ECO-CHRONICLE 43

ECO CHRONICLE
ISSN: 0973-4155
RNI No. KERENG/2006/19177
Vol. 13, No. 2, June, 2018
PP: 43 - 50

MECHANISMS CONTROLLING SEASONAL HYDROCHEMISTRY OF VAMANAPURAM

RIVER BASIN, KERALA, INDIA

Vinod Gopal, V1., Dhanya, G2. and Sabu Joseph 3

Department of Environmental Sciences, University of Kerala, Trivandrum, Kerala.
1
gopalvinod85@gmail.com 2gdhanyakrish@gmail.com 3jsabu2000@gmail.com

ABSTRACT

The present study focuses on the hydrochemistry of Vamanapuram River Basin (VRB). Samples were collected from
twenty five stations with respect to seasons. The data shows lowland and midland stations having exceedingly high
values. The impact of anthropogenic pollution is severe during monsoon, compared to non-monsoon, owing to the influx
from sub-basins with heavy precipitation. Na plays the dominant role in the river for all seasons. The dominance of
cations are in the order Na>Ca>Mg>K (monsoon), Na>Ca>Mg>K (post monsoon) and Na>K>Ca>Mg (pre monsoon)
and anions in the order Cl>SO4>HCO3>Si2O3 for all the seasons. All nutrients studied were within affordable limits. The
Piper tri-linear diagram revealed that VRB carries mainly 17 types of waters during the study period; 7 water types are
flowing through different terrains of the VRB and variations are prevalent according to seasons. The water types of the
VRB are controlled mainly by rocks in nature and human interventions that are particularly evident on monsoon. It was
also observed that during the flow, with regard to the changes in season, the water type changed in each point. The
Gibbs diagram proclaims the soil matrix / aquifer-surface water interaction and it seems to be the major process that
controls the groundwater chemistry of this area. The water confining to the river is free from ions attributing corrosion
and can be safely transported through pipelines, except T- 4 in post monsoon season.

INTRODUCTION

The hydrology of streams is extensively confined to the
lithology of the upper reaches of basins. Rock weathering
in the watershed helps in understanding the chemical
weathering as water plays a major part in rock weathering.
Deforestation gains importance as a cause for erosion;
the mass erosion of fertile substrates not only turns farm-
land into barren land but also adds nutrients to the ultimate
sinks viz., rivers and lakes, thus virtually causing chemical
contamination (Chapman, et al., 2001). The excessive
use of organic fertilizers and manure used as for
agricultural enrichment can cause eutrophication in the
main streams, followed by ecosystem imbalance (Billen,
et al., 2007; Corriveau, et al., 2010).
and chemical environment of rivers and their ecological
status are poorly understood (Hilton, et al., 2006). Hence,
it is necessary to check the water quality of streams
periodically, which can have long term engrossment with
earth’s maternity.
Gibbs and McIntyre (1970) proposed a diagram
which represents the ratio of (Na + + K + ) /
(Na++K++Ca2+) and Cl- / (Cl-+ HCO3-) as a function
of TDS. Based on the Gibbs diagram, there are three
major mechanisms that regulate the chemistry of
surface water, viz., evaporation dominance,
precipitation dominance and rock dominance.

Eventhough, the spatial and temporal disparities in water Study Area

quality are highly prominent and the controlling factors
such as climate (temperature, humidity, wind and
precipitation), rock types, vegetation, groundwater
contribution, rainwater and flow rate variations (Fritzsons,
et al., 2003) add impetus to the thrilling enthusiasm of
researchers, yet the interactions between the physical
The Vamanapuram river originates from Chemmunji
mottai (elevation:1717m. a.m.s.l.), in the high ranges
of the Western Ghats in southern Kerala, one of
the eight prime “hottest hotspots” of biological
diversity in the world, and traverses through the
highland and midland of Thiruvananthapuram and
44 ECO-CHRONICLE

Kollam districts before debouching into the Anchuthengu
lake in the lowland region at Chiryankeezhu, Kerala
(Fig.1). The Vamanapuram River Basin (VRB) lies
between 835' to 850’ N latitudes and 7640’ to 7715' E
longitudes and is bounded by Nedumangadu taluk of
Thiruvananthapuram district in the south, Kottarakkara
taluk of Kollam district in the north, Tamil Nadu State in
the east and the Arabian Sea in the west. It nourishes 29
panchayats and one municipality located within the basin.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Prior to the selection of surface water sampling sites,
the study area (i.e., Vamanapuram River Basin, VRB)
was visited to identify the stressed locations on the river.
Based on this, a total of 25 sampling sites covering the
main stream (n= 20; S1 to S20), major tributaries (n= 4;
T1 to T4) and river estuary (n=1; L) were selected with
an interval of ~5 km. Surface water samples (Tot. No. =
75) were collected (~1L each) ~5m away from the margin
on the right bank of the river for three seasons (viz.,
Monsoon (MON), August 2012; Post-monsoon (POM),
December 2012 and Pre-monsoon (PRM), March 2013)
for a period of one year. The portrait of sampling stations
is given in Fig.1.
Gibbs ratio
Gibbs ratios are calculated by the following formulae.
Gibbs Ratio I Cation = [(Na + + K+) / (Na+ + K+ + Ca2+)]
Gibbs Ratio II Anion = [Cl - / (Cl- + HCO3-)]
Where all the ion concentrations are expressed in meq/l.
Hydrochemical Facies
The facies are a function of lithology, solution kinetics, surface water of study area. During monsoon season,
and flow patterns and to evaluate the hydrogeochemistry the majority of water samples (n= 19), the major cations
(Raju et al., 2009) of surface waters in the VRB, the
chemical data of important anions and cations such as
CO3-, HCO3-, SO42-, Cl-, Ca2+, Mg2+, Na+, and K+ are plotted
on the Piper-trilinear diagram (Piper, 1994) with the help
of Aquachem Software to infer hydrochemical facies in
order to understand and identify the suitability of water
composition in different classes. The diamond-shaped
field between the two triangles is used to represent the
composition of water with respect to both cations and
anions from which the relation between alkaline earths
(Ca 2+ +Mg 2+ ) and alkali metals (Na + +K + ) can be
understood. The points for both the cations and anions
are plotted on the appropriate triangle diagrams
(Ramkumar et al., 2010). The positions of the points are
projected parallel to the magnesium and sulphate axes,
respectively, until they intersect in the centre field
(Wasim, et al., 2014).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Major physico-chemical characteristics of surface water
samples (n=75) for three seasons, viz., monsoon (MON),
post-monsoon (POM) and pre-monsoon (PRM) are given
in Table 1.
Gibbs Surface Water Chemistry
From the plot (Table 2 & Fig. 3(a) – 5(b) it could be
realized that, in PRM and POM seasons, most of the
samples (n= 19) of the study area fell in the category of
rock dominance and the remaining six samples were in
the evaporation dominance. So, the weathering of rock
minerals and the soil - water interaction could be the
main processes which contribute the major ions to

Fig. 1 Location map- Vamanapuram River Basin

Table 1. Seasonal fluctuations of hydrochemical variables in Vamanapuram River Basin
ECO-CHRONICLE
45
46 ECO-CHRONICLE

were contributed by precipitation dominance and for the Fig. 2(a) Piper-trilinear diagram for Monsoon - VRB
rest, evaporation dominance. At the same time, the
source of anions in majority of water samples (n=19) S1

were met from precipitation dominance and the rest was 80 80

S2
S3
from rock dominance and evaporation dominance. S4

>
4=
60 60 S5

SO

<=
S6

Ca
+
Cl
40 40 S7
The Hydrochemical Facies

+Mg
S8

The chemical data of important anions and cations such 20 20 S9

S10
as CO3-, HCO3-, SO42-, Cl-, Ca2+, Mg2+, Na+, and K+ are S11

Mg SO4 S12
plotted on the Piper-trilinear diagram (Piper, 1944) to S13
S14
infer hydrochemical facies in order to understand and 80 80 S15
S16
identify the suitability of water composition in different 60 60 S17

classes. The surface water samples from the VRB have S18
S19
40 40
S20
Table 2. Mechanisms controlling surface water 20 20
T1
T2
chemistry (Gibbs ratio) T3
T4

20

40

60

80
80

60

40

20
L
MON POM PRM Ca Na+K HCO3+CO3 Cl

Gibbs Gibbs Gibbs Gibbs Gibbs Gibbs

Loci
Cation Anion Cation Anion Cation Anion Fig. 2(b) Piper-trilinear diagram for Post-monsoon – VRB

S1
S1 0.6 0.03 0.16 0.06 0.53 0.14 S2
80 80 S3
T1 0.47 0.04 0.28 0.07 0.44 0.17 S4

>
4=
60 60 S5

SO

<=
S2 0.43 0.03 0.27 0.08 0.37 0.1 S6

Ca
+
Cl
40 40 S7

+Mg
S8
S3 0.61 0.02 0.37 0.08 0.51 0.1 20 20 S9
S10

T2 0.66 0.02 0.27 0.21 0.68 0.12 S11

Mg SO4 S12
S13
S4 0.63 0.03 0.22 0.06 0.42 0.12 S14
80 80 S15
S5 0.63 0.03 0.17 0.12 0.47 0.13 S16
60 60 S17
S18
S6 0.63 0.04 0.17 0.08 0.47 0.13 S19
40 40
S20
S7 0.58 0.02 0.25 0.12 0.65 0.12 20 20
T1
T2
T3
S8 0.65 0.05 0.16 0.03 0.39 0.13 T4
20

40

60

80
80

60

40

20

L
Ca Na+K HCO3+CO3 Cl
S9 0.68 0.03 0.19 0.03 0.67 0.13

S 10 0.65 0.05 0.16 0.03 0.51 0.12

S 11 0.49 0.03 0.11 0.03 0.18 0.09 Fig. 2(c) Piper-trilinear diagram for Pre-monsoon – VRB

S 12 0.67 0.04 0.17 0.1 0.67 0.14

S1
T3 0.67 0.1 0.24 0.09 0.68 0.12 S2
80 80 S3
S 13 0.7 0.04 0.4 0.11 0.51 0.12 S4
>
4=

60 60 S5
SO

<=

S 14 0.72 0.03 0.24 0.08 0.65 0.07 S6

Ca
+
Cl

40 40 S7
+Mg

S8
S 15 0.69 0.02 0.27 0.07 0.64 0.11 20 20 S9
S10

S 16 0.72 0.06 0.2 0.1 0.47 0.12 S11

Mg SO4 S12
S13
S 17 0.92 0.29 0.9 0.79 0.91 0.69 S14
80 80 S15

S 18 0.98 0.52 0.94 0.89 0.95 0.71 S16

60 60 S17
S18
T4 0.89 0.22 0.71 0.61 0.97 0.64 S19
40 40
S20

S 19 0.88 0.55 0.89 0.81 0.95 0.63 20 20

T1
T2
T3
S 20 0.93 0.69 0.89 0.84 0.95 0.6 T4
20

40

60

80
80

60

40

20

L
Ca Na+K HCO3+CO3 Cl
L 0.71 0.86 0.72 0.92 0.96 0.52
 ECO-CHRONICLE 47

Fig. 3 (a) Cations controlling mechanisms of water quality - Fig. 3(b) Anions controlling mechanisms of water quality -
MON MON

Fig. 4(a) Cations controlling mechanisms of water quality - Fig. 4(b) Anions controlling mechanisms of water quality -
POM POM

Fig. 5(a) Cations controlling mechanisms of water quality - Fig. 5(b) Anions controlling mechanisms of water quality -
PRM PRM
48 ECO-CHRONICLE

diagrams revealed the analogies, dissimilarities and been plotted on Piper diagram (Fig. 2(a) to 2(c)) and
types of different water in the study areas which were these ammonium sulphate fertilizers used in fields also
identified and summarized in the Table 3. contribute) and the remaining have non-carbonate
hardness (Secondary salinity results from human
From the plots and tables (3 & 4), it is evident that seasonal activities like land development and agriculture).
fluctuations do occur in water samples. During MON, out Common forms of secondary salinity are the result of
of the 25 samples, majority (47%) fell in the Mg-Cl-HCO 3 rising groundwater tables (from excessive irrigation) or
type, followed by 5 samples (20%) in Na-Mg-Cl facies, 4 the use of poor quality water, clearing vegetation
samples (16%) in Cl- HCO3 facies and the remaining are changes in land use and sea water intrusion. In PRM,
in Na-Cl-HCO3, Na-Cl, Ca-Cl-HCO3 and Na-Ca-Cl-HCO3 80% of the water is controlled by strong acids (natural
facies, respectively. In POM the water samples showed a and anthropogenic). In POM, 52% of the water is
scattering pattern, and a generalisation is not possible. controlled by alkaline earth metals (major source of ‘Ca’
Na-Cl facies was occupied by six water samples (24%) and ‘Mg’ are rock weathering by nature and by artificial
another six samples (24%) belonged to Mg-Ca-Cl facies. as sewage and some industrial wastes), cause for
Four water samples (16%) were located in the Mg-Cl hardness.
category, while three (12%) were in Ca-Cl-HCO3 facies. Table 3 Water classification of Vamanapuram River Basin
At the same time, 2 samples (8%) were of Ca-Mg-Cl-HCO3 (Piper Diagram)
type and the other two were (8%) in the Mg-Ca-Cl-HCO3
facies. The remaining water samples fell in Na-Ca-Cl (4%) Water Type
and Ca-Mg-Cl (4%) category. During PRM, major water
Loci Pre-
type was Mg-Cl and this occupied by 15 samples (60%), Monsoon Post-monsoon
and another five (20%) belonged to Na-Cl facies. The monsoon
remaining water samples were belonged to Ca-Cl (4%), S1 Mg-Cl-HCO3 Mg-Ca-Cl Mg-Cl
Mg-Cl-SO4 (4%), Na-Cl-SO4 (4%), Cl (4%), and Mg-Ca-Cl T1
Ca-Cl-HCO3 Mg-Cl Mg-Cl
(4%) category, respectively.
S2 Cl-HCO3 Mg-Cl Mg-Cl-SO4
Appelo and Postma (1996)suggested that the Ca-Cl S3 Mg-Cl-HCO3 Mg-Ca-Cl Mg-Cl
water type indicated the active process of saline water T2 Mg-Cl-HCO3 Mg-Cl Mg-Cl
mixing where, Na+ from sea water is exchanged for Ca 2+
adsorbed on the clays. It is not considered that ion- S4 Mg-Cl-HCO3 Mg-Ca-Cl-HCO3 Mg-Cl
exchange during the saline water incursion is the only S5 Cl-HCO3 Ca-Mg-Cl Mg-Cl
thing responsible for this water type here, but it may also S6 Mg-Cl-HCO3 Ca-Cl-HCO3 Cl
be from atmospheric dry deposition, wastewater from
septic tanks and other sources of domestic and industrial S7 Cl-HCO3 Mg-Ca-Cl Mg-Cl
wastewaters, fertilizers, etc. S8 Na-Cl-HCO3 Mg-Ca-Cl-HCO3 Mg-Ca-Cl
S9 Mg-Cl-HCO3 Ca-Mg-Cl-HCO3 Mg-Cl
The mixed Ca-Mg-Cl water type indicated that these
S10 Mg-Cl-HCO3 Ca-Mg-Cl-HCO3 Mg-Cl
samples occurred under the rock types of Ca-Mg-Cl and
the water type were referred to as base exchange water S11 Mg-Cl-HCO3 Ca-Cl-HCO3 Ca-Cl
ions compared to available alkali metal ions (Na + K) in S12 Mg-Cl-HCO3 Mg-Ca-Cl Mg-Cl
equivalent concentrations. Relatively high Cl - ion
T3 Na-Cl Ca-Cl-HCO3 Mg-Cl
concentrations in the water might be due to the alteration
of biotite in the weathered and fracture zones of the S13 Mg-Cl-HCO3 Mg-Cl Mg-Cl
underlying biotite-rich basement rocks, viz., biotite S14 Mg-Cl-HCO3 Mg-Ca-Cl Mg-Cl
gneisses, biotite schists, biotite granites, etc. (Samanta, et
S15 Cl-HCO3 Mg-Cl Mg-Cl
al., 2013). These excess HCO3- ions then caused the
release of earth alkaline ions into the solution by exchange S16 Mg-Cl-HCO3 Mg-Ca-Cl Mg-Cl
reaction with exchanger such as clay minerals (Drever, S17 Na-Mg-Cl Na-Cl Na-Cl
1997).
S18 Na-Mg-Cl Na-Cl Na-Cl

The water types of the VRB are controlled mainly by T4 Na-Mg-Cl Na-Cl Na-Cl
rocks in nature and human interventions particularly S19 Na-Mg-Cl Na-Cl Na-Cl
evident in MON. About 52% of samples are neutral,
S20 Na-Mg-Cl Na-Cl Na-Cl
having no cationic- anionic domination, and 28% of
samples are acidic (acidity from SO 4 in rocks and L Na-Ca-Cl-SO4 Na-Ca-Cl Na-Cl-SO4
 ECO-CHRONICLE 49

The Piper tri-linear diagram reveals that the surface water
samples collected from the different points of the VRB
carry mainly 17 types of waters during the study period.
On an average, 7 water types are flowing through
different terrains of the VRB and variations are seen
according to seasons. In MON and PRM season, 7 types
of waters were flowing along the VRB, while in POM it
became 8 types. But during the flow, when the season
changed the water type in each point was also changed.
In the river estuary the water type was Na-Ca-Cl-SO 4
type during MON, and changed to Na-Ca-Cl facies in
POM and Na-Cl-SO4 in PRM season.
The water samples from S1, 3, 4, 6, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13,
14, 16 and T2 were distributed in Mg-Cl-HCO 3 facies in
MON and in POM the S1, 3, 12, 14 and 16 were changed
to Mg-Ca-Cl water type and in PRM these waters further
changed to Mg-Cl category.
The water from S4, S6 and S11 were changed to Mg-
Ca-Cl-HCO 3, Ca-Cl-HCO 3 and Ca-Cl-HCO 3 facies in
POM and in PRM it converted to Mg-Cl, Cl and Ca-Cl
respectively. While the samples such as S9 and S10
were changed to Ca-Mg-Cl-HCO3 and Ca-Mg-Cl-HCO3
type in POM, while in PRM, both these waters exhibited
Mg-Cl type character. During POM and PRM season,
the water distributed in S13 and T2 (Mg-Cl-HCO 3) were
changed to Mg-Cl category. During MON, the water
samples from S2, S5, S7 and S15 shows Cl- HCO 3 water
type and S2 and S15 were changed to Mg-Cl category,
S5 changed to Ca-Mg-Cl category and S7 changed to
Mg-Ca-Cl category. But during PRM season S5, S7 and
S15 were showed Mg-Cl type water and S2 showed Mg-
Cl-SO4 water. The water samples from S17, S18, S19,
S20 and T4 were located in Na-Mg-Cl facies during MON
and were changed to Na-Cl facies in the POM and PRM
season. The water sample collected from S8 was Na-
Cl-HCO3 type in MON and changed to Mg-Ca-Cl-HCO 3
in POM and Mg-Ca-Cl in PRM season. The T3 and T4
samples were belongs to Na-Cl and Na-Mg-Cl type in
MON season, changed to Ca-Cl-HCO 3 and Na-Cl type
in POM and Mg-Cl and Na-Cl type in PRM season.
CONCLUSION
The quality analysis of water samples covering the main
stream, major tributaries and river estuary for MON, POM
and PRM has revealed that physico-chemical
parameters do show both spatial and temporal variations.
Spatially, the various parameters, in general, exhibit an
increasing trend towards downstream. Various cations
like Ca, Mg, Na, K are within permissible limits. However,
Cl registers an increasing trend in the downstream.
Seasonally, PRM shows higher values for most of the
physical parameters. Whereas, some parameters like
Na & Cl are dominating in POM. Na plays a dominant
role in the river for all seasons and the dominance of
cations are Na>Ca>Mg>K (MON), Na>Ca>Mg>K (POM)
and Na>K>Ca>Mg (PRM). Again, dominance of anions
varies Cl>SO 4>HCO3>Si 2O 3 for all the seasons and
nutrients are in affordable limit.
Gibbs diagram indicates that during PRM and POM
seasons, rock weathering (soil - water interaction) and
evaporation are the major process control the water
chemistry, while during MON precipitation and

Table 4. Seasonal variations of water types of Vamanapuram River Basin (Piper Diagram)

Subdivision No. of samples

of the Characteristics of corresponding subdivision of diamond shaped fields
diamond MON POM PRM

1 Alkali earth (Ca2++Mg2+) exceeds alkalies (Na++K+) 13

+ + 2+ 2+
2 Alkalies (Na +K ) exceeds alkaline earth (Ca +Mg )
3 Weak acids (CO3-+HCO3-) exceeds strong acids (SO42-+Cl-)
4 Strong acids (SO42-+Cl-) exceeds weak acids (CO3-+HCO3-) 7 5 20
Carbonate hardness (Secondary alkalinity) exceeds 50% (Chemical properties
5
are dominated by alkaline earth and weak acids)
Non-carbonate hardness (Secondary salinity) exceeds 50% (Chemical
6 5 7 5
properties are dominated by alkaline earth and strong acids)
Carbonate alkalinity (Primary salinity) exceeds 50% (Chemical properties are
7
dominated by alkaline earth and weak acids)
Carbonate alkalinity (Primary alkalinity) exceeds 50% (Chemical properties are
8
dominated by alkalies and weak acids)
9 Mixed types (No cation-anion pairs exceeds 50%) 13
50 ECO-CHRONICLE

evaporation are the major process controlling water Gibbs, J. and McIntyre, G. A., 1970. “The diagram, a
chemistry. In order to identify the hydrochemical facies method for comparing sequences”, European Journal
of water for different seasons using Piper diagram, it of Biochemistry, vol. 16(1), pp. 1-11.
has been observed that facies are changing with
seasons. During MON 47% samples belong to Mg-Cl- Raju, N. J., Ram, P. and Dey, S., 2009. “Groundwater
HCO3 type. However, during POM, no facies type is Quality in the Lower Varuna River Basin, Varanasi
dominating and 24% of the samples show each Mg-Ca- District, Uttar Pradesh, India”, Journal of the Geological
Cl and Mg-Cl category. During PRM 60% of sample Society of India, vol. 7, pp. 178-192.
belonged to Mg-Cl type.
Piper, M., 1944. “A graphical procedure in the geochemical
REFERENCES interpretation of water analysis”, Transactions American
Geophysical Union, vol. 25, pp. 914–928.
Chapman, P. M., Birge, W. J., Adams, W. J., Barrick, R.,
Bott, T. L., Burton, A., Collier, T. K., Cumberland, H. L., Ramkumar, T., Venkatramanan, S., Mary, A. I., Tamilselvi,
Douglas, W. S., Johnson, L. L., Luther, G. W., O‘Connor, M. and Ramesh, G., 2010. “Hydrogeochemical quality
T., Page, D. S., Sibly, P., Standley, L. L. and Wenning, of groundwater in Vedaraniyam town, Tamilnadu, India”,
R. J., 2001. “Learned discourse: Sediment quality values Research Journal of Environmental and Earth Sciences,
(SQVs): Challenges and recommendations”, SETAC vol. 2(1), pp. 44-48.
Globe, vol. 2, pp. 24–26.
Wasim, S., Khurshid, S., Shah, Z. and Raghuvanshi, D., 2014.
Billen, G., Garnier, J., Nemery, J., Sebilo, M., Sferratore, “Groundwater Quality in Parts of Central Ganga Basin, Aligarh
A., Barles, S. and Benoît, M., 2007. “A long-term view of City, Uttar Pradesh, India”, The Proceedings of the National
nutrient transfers through the Seine river continuum”, Academy of Sciences, India, vol. 80(1), pp. 123-142.
Science of the total Environment, vol. 375(1), pp. 80-
97. Appelo, C. A. J. and Postma, D., 1996. “Ion exchange
and sorption”, Geochemistry, Groundwater and Pollution,
Corriveau, J., van Bochove, E. and Cluis, D., 2010. Balkema, pp. 142–201.
“Sources of nitrite in streams of an intensively cropped
watershed”, Water Environment Research, vol. 82(7), Samanta, P., Mukherjee, A. K., Pal, S., Senapati, T.,
pp. 622-632. Mondal, S. and Ghosh, A. R., 2013. “Major ion chemistry
and water quality assessment of waterbodies at Golapbag
Fritzsons, E., Hindi, E. C., Mantovani, L. E. and Rizzi, N. area under Barddhaman Municipality of Burdwan District,
E., 2003. “Conseqüências da alteração da vazão sobre W est Bengal, India”, International Journal of
alguns parâmetros de qualidade de água fluvial”, Revista Environmental Sciences, vol. 3(6), pp. 1938-1956.
Floresta, vol. 33(2), pp. 201-214.
Drever, J. I., 1997. “Weathering processes”, In: Saether,
Hilton, J., O’Hare, M., Bowes, M. J. and Jones, J. I., O. and de Caricat, P. (Eds.), Geochemical Processes,
2006. “How green is my river? A new paradigm of Weathering and Groundwater Recharge in Catchments,
eutrophication in rivers”, Science of the Total Taylor & Francis publications, Rotterdam, Balkema,
Environment, vol. 365(1), pp. 66-83. Chapter 1, pp. 3–19.