it sounds like; all of the test material is collected at one time. As
such, a grab sample reflects performance only at the point in time that the sample was collected,
and then only if the sample was properly collected.

Composite sampling consists of a collection of numerous individual discrete samples taken at

regular intervals over a period of time, usually 24 hours. The material being sampled is collected
in a common container over the sampling period. The analysis of this material, collected over a
period of time, will therefore represent the average performance of a wastewater treatment plant
during the collection period.

III.3.2.MATERIALS USED IN SAMPLING

Among the material used in the sampling at the field are:

● Cooler box: this one allow to store the sample in darkness and at low temperature
● Match, alcohol ,pliers: these used for sterilization by flame burning alcohol
● Glass bottle: is an item used to pick up water to make water bottles, which is the start of
the brewing process.
● Marker: for labeling a sample to be easily identified
● Bottle of orthotolidine: to identify the concentration of free chlorine present in sample
● Box of solution of indicator of pH
● Test tube

Figure 10. Cooler box Figure 11. Glass botlle Figure 12. Marker Figure 13. Orthotolidine bottle

III.3.3. MATERIALS FOR ANALYSES

● 2100P Turbidimeter : used to measure turbidity of water

39
 ● Spectrophotometer: used to measure the concentration of different compounds present
in the sample

Figure 14. Spectrophotometer Figure 15. 2100P Turbidimeter Figure 16. pH meter

● pH meter: for measuring the pH

● Boxes: for taking sample
● Bottle (10mL): where sample is put. Retort Stand and Erlenmeyer flask

Figure 17. Kadahokwa water sampling materials

III.4. THE PHYSICO-CHEMICAL SECTION

III.4.1.JAR TEST
The jar test is the most basic test for control of coagulation, flocculation, and filtration and is
completed with a multiple stirrer such as the Phipps Bird. It would seem a test and an apparatus
so simple would have existed for many years. Yet, at least in the water industry, the multiple

40
place stirrers can be traced to as recently as about 1920. An early attempt to conduct the
equivalent of today’s jar test but using a single glass dish is recorded just a few years earlier.

This laboratory procedure that simulates a water treatment plant's coagulation and flocculation
units with differing chemical doses, mix speeds, and settling times to estimate the minimum or
ideal coagulant dose required to achieve certain water quality goals.

It is a test of the treatment chemicals used in a particular water plant. It simulates the
coagulation/flocculation process in a water treatment plant and helps operators to determine the
optimum pH and the optimum coagulant dose in the treatment of raw water. The results that it
produces are used to help optimize the performance of the plant.

Purpose of jar test

To determine the optimum concentration of coagulant to be added to the source water

Materials
● Volumetric flask(1,000mL)
● Analytical balance
● Coagulants and coagulant aids
● A stirring machine with six paddles(jar test FB 15034)
● Six beakers(1,000mL)
● Pipettes(10mL)
● Pipettes(0.2mL)
● 2100P Turbidimeter
● Sample of raw water.

41
Figure 18. Jar test apparatus at Kadahokwa WTP Figure 19. |Gang stirrer

Jar Testing Apparatus

The jar testing apparatus consists of six paddles which stir the contents of six 1 liter containers.
One container acts as a control while the operating conditions can be varied among the
remaining five containers. A rpm gage at the top-center of the device allows for the uniform
control of the mixing speed in all of the containers.

Jar Test Procedure:

● The jar test procedures involves the following steps:
● Fill the jar testing apparatus containers with sample water. One container will be used as
a control while the other 5 containers can be adjusted depending on what conditions are
being tested. For example, the pH of the jars can be adjusted or variations of coagulant
dosages can be added to determine optimum operating conditions.
● Using a 1,000 mL graduated cylinder, we filled 1,000 mL of raw water (KADAHOKWA
effluent) to be coagulated to each of the jar test beakers.
● Using a prepared coagulant stock solution (Alum), dose each beaker with increasing
amounts of solution. There can be anywhere from 2 to 6 beakers for this test, the 1st
beaker is reserved for reference.
● After dosing each beaker, turned on the stirrers and the agitation was at speed of 250
tours during one minute. The rapid mix stage helps to disperse the coagulant throughout
each container and then after the speed of the stirrers was reduced still 50 tour during 20

42
 minutes for good flocculation process. This slower mixing speed helps promote floc
formation by enhancing particle collisions which lead to larger flocs.
● At the end of the 20 minutes, we turned off the stirrers and allow settling undisturbed
during 30 minutes (time of decantation).
● Next, we looked at the beakers and determine which one has the best results (if any).
Underfeed will cause the sample to look cloudy with little or no flock and almost no
settling. Overfeed will cause a dense fluffy flock to occur and will not settle well.
The beaker with an appropriate dosage of coagulant will have flock that has settled to the
bottom and the water above it will be clear. I observed that the 2nd beaker was the best
one which had the good flocks and had good pH, Turbidity and also has smallest amount
of coagulants (Al2 (SO4), Ca (OH) 2, and Polymer) .
● With Residual turbidity and. Coagulant dose, then plotted and optimal conditions are
determined. The values that are obtained through the experiment are correlated
and adjusted in order to account for the actual treatment system.

The formula used to determine the quantity of reagent to be injected is follow:

q=Q*T/C

Where q: the debit of the solution in l/h

Q: the debit of raw water

T: the rate of treatment in ppm

C: the concentration of the solution in ppm

Evaluation of Jar Test Results

Include: Rate of Floc Formation, Type of Floc Particles, Clarity of the Water between the Floc,
Size of the Floc, Amount of Floc, Clarity of Water above Settled Floc and Volume of Floc.

43
III.5. DAIRY PARAMETERS WATER MEASUREMENT
III.5.1. MEASUREMENT OF TURBIDITY
Procedure by using HACH Turbidimeter

i) Select the operating ranges at”AUTO” mode.

(ii) Fill a clean sample cell to the mark with the test sample and place it in the cell holder. The
sample cell must be clean, dry and free of fingerprints. Wipe the outside of the cell with a lens
tissue and align the dot on the sample cell with the raised mark on the spill ring around the cell
holder opening. Be sure the cell is kept down completely and held in place by the spring clip.
Cover the sample with the light shield.

(iii) The digital readout is in Nephelometric Turbidity Units (NTU)..

The internship was conducted during the dry season, then, the turbidity is always less than 15.so
according to the WHO limits (standard) the water treated in KADAHOKWA Water Treatment
Plant, is in range

III.5.2.MEASUREMENT OF pH

Procedure

● Pour 5 ml of the water sample in a graduated cylinder

● Add 5 drops of universal indicator and mix and then observe the color change
● Compare the appeared color found on the comparator that precise the value of pH

III.5.3.MEASUREMENT OF WASTE CHLORINE

Procedure

Pour the sample in a graduated cylinder to 10 ml indication

Add three drops of orthotolidine indicator; shake to mix, and then the color changes

Observe the rate of chlorine using a comparator that shows the correspondence between précised
value and defined color. The intensity of the color characterizes the rate of waste chlorine.

44
III.6. PROCESS OF MEASURING OF METALS AND IONS IN RAW AND
TREATED WATER AT KWTP
III.6.1. Measuring Aluminum, Iron and fluoride

When iron or aluminum chemicals are used as coagulants, the metal should be measured in the
raw water and treated water.

The iron or aluminum concentration in the treated water should be no more than and preferably
less than, the raw water For most water the FerroVer®3 Iron Reagent (1, 10 Phenanthroline
method) for total iron is appropriate for iron and the AluVer 3®.

Aluminum Reagent (Aluminon method) is appropriate for aluminum. For low level iron use the
FerroZine Iron Reagent and for low level aluminum the Eriochrome Cyanine R (ECR) method
(ECR may not be used withDR800’s). When measuring aluminum,fluoride interferes (and vise
versa). All aluminum measurements must be corrected for fluoride interference. Once the
fluoride is measured, use the fluoride interference correction chart in the method. The correction
charts for the AluVer 3 and the ECR method are different. Care must be taken to use the correct
chart. Use the SPADNS 2 (arsenic-free) or fluoride electrode to measure fluoride. Fluoride must
be measured regardless of whether or not the utility fluoridates. Fluoride exists naturally in every
water source on earth – ground or surface.

III.6.1.1. MEASUREMENT OF ALUMINIUM

REAGENT: AluVer Aluminum reagent powder pillow, ascorbic acid powder pillow

Procedure

1. Press the stored program

2. Select the test, 10 Aluminum

3. Fill the cylinder with 50 mL marked by the sample; add one ascorbic acid powder pillow.

Stopper, invert several times to dissolve the powder

45
4. Add AluVer Aluminum reagent powder pillow. Stopper and invert to dissolve the powder. An

orange colour will develop if aluminum is present.

5. Press timer ok

6. Invert repeatedly for one minute to dissolve aluminum powder. Undissolvable powder will

cause inconsistent results.

7. Blank preparation: Pour 10 mL of the mixture into the square sample cell

8. Add one bleaching powder pillow to the blank

9. Vigorously swirl for 30 seconds; a three minute reaction will begin and the solution should

turn light to medium Orange

10. Press ok a 15 minutes reaction will begin.

11. Sample preparation: pour 10mL of the solution from the cylinder into the second square

sample cell

12. Within five minutes after the time expires, wipe and dry the blank and place it into the cell

holder with the fill line facing light

13. Press zero. The display will show 0.0mg/ L Al

14. Immediately wipe and dry the prepared sample and place it into the cell holder with the fill

line facing light. Press read and the results are in mg/L Al

III.6.1.2. MEASURING TOTAL IRON(Fe)

Iron is mainly present in water in two forms: either the soluble ferrous iron or the insoluble ferric
iron. Water containing ferrous iron is clear and colorless because the iron is completely
dissolved. When exposed to air in the pressure tank or atmosphere, the water turns cloudy and a
46
reddish brown substance begins to form. This sediment is the oxidized or ferric form in F2+of
iron that will not dissolve in water.

Procedures

Press STORED PROGRAMS

1. Select the test. 260 Iron, Ferrozine

2. Fill a clean 25-mL graduated mixing cylinder to the 25-mL mark with sample.
3. Prepared Sample: Add the contents of one FerroZine® Iron Reagent Solution
Pillow to the mixing cylinder. Stopper and invert to mix.
4. Press 05:00 min TIMER>OK. A five-minute reaction period will begin. A purple color
will develop if iron is present.
5. Blank Preparation: Fill a square sample cell with 10 mL of sample.
6. When the timer expires, pour 10 mL of the prepared sample into a second clean square
sample cell.
7. Insert the blank into the cell holder with the fill line facing right.
8. Press ZERO. The display will show 0.000 mg/L Fe
9. Insert the prepared sample into the cell holder with the fill line facing right.
10. Press READ. Results are in mg/L Fe.

III.6.1.3.MEASURING FLUORIDE
Fluorides have dual significance in water supplies. High concentration causes dental fluorosis

and lower concentration (<0.8 mg/L) causes dental caries. A fluoride concentration of

approximately 1 mg/L in drinking water is recommended. They are frequently found in certain

industrial processes resulting in fluoride rich wastewaters. Significant sources of fluoride are

found in coke, glass and ceramic, electronics, pesticide and fertilizer manufacturing, steel and

aluminum processing and electroplating industries. It is calculated by SPADNS method.

Procedure

1. Press stored program

47
2. Select the wavelength (290 nm)

3. Blank Preparation: Pipet 10 ml of sample into the dry square sample cell.

4. Blank preparation: Pipet 10 ml of deionized water into the second dry square sample cell

5. Carefully pipet 2.0ml of SPADNS reagent to each cell. Swirl to mix

6. Press the timer ok. A one minute period reaction will begin

7. When the time expires, wipe the blank; insert it into the cell holder with the fill line facing

light. Press zero and the display will show 0.00 mg/l F-.

8. Wipe the prepared sample. Insert it into the cell holder with the fill line facing light. Press read

and the results are in mg/ F-.

III.6.2. Measuring of zinc

procedure

1. Press stored program

2. Select the wavelength (780 nm)
3. Fill a 25-mL graduated mixing cylinder with 20 mL of sample.
4. Add the contents of one ZincoVer 5 Reagent Powder Pillow to the cylinder. Stopper
5. Invert several times to dissolve the powder completely. Inconsistent readings may result
for low zinc concentrations if all the particles are not dissolved. The sample should be
orange. If the sample is brown or blue, either the zinc concentration is too high, or an
interfering metal is present. Dilute the sample and repeat the test.
6. Blank Preparation: Pour 10 mL of the solution into a square sample cell
7. Prepared Sample: Use a plastic dropper to add 0.5 mL of cyclohexanone to the
remaining solution in the graduated cylinder 30-second reaction
8. Press TIMER>OK. A 30-second reaction period will begin. During the reaction
period, stopper the cylinder and vigorously shake the prepared sample. The sample will
be reddish-orange, brown, or blue, depending on the zinc concentration.
9. Press TIMER>OK. A three-minute reaction period will begin. During this reaction
period, complete step 10

48
 10. Pour the prepared sample solution from the cylinder into a second square sample cell.
When the timer expires, wipe the blank and insert it into the cell holder with the fill line
facing right. Press ZERO. The display will show: 0.00mg/L Zn
11. Wipe the prepared sample and insert it into the cell holder with the fill line facing right.
Press READ. Results are in mg/L Zn.

III.6.3. MANGANESE MEASURING

Manganese is a mineral that naturally occurs in rocks and soil and is a normal constituent of the
human diet. It exists in well water as a naturally occurring groundwater mineral, but may also be
present due to underground pollution sources is abundant one of metals of the ground surface; it
is generally associated to iron (Fe). It is an energetic oxidant in form of permanganate (MnO4-)
which often used in water treatment to oxidize the organic matters.

The measuring of manganese in water

Reagents

potassium cyanide, ascorbic acid 1(2 pyridylazo)naphthol(PAN), alkaline-cyanide

Procedure

1. Press started program

2. Select the test (wavelength 290 manganese, LR PAN)

3. Blank preparation: Pour 10ml of deionized water to a square cell sample

4. Sample preparation: Pour 10ml of deionized water to other square sample cell

5. Add a content of ascorbic acid powder pillow to each cell. Stopper and invert to dissolve the

Powder.

6. Add 15 drops of alkaline-cyanide solution to each cell, swirl gently to mix. A cloudy solution

Maybe formed, the turbidity should dissipate after step 7

7. Add 21 drops of PAN indicator solution 0.1% to each sample cell; stopper and swirl gently to

mix. An orange color will develop in the sample if manganese present.

49
8. Press the timer ok and a two minute reaction will begin

9. When the timer expires, wipe the blank and insert it into the cell holder with the fill line facing

Light.

10. Press zero. The display is 0.00 mg/l Mn

11. Wipe the sample cell; insert it into the cell holder with the fill line facing light

12. Press read and the results are mg/l Mn.

III.6.4. MEASURING OF SILICA

Silicon dioxide, also known as silica is a chemical compound that is an oxide of silicon with the
chemical formula SiO2.All natural water supplies contain some dissolved “silica” and most will
also contain suspended or colloidal silica. In solution it can exist as silicic acid or silicate ion,
depending upon the pH.

Procedure

1. Press STORED PROGRAMS

2. Select the test. 651 silica LR
3. Fill two square sample cells with 10 mL of sample
4. Add 14 drops of Molybdate 3 Reagent to each sample cell. Swirl to mix
5. Press 04:00 min TIMER>OK. A four-minute reaction period will begin
6. When the timer expires, add the contents of one Citric Acid Reagent Powder Pillow to
each sample cell. Swirl to mix
7. Press 01:00 min TIMER>OK. A one-minute reaction period will begin. The destruction
of possible phosphate interference occurs during this period.
8. Prepared Sample: When the timer expires, add the contents of one Amino Acid F
Reagent Powder Pillow to one of the sample cells. Swirl to mix.
9. Blank Preparation: The sample without the Amino Acid F Reagent is the blank.
10. Press 02:00 min TIMER>OK. A two-minute reaction period will begin. A blue color will
develop if silica is present.
11. When the timer expires, wipe the blank and insert it into the cell , holder with the fill line
facing right
50
 12. Press Zero. The display will show: 0.000 mg/L SiO2
13. Wipe the prepared sample and insert it into the cell holder with the fill line facing right.
Press READ. Results are in mg/L SiO2.

III.6.5. Nitrogen ammonia (NH3 –N)

Ammoniacal nitrogen (NH3-N), is a measure for the amount of ammonia, a toxic pollutant often
found in landfill leachate and in waste products, such as sewage, liquid manure and other liquid
organic waste products.

It can also be used as a measure of the health of water in natural bodies such as rivers or lakes, or
in man-made water reservoirs. The term is used widely in waste treatment and water purification
systems.

MEASURING of nitrogen ammonia (NH3 –N)

During internship, salicylate method has been used two reagents which are ammonia cyanurate

reagent pillows and ammonia salicylate reagent pillows to determine the nitrogenous ammonia

present in water analysis.

Procedure

1. Press the stored program

2. Select the wavelength 380 N, Ammonia

3. Sample preparation: Fill the cell sample square with 10 mL mark with the sample

4. Blank preparation: Fill the second cell sample to10 mL mark with deionized water

5. Add a content of one ammonia salicylate powder pillow to each cell. Stopper and shake to
dissolve.

6. Press timer ok. A three-minute reaction begin

7. When the time expires, add a content of one Ammonia cyanurate reagent powder pillow to

each cell. Stopper and shake to dissolve.

51
8. Press the timer ok. A 15 minute reaction will begin. A green color will develop if N-Ammonia
present.

9. When the time expires, weep the blank and insert into the cell holder with the line facing light.

Press zero and the display is 0.0 mg/ L

10. Insert the sample insert into the cell holder with the line facing light. Press read and the

results are in mg/ L N- NH3

IIII.6.6. MEASURING OF NITRATE (NO3-)

Nitrate is one of the most frequent groundwater pollutants in rural areas. It needs to be regulated
in drinking water basically because excess levels can cause blue baby disease (a baby with a blue
complexion from lack of oxygen in the blood due to a congenital defect of the heart or major
blood vessels). Although nitrate levels that affect babies are not dangerous for older children and
adults, they do indicate the possible presence of other more serious residential or agricultural
pollutants, such as bacteria or pesticides. Nitrate is measured by using colorimetric method on
the UV spectrophotometer.

Apparatus required: Nessler's tube, pipettes, beakers, spectrophotometer, cuvettes, and square

sample cells

Reagent :NitraVer®5 Nitrate powder

Blank preparation

Measure 10 ml of deionized water

Procedure

(1)Press stored program

(2) Select the test (355nm, Nitrate HR PP),

(3) fill a square sample cell with 10 ml of sample,

(4) Sample preparation: add the content of NitraVer®5 Nitrate reagent Powder pillow and
52
stopper,

(5) Press the timer (ok) on the apparatus and one minute reaction begin, (6) shake the cell

vigorously until the timer expires,

(7) When the timer expires, press Timer ok again and a five-minute reaction period will begin.

An amber color develop if the Nitrate is present,

(8) Blank preparation: when the time expires, fill the second square sample cell with 10 ml of

the sample,

(9) Wipe the blank and insert into the cell holder with the fill line facing right,

(10) Press zero, the display will show 0.0mg/L NO3−−N,

(11) Within one minute after expires, wipe the prepared sample and insert it into the holder with

the fill line facing right,Press read and results are in mg/L NO3—N.

III.6.7. Phosphates (PO43-)

Phosphates are chemical compounds containing phosphorus. Phosphorus is a common

constituent of agricultural fertilizers, manure, and organic wastes in sewage and industrial
effluent. It is an essential element for plant life, but when there is too much of it in water, it can
speed up eutrophication (a reduction in dissolved oxygen in water bodies caused by an increase
of mineral and organic nutrients) of rivers and lakes. Soil erosion is a major contributor of
phosphorus to streams.

PHOSPHATES MEASURING

Use phosphate reagent (phospho Ver 3),the mixture of Potassium Persulphate (K2S2O8),
ascorbic acid and sodium Molybdate. . The phosphates ions react with Molybdenate to form a
yellow complex, phosphomolybdic that will react with ascorbic acid to generate the blue
coloured pieces of Molybdenum and titrate by colorimetric method.

Reagent: PhosVer®3 phosphate powder pillow, sample

Material: sample cells, spectrophotometer

53
Procedure

1. Press stored program Select the test (490 P React, PV),

2. Fill the square sample cell with 10 ml of sample,
3. Sample Preparation: add the content of PhosVer®3 phosphate powder pillow to the cell,
immediately stopper and shake vigorously for 30 seconds.
4. Press the timer (ok) on the apparatus and the a two-minute reaction period begin
5. Blank preparation: fill the second square sample cell with 10 ml of the sample,
6. When the timer expires, wipe the blank and insert into the holder with the fill line facing
right, press zero and the display will show 0.0mg/mL PO43−,
7. Wipe The prepared sample and insert it into the cell holder with fill line facing right,
press read
and the results are in mg/L PO43−.

III.6.8. Sulfates (SO42-)

Sulfate (SO4) occurs naturally in most of surface and groundwater, Sulfate is second to
bicarbonate as the major anion in hard water reservoirs. Sulfates (SO4--) can be naturally
occurring or the result of municipal or industrial discharges. When naturally occurring, they are
often the result of the breakdown of leaves that fall into a stream, of water passing through rock
or soil containing gypsum and other common minerals, or of atmospheric deposition. . At high
levels, sulfate can give water a bitter or astringent taste and can have laxative effects.

MEASURING OF SULFATES IN WATER

Reagents used: sulfaVer 4 reagent powder pillow, which contains barium chloride (BaCl2). This
one reacts with sulphate ions to form a white precipitate, which causes the turbidity of solution,
so the degree of turbidity is proportionally to the concentration of sulphate ions.

Ba 2+(aq) +SO4 2-(aq) BaSO4(s) (white)

54
Procedure

1. Press stored program

2. Select the test (wavelength 680 sulfate)

3. Fill a square sample cell with 10 ml of the sample

4. Sample preparation: Add contents of one sulfaVer 4 reagent powder pillow to the sample

cell. Swirl vigorously to dissolve the powder. A white turbidity will form if the sulfate present.

5. Press the time ok. A five minutes period reaction will begin. Don't disturb the cell during this

time.

6. Blank preparation: Add 10 ml of the sample to the second square sample cell

7. When the time expires, wipe the blank. Insert it into the Cell holder with the fill line facing

light. Press zero, the display will show 0.00mg/l SO42-

8. Within five-minutes after the time expires, wipe the prepared sample. Insert it into the cell

holder with the fill line facing light. Press read and the results are in mg/l SO42-.

III.7. VOLUMETRIC TITRATION

It is classical method of analysis used when there is being analysis of some chemical parameters.
This method consists on adding drop after drop a solution of titrant reagent using burette, in the
sample to be treated. The equivalent point is detected using an indicator.

III.7.1. TOTAL ALKALINITY (TAC)


Water alkalinity is characterized by presence of OH (strong base), CO32 (weak base) and
HCO3 (weak base).The measurement of water alkalinity consists on neutralization of these bases

by a strong diluted acid; generally sulfuric acid (H2SO4) the following equations:

55
OH _  H 3O   2 H 2 O
CO32  H 3O   HCO3  H 2 O
HCO3  H 3O   CO32  2 H 2 O

Other bases with appreciable forces but negligible concentration are neutralized by H3SiO4. (”
Environmental Chemistry Bosco Raton: DRC Press LLC, 2000 Manahan, Stanley
E”FRONTMATTER)

The objective of the experiment

The aim of this experiment is to have an idea about the ions in basic form, present in water from
different sites of distribution and to search for a technique to use for removing them from
drinkable water.

Reagents used:

100 ml of sample; drops of methyl orange and Sulfuric acid (H2SO4)

Materials used: Erlenmeyer flask; Burette and Dropper

Procedure

(i) For each sample, place 100 mL of sample in an Erlenmeyer flask.

(ii) Add 3 drops of methyl orange indicator solution to the flask.

(iii) Titrate sample with 0.02 N H2SO4(sulphuric acid), constantly swirling the flask content
above a white surface until just after the colour of the flask content change from yellow to red.

(iv) Record the volume of titrant used.

(v) Calculate Total Alkalinity as follows:

A * N *1000
Total alkalinity as mg/l CaCO3  *100 Or
2 * mLsample 
A * N *1000
Alkalinity (mg/L of HCO3)= * 61
mLsample 
56
where: A = mL of N H 2 SO4 used for methyl-orange end point.

N = Normality of H 2 SO4 , 100 and 61are molecular weight of H2CO3 and HCO3- respectively.

Then, converts the result in ppm; knowing that two successive dashes are equivalent to four ppm
of calcium carbonate.

III.7.3. MEASUREMENT OF TOTAL HARDNESS (TH)

Total hardness expresses the rate of calcium and magnesium present in water. The titration
consists on complexing these cations containing in a certain volume of sample by a solution of
EDTA with known concentration. The reaction of complexation is done according to the
following equation:

Ca2++Mg2++4Y4- → CaY 2  MgY 2

Where Y4- is Ethylene Diamine Tetraacetate.

Reagents

EDTA, Manver powder, Buffer hardness solution

Materials:Burette; Beaker; Erlenmeyer flask; Graduated cylinder; Laboratory spoon (spatula)

Procedure

Measure 50 ml in a graduated cylinder

Pour them in a flask of 100ml

Add 4 drops of buffer hardness solution

Add 5 ml manver using the spoon

Fill the burette by the titrant solution (EDTA)

Start the titration by pouring drop after drop in agitating till the equivalent point: the color will
change from red-violet to persistent.

57
Read the volume indicated by the burette.

III.8.THE BACTERIOLOGICAL SECTION

III.8.1. Introduction

Bacteriology is the study of bacteria. This subdivision of microbiology involves the

identification, classification, and characterization of bacterial species. Because of the similarity
of thinking and working with microorganisms other than bacteria, such as protozoa, fungi, and
viruses, there has been a tendency for the field of bacteriology to extend as microbiology. The
terms were formerly often used interchangeably. However, bacteriology can be classified as a
distinct science.

This section in charge of bacteriological analysis, help to estimate the number of bacteria which
are present in water and classify them. Those microorganisms are harmful for water quality even
if they can assure the auto epuration while destroying organic matter. The concentration of
bacteria water samples is determined by using analytical procedure. This process is used to
confirm that water is safe for human consumption or not.

III.8.2. BACTERIOLOGY OF WATER SAMPLES

Bacteriological analysis of water is employed to assess the sanitary quality of sources for
drinking supplies and to check the efficiency of the various purification processes so that safe
water is pumped to consumers.

III.8.2.1. WATER BACTERIA

Fecal coliform and E. coli are bacteria whose presence indicates that water may be contaminated
by human or animal wastes. Microbes in these wastes can cause short term effects, such as
diarrhea, cramps, nausea, headaches, or other symptoms.

Coliform bacteria are microorganisms found in surface, soil and in the feces of humans and
animals. However, their presence indicates that disease-causing organisms could be present.

58
Coliform bacteria in groundwater indicate that contaminated surface water is entering
groundwater without filtering effect that soils usually provide. In areas where the bedrock is
fractured and close to the surface, contaminated surface water can naturally find its way into the
groundwater.

Hence, bacteriological analysis of water allows:

● To explore the pathogenic bacteria

● To assess the risk of contamination by pathogenic bacteria
● Monitoring the effectiveness of water
During my internship, the analysis of different bacteria such as: Total coliforms at 370C , Fecal
coliforms at 440C and Escherichia coli at 440C and Fecal streptococcus at 37oC take place as
majority in water to determine water characteristics.

III.8.3. STEPS OF BACTERIOLOGICAL ANALYSIS

Bacteriological water analysis is a method of analyzing water to estimate the numbers of bacteria
present and, if needed, to find out what sort of bacteria they are. It represents one aspect of water
quality. It is a microbiological analytical procedure which uses samples of water and from these
samples determines the concentration of bacteria. The steps in bacteriological analysis are the
following:

● Preparation of materials
● Sampling and preparation of the sample
● Seeding and incubation at time and indicate temperature
● Reading the enumeration and isolation.

III.8.3.1. MATERIALS AND REAGENT

Before doing anything, have to prepare all material that will be needed.

Autoclave, Oven, Erlenmeyer, Aluminum foil, Analytical balance, Test tubes, Pipettes, Glass
bottles, spatula, pissete , graduated cylinder, filter, funnel, Petri dishes, pincer, Vacuum pump

59
Figure 20. Petri dish Figure 21. Autoclave Figure 22. Oven Figure 23. Analytical balance

Figure 24. Kadahokwa bacteriological apparatus

III.8.3.2. SAMPLING

The quality of analytical findings is directly affected by the way sampling is carried out. A
sample is a representative part which gives the necessary information to all population. A sample
must be analyzed with its validity to avoid chemical reactions. In fact, we must make water
samplings knowing that they will give the representative results of analysis for sampled water.
The sampling is going down on the ground in order to take samples on which we take care of,
because the hygiene influences on analytical results and on the interpretation. To avoid the
contamination of our sample, the sample containers must be very washed and rinsed with
distilled water for each bacteriological analysis.

60
III.8.3.3. CULTURE MEDIUM

The culture media are prepared according to the bacteria to be analyzed. Those media are:

★ Autoclave medium
★ Non autoclave medium(that doesn’t use heat)
★ Solid culture medium(which contain agar-agar as solidifying agent)
★ Liquid medium
The bacteria to be analyzed in water sample are fecal streptococcus at 37oC in 24h, Total coli
forms at 370C in 24 hours, fecal coliforms at 440C in 24 hours, Escherichia coli at 440C in 24
hours. It is necessary to achieve a certain dilution series if sample is turbid, in order to check
whether there is some bacteria, make three sample solution ,one which made with one dilution
and two others with two diluted. During our internship the prepared some media are available
such as:

➢ SLANETZ AND BARTLEY AGAR

Slanetz and Bartley Agar is a selective medium used for the enumeration of enterococci in
drinking water, beverages, waste water and various biological products of animal origin, by the
membrane filtration method.

➢ LAURYL SULFATE BROTH

Lauryl Sulphate Broth (Lauryl Tryptose Broth) is a medium used for the detection of coliforms
(Escherichia coli )in water, wastewater, dairy products and other food samples. The coliform
group of bacteria includes aerobic and facultative anaerobic, Gram-negative, non-spore forming
bacilli that ferment lactose and form acid and gas at 350C within 48 hours.

➢ PLANT COUNT AGAR (PCA)

Plant count agar is a solid and autoclavable medium which is used to analyse total coliforms

➢ PEPTONE WATER
Peptone water is a medium that used to analyse E.coli and Its composition is:10.0 grams of
sodium chloride, 5grs of peptone ;all in one liter of solution

61
III.8.3.4. IDENTIFICATION OF BACTERIA

III.8.3.4.i.Identification of total coliforms

This identification is occurring by making the filtration on membrane as the following manner:
100 ml of water well homogenized are filtered aseptically on a membrane of cellulose aster with
a porosity equal to 0.45µm and then that membrane is incubating on a coliform selective
medium(Lauryl sulfate broth and agar-agar). And then after, make the incubation of those mediums at
37oC during 24 hours which allow the counting of total coliforms.

III.8.3.3.ii. Identification of faecal coliforms

Procedure

1. 100mL of water well homogenized are filtered aseptically on membrane of

cellulose ester with a porosity of 0.45μm,
2. Five plates was prepared,
3. 10 ml of sample water is added to each plate,
4. Five plates containing 10 ml sterile lauryl sulfate broth,
5. This set of five tubes is then incubated at 44OC for 24 hrs
6. Count the number of colonies formed by total coliforms

III.8.3.4.iii. Identification of Escherichia Coli

Make the filtration of samples on a membrane which has porosity equal to 0.45µm. And then
incubate the boxes of each dilution at 44oC during 24 hours Counting the characteristic of
colonies: yellow, orange, or red brick with a central yellow halo in the middle of the membrane
and retain not less than 5 by membrane containing not more than 100 colonies, and then made
the seeding of 5 characteristics colonies in a universal peptone water and then incubated at 44oc
during 24 hours before calculating the number of colonies Escherichia coli for 100 ml of sample.

PROCEDURE

➔ Five tubes containing 5 ml of peptone water (solid media) are prepared

➔ Add 5 ml of sample water

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 ➔ Using hence platinum pick up at least one bacteria from fecal coliforms colony and insert
into the tube
➔ Repeat for the remaining tubes
➔ Incubate at 440C for 24h
➔ Add a kovac’s reagent to each tube
➔ Indole test positive: appearance of pink layer at top of the solution
➔ The appearance of this pink layer at top indicates the presence of Escherichia coli.

III.8.3.4.iv. Identification of Faecal streptococcus

PROCEDURE

➔ 100mL of water well homogenized are filtered aseptically on membrane of cellulose ester
with a porosity of 0.45μm,
➔ Prepare Five plates
➔ Add 1ml of sample water to each plate,
➔ Five plates containing 1 ml sterile slanetz and bartley agar( a solid media) growth,
➔ This set of five tubes is then incubated at 37OC for 24h,
➔ Count the number of colonies formed by Faecal streptococcus (each colony counts 16 x
106 bacteria).

III.9. RESULTS AND COMMENT

Table 5. RESULTS FOR BACTERIOLOGICAL ANALYSIS OF DIFFERENT SAMPLE

Sites Parameters Culture Medium Mpare R W Musange Mpare T W
Sw
Faecal streptococcus at 37oC slanetz and bartley 30*105/100mL 0/100 mL Absence/100mL
in 24h

Total coliforms at 370C in 24h Lauryl sulfate broth and 60000Cfu/100ml 84/100mL Absence/100mL
agar-agar

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 Faecal coliforms at 440C in Lauryl sulfate broth and
24h agar-agar
12Cfu/100ml 7/100mL Absence/100mL

Escherichia coli at 440C in Peptone water &Kovac's 20Cfu/100ml 0/100mL Absence/100mL

24h Reagent

During internship, the results show that the value of total aerobic germs at 370C for treated water
is in the range of WHO. This means that the water is acceptable to be used by the consumers
because it is not contaminated by the bacteria. But for raw water and source water, the values of
Fecal streptococcus at 37oC , Total coliforms at 370C , Fecal coliforms at 440C and Escherichia
coli at 440C are not in the range of WHO . This means that the raw water of Mpare was
contaminated; they cannot be consumed or used by consumers without treated, because that
water may cause them the diseases.

Table 6. JAR TEST RESULT

Beaker 1 2 3 4 5 6

Al2(SO4) in ppm 6 7 8 9 10 11

pH before test 6.8 6.8 6.8 6.8 6.8 6.8

pH after test 6.5 6.5 6.5 6.5 6.5 6.5

Polymer ( mg/l) - - - - - -

Turbidity before test in(NTU) 13.9 13.9 13.9 13.9 13.9 13.9

Turbidity after test in (NTU) 13.7 12.4 8.52 7.93 6.53 3.53

At KWTP, the lime is not used in water treatment due to the nature of water of unchanged pH of
6.8.From the above beakers numbered, observation and determination which one has the best results
take place. Underfeed will cause the sample to look cloudy with little or no flock and almost no settling.
Overfeed will cause a dense fluffy flock to occur and will not settle well. The beaker with an appropriate
dosage of coagulant will have flock that has settled to the bottom and the water above it will be clear.

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In first and second beaker the flocs formed are small, third and fourth beaker, flocs are medium and fifth
and sixth have the good flocs

By observation, the 6th beaker has the good flocks and had good pH, Turbidity the amount of coagulants

(Al2 (SO4) is satisfied.

CHAP IV. CONCLUSION

It is a great opportunity for me to complete the internship in KADAHOKWA water treatment

plant. KWTP is playing an important role in treating and distributing water in Huye District. The
authorities of KWTP are very considerate about all kinds of safety and security of that water
treatment plant. There I spent thirty days and experienced a lot of things during internship
program under a friendly environment which encouraged me to learn more things about the
water treatment plant and its water treatment system. At KWTP, I also observed the working
environment and their official activities. Kadahokwa WTP is composed by three sections: The
maintenance, Epuration and Quality control within this short period of time, I tried my best to
acquire knowledge about water treatment, water quality and water parameter control. I managed
to gain practical knowledge about some major equipment of all this WT plant. The theories that
I have learned at the university especially in Analytical chemistry could be observed at WKTP.
I hope that this experience will extend my knowledge effectively and provide me best future in
the field of water treatment sector.

The main objective of this internship is to link the theoretical skills studies and practical work
done on the field. I obtained enough knowledge on water treatment and water analysis. For the
analyses of sample, I observed that the results of all physicochemical parameters analyses are in
the range of WHO. During the period of this internship, I have been familiarized to the usage of
some lab materials and reagents according to analysis needed and have been applied to quality
control of natural water.

IV.1. PROBLEMS
Some problems during internship are observed. The problems are given below.
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 a. Practical participation (meaning hands-on experience) in KWTP site give me more
experience but I do not visit all of the sites for water sampling due to the short time.
b. Sometimes I could not collect all necessary data or information due to lack of electric
power.
c. Some parameters in water are not measured due to the lack of reagents including:
chromium,copper,Arsenic,Dissolved oxygen.Bromine,Iodine,free chlorine,etc

IV.2. RECOMMENDATION

I gain the information for water treatment plant and how the water can be treated by using
different techniques

Some recommendations are given for the students who want to do their internship program,
WASAC limited and University of Rwanda.

Students must complete the courses related to their internship before beginning the program.
Completing the related courses before the internship helps the students to understand the topic
better.

➢ The lack of some reagents for measuring water parameter are not found at
KWTP.then,WASAC should be able to dispose enough reagents for plant site in water
analysis, bacteriological analysis and physicochemical analysis.
➢ KWTP, for controlling the water quality in different network and the oldest pipes should
be replaced due to their negative effect degraded to the users.
➢ The University of Rwanda must help the students to find the internship place related to
their course and the internship budget for the students to be available before the work,to
fulfill their objectives.
➢ It would be better to the University of Rwanda to make relationship with many industries
(factories), laboratories and other companies where chemistry can be applied in order to
get enough knowledge for the students.

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References
 Viessman, W. and Hammer, M.J. Water Supply and Pollution Control, 6th ed., Menlo
Park, CA: Addison-Wesley, 1998.
 H.A. SOLANKI R.D. CHITNIS and H.A. BHAVSAR, Physico-chemical and bacterial analysis
of Sabarmati river in Ahmedabad, Department of botany ; University school of sciences, Gujarat
University. Ahmedabad , 2012. p. 3.
 AWWA (American Water Works Association). 1991.Guidance Manual for Compliance
with the Filtration and Disinfection Requirements for Public Water Systems Using
Surface Water.
 Monitoring Guidelines to Evaluate Effects of Forestry Activities on Streams in the Pacific
Northwest and Alaska, USEPA 910/9-91-001. (1991) L. MacDonald and R. Wissmar. U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency.
 EPA (Environmental protection Agency).1999. Guidance Manual for Potassium
permanganate as Alternative Disinfectants and Oxidants
 www.wasac.rw/WASAC Background. Referring to the Prime Minister's Order N° 87/03
dated on 16/08/2014.
 Biokar Diagnostics,SLANETZ AND BARTLEY AGAR, www.biokar-diagnostics.com,
assecced on 05th September 2015

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APPENDICES
PREPARATIONS OF CULTURE MEDIUM

PREPARATION OF SLANETZ AND BARTLEY AGAR

➢ Suspend 4.15 g of complete dehydrated medium (BK037) in 100 milliliter of distilled or

deionized water.
➢ Slowly bring to boiling, stirring with constant agitation until complete dissolution.
➢ Avoid excessive heating.
➢ Do not autoclave.
➢ Cool and maintain the medium at 44-47°C (do not remit a medium having previously
solidified).
➢ Pour into sterile Petri dishes (the agar layer should be 5 mm thick).
➢ Let solidify on a cold surface.
PREPARATION OF LAURYL SULFATE BROTH

 Measure 35.6g of Lauryl Tryptose Broth.

 Dissolve in 1 liter of distilled water

It contains Sodium lauryl sulfate, by inhibiting most gram-positive microorganisms, serves as a

selective agent for coliforms. The addition of lactose to the medium allows for detection of rapid
lactose fermentation by coliforms. Essential growth ingredients are provided by casein peptone
which is composed of nitrogen, carbon compounds, and sulfur and trace ingredients. Potassium
phosphate acts as a buffer while sodium chloride serves to maintain osmotic equilibrium.

PREPARATION OF PLANT COUNT AGAR (PCA)

● Dissolve 1.75g of PCA in 100 ml of distilled water
● Heat to boiling at the same time shaking frequently
● Sterilization by using the autoclave at 1210C for 15 minutes. This boiling is used in order
to dissolve agar-agar.
JAR TEST PREPARATION OF STOCK SOLUTION

For alum, use a 1 % solution. Dissolve 10 grams into 1000 ml distilled water.
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 (1 ml = 10 mg/l in 1000 ml)

PREPARATION OF SOLUTION OF ORTHOTOLIDINE

● Weigh 1.35g of orthotolidine and dissolve it in 500ml of distilled water(I)

● Measure 150 ml of HCl (32 % or 37%) and then mix them with 350 ml of distilled water(II).
● Mix two obtained solutions and then make the conservation of the solution in grey bottles in the
absence of light.
PREPARATION OF METHYL ORANGE

● Weigh 0.5g of methyl and dissolve it in 500ml of distilled.

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