INTRODUCTION

1.1 HISTORY OF COAL MINING

There is evidence in India's archaeological relics to suggest strongly the inference that coal was
being utilised in the more remote periods of the country's history*. In Wales, there is archaeological
evidence that coal was burned in funeral pyres in Bronze Age, some 3000-4000 years ago**. But the earliest
reference to it in literature dates from 350 B.C., when Theophrastus, a pupil of Aristotle recorded the use of
coal by the smiths of Genoa and Liguria (Brayan, 1979), The Romans mined coal from outcrops in England
before 400 A.D. and used it for smithy work, lime burning, metallurgy and domestic heating. The monks of
Tynemouth mined outcrop coal in the North of England in the thirteenth century A.D. The Hopi Indians of
the United States of America mined coal by picking and scraping and used it for heating, cooking and
ceremonial chambers as early as twelfth century A.D. and they used it for industrial purposes in the
fourteenth century A.D. Marco Polo has reported widespread use of coal in China in the thirteenth century
A.D. However, it is only after 1500 A.D. that coal mining emerged as a basic industry and by the second
half of the nineteenth century coal mining had spread in different countries of the world and between 1835
and 1882 the volume of world coal production went up from 36 million tons to 422 million tons, and coal
became a primary source of energy for the industrialised countries of the world. In 1900, about 95 per cent
of the world's commercial energy was derived from coal, 4 per cent from oil and gas, and less than 1 per
cent from hydraulic sources (Ghose, 1979).
With the advent of oil in the present century, the industrialised nations of the world became more
and more dependent on oil for their energy needs, and the share of coal to meet the energy requirements fell
down considerably. The picture again changed after the energy crisis of 1973 which resulted in the manifold
increase in the price of petroleum. All the countries the world over, developed and developing, focussed
their attention on the development of their coal resources so as to reduce dependence on oil.

1.2 WORLD COAL PROSPECTS

Figure 1.1 projects the forecasts of the energy consumption and source of supply up to 2020 A.D.,
and shows how the mix of supply is bound to change in the future (Gross, 1979). Oil and natural gas
production is shown to peak at about the year 2000 and after that their production will decline. The
production of coal or the energy produced by coal gasification and liquefaction will increase,
 Report of the Indian Coalfields Committee, G.O.I,, Manager of Publications, Delhi, 1946, Vol. I, p. 19.
 The New Encyclopaedia Britanica. 15th Edition, Helen Hemingway, Benton, London, 1977, Vol. 4, p.
773.

Figure 1.1: Forecast of Energy Consumption and Source of Supply Until 2020.
(Source: Mining Journal, March 3, 1978, 290 (7437), p. 150).
Doerell (1983) has shown (Table 1.1) that over the period 1973 to 2000 A.D., the share of oil and
natural gas in the total demand will decline and that of coal will increase. There will be more significant
increase in the contribution of nuclear energy.
 Table 1.1: Breakdown of energy demand by Source (After Doerell, 1983)

1973 1981 2000

Demand (1) Percent Demand (1) Percent Predictable range
(per cent)
Oil (2) 4197 47.3 4353 42.3 30-36
Natural gas 1614 18.1 1998 19.4 18-20
Coal/Lignite 2052 28.2 3011 29.3 30-33
Hydraulic power 492 5.6 625 6.1 6-8
Nuclear energy 72 0.8 286 2.8 7-9
Other energies — — — — 0-2
Total 8872 10273
(1) 1000000 tonnes hard coal equivalent
(2) Includes heavy oils, oil shale, and tar sand.

Figure 1.2: Forecast of Coal Production until the Year 2000.

(Source: Mining Annual Review —1985, Mining Journal, London, p. 219)
The International Energy Agency (IEA)* in its 1995 edition of World Energy Outlook says that
during the next 15 years the world energy demand will continue to rise rapidly and by 2010 the world is
projected to consume between 34% and 45% more energy than it did in 1992. The global energy system will
remain overwhelmingly based on the burning of fossil fuels. By the year 2010 fossil fuels are forecast to
meet nearly 90% of global energy consumption. Within fossil fuels the share of oil will continue to decline
and for technological and environmental reasons there will be significant increase in the use of gas
especially as a power generation fuel, and there will be sharp expansion in gas trade. Coal is already an
important part of world trade and the amount traded internationally since 1973 has doubled and the volume
would again rise by 2030. It is expected to increase at an average annual rate of 4.2% up to 2010. Exports
are expected to rise from 403 Mt in 1992 to about 560 Mt in 2000 and to more than 850 Mt by 2010. The
IEA believes that the growth of nuclear power during the next 15 years will slow down, it being
insignificant in developing countries. On the other hand, development of hydroelectric power in developing
countries will grow substantially and is likely to double by 2010.
* Mining Journal, London, 1995. Vol. 325, No. 8334, pp. 10-11.
Different projections of the coal production in the years to come have been made by different
persons. In a survey An Appraisal of World Coal Resources and Their Future Availability, prepared by
Peters and Schilling, the estimated coal production in 2000 and 2020 is given as 5780 and 8846 million
tonnes respectively.* The study points out that if sufficient incentives are provided, then it is technically
possible to increase world coal production from 2593 million tonnes in 1975 to an estimated 13061 million
tonnes in 2020 (Table 1.2)
* World Coal Production 50 per cent Higher by 2020, World Coal, 1978, Vol. 4, No. 9, p. 36
 Table 1.2: Growth rate in world coal output
Period Growth rate percent per year Year World coal output x 106 tonnes
1975-1985 5.7 1975 2593
1985-2000 3-4 1985 4503
2000-2020 2.9 2000 7420
1975-2020 3.7 2020 13061
Source: World Coal, Vol. 4 No. 9, Sept. 1978, p. 36
One of the United Nations reports suggests that although worldwide coal demand will continues to
grow, it will be some 30% lower than that was being predicted during the oil crisis at the end of 1970s. The
report predicts that the coal demand in the year 2000 will be 4,000-4500, million tons per year; some 500
million tons of this will be traded internationally. The report from the Economic Commission for Europe
(ECE) also states that further downward revisions are likely in the future, although they will be less
dramatic.* Bryson (1986) based on estimates from the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe
has estimated that the world's coal production will rise to 6,362 million metric tons by 2000 A.D,
Figure 1.2 (projected by Mannesmann Demag) shows a tentative forecast of coal output until the
year 2000 by geographical areas. This suggests that the largest increase will be from the central Economy
Countries with an increase from 2,000 million tonnes per year to 3,300 million tonnes per year. The
reliability of this forecast, however is heavily dependent on the consumer demand (Pearse, 1985).
The IEA predicts that coal production will increase at an average annual rate of 4.5% in the pacific
region, 2.8% in North America and remain roughly static in Europe until the end of the century. At its 81st
session, held in October 1985, the Coal Committee of the United Nations Economic Commission for
Europe predicted that world coal demand and trade would grow considerably up to 2000 in practically all
countries which have been either consumers or producers of coal as well as in a number of other countries
which up to now have had little interest in this mineral. It was, however, suggested that in relative terms the
European region would gradually fall in importance, while Asian and Oceania would increase in influence
together with Latin America and Africa (Hoddinott, 1986)
Table 1.3 shows the trend in coal production over the period 1981-1991 in some selected countries
of the world from which it will be seen that coal production in PRC., the USA, India, South Africa,
Australia and Canada has shown increasing trend, whereas in the former USSR/CIS, the UK and Poland it
has declined.
Table 1.4 on the trend in world coal production from 1981 to 1993 shows that the average annual
increase in world coal production over the five year period (1981-1986) has been 3.6%. But after 1986, the
rate of increase has not been maintained. The average annual increase in world coal production over the
period 1981-1993 has declined to 1.25% from 3,6% achieved over the period 1981-86, with a distinct
declining trend in world coal production from 1991. All the same, world forecasters predict that the world
coal production will increase in the decade to come.
* World Coal Reduced Forecast for Coal Demand, International Mining, 1986, Vol.3, No.3, p.37
Table 1.3 Trend in the production of coal in selected countries in millions of tonnes
I
1981 (0) 1986 (00) 1967 (00) 1988 (000) 1989 (000) 1990(000)1991
(000)
Country Hard Brown Hard Brow Hard Brow Hard Brow Hard Brow Hard Brow Hard Brow
n n n n n n
coal coal coal coal coal coal coal coal coal coal coal coal coal coal
PRC 596.6 23.4 825 65 855 70 S85 75 913 81 920 84 921 119
USA 682.6 45.7 750 57 581 251 591 279 612 286 623 310 607 298
USSR/CIS 544.2 159.9 591 160 595 165 523 168 503 160 474 160 417 152
Poland 163 35.6 192 67 193 73 193 74 178 72 148 68 140 69
FDR & 95.6 130+ 81 114+ 82 111 + 73 109+ 71 411 70 357 70 279
GDR/Germany
267 306 300 310
India 125 5.8 163 8 173 8 180 9 185 9 200 14 222 16
South Africa 130.3 - 168 - 166 - 166 - 170 - 180 - 186 -
Australia 92.2 32.9 152 37 157 44 136 44 149 47 162 48 166 48
UK 125.3 - 108 - 107 - 104 - 100 - 92 - 90 -
Canada 33.5 6.8 31 27 51 10 58 12 59 12 59 9 60 8
Others 210.7 319.5 222 381 210 362 222 425 202 436 218 394 225 376
Total 2790 1026.6 3283 1222 3170 1394 3131 1505 3142 1514 3147 1444 3104 1365
Source : (0) World Coal, Vol. 8, No. 6, Aug. 1982, p. 64;
(00) Mining Annual Review, Mining Journal, London, 1989, p. 124.
(000) Metals and Minerals Annual Review, 1992, p. 118; 1991, p. 122; 1990, p. 116, Mining Journal, London.
 A study by the UNECE forecasts global coal consumption increasing by 1.3% annually through the
year 2000 and by just less than 1% over the next ten years after that. These projections amount to a total
consumption of 4,000 Mt of coal for electricity generation by 2005 A.D., an increase of 900 Mt above the
1990 level (Chadwick, 1992). According to the World Energy Council's forecasts, the coal output will
almost double to approximately 7,000 Mt and gas demand will more than double. More electricity
generating capacity will be constructed over the next 25 years than was built in the previous century*
Table 1.4: Trend in the World Coal Production
Year Production in Millions of tonnes
Hard Coal lignite/brown coal Total
1981 2790 1026.6 3816.6*
1986 3283 1222 4505
1987 3170 1394 4564
1988 3131 1505 4636
1989 3142 1514 4656
1990 3147 1444 4591
1991 3163 1358 4521
1992 3232 1295 4527
1993 3160 1233 4393
Source: Metals and Minerals Annual Review, Mining Journal Ltd, London, 1994, p. 105; 1993, p. 121; 1992,
p.118; 1991, p. 122; 1990, p. 116 * World Coal, 1982, Vol. 8, No. 6, p. 64.

Hoddinott (1992) summarises that "nearly all forecasters concur that world coal demand and trade
will increase over the next two decades. There seems to be consensus that coal's broad resource base will
see that its future is assured. With a total estimated coal output of 3,150 Mt in 1991 the forecasts of the
United Nation's Economic Commission for Europe is typical. Global hard coal production is expected to
increase by 50 Mt/y to 2000 and thereafter by 30 Mt/y to 2010, indicating a total increase of 800 Mt/y and a
total hard coal production of nearly 4000 Mt/y. The UNECE also believes that 85% of world's coal by that
time will be produced by the eight major coal producing countries of Australia, China, India, Poland, South
Africa, Russia, Ukraine and the US."
In the Metals and Minerals Annual Review, 1994 Hoddinott (1994) reports that coal accounts for
28% of global energy consumption and with proven reserves in excess of 1040Bt theoretically coal has a
current reserve life of over 230 years at an annual global production of 4,500 Mt, and adds further that with
the exception of Latin America coal has far more equal distribution than oil throughout the globe and with
its long potential life it seems to represent the most likely source of naturally occurring long term energy.
Coal's ubiquitous reserves suggest that for more sustainable development reliance on coal as a vital energy
source is likely to increase.
* Mining Journal, London, August 12, 1994, p. 16
It will be pertinent to note that some 17 years ago the Governing Board of the IEA, in its meeting,
held in Paris in 1979, did recognise the importance of coal and agreed that greatly increased coal use is
required to meet growing energy demand in the medium and long-term, and that this is both desirable and
possible in the light of world's abundant coal reserves and the economic advantages which coal already has
over oil in many energy markets. They recognised that appropriate coal policies are required now to
stimulate capital investment on a scale commensurate with coal's long term potential. They also made it
clear that careful planning is required to stimulate from the beginning to assure that increased coal
utilization, trade and production proceed under acceptable environmental conditions *. Although the
reserves of coal are extensive, coal is a difficult commodity to extract from the earth, difficult to transport it
efficiently and difficult to use. The obstacles which are seen in the way of increasing coal production can be
summarised as below (Schilling, 1977);
1. Sufficient number of qualified and trained engineers and miners are not available. Also, as the
mining profession is arduous and hazardous, it is difficult to attract new entrants to the industry.
2. Difficulty in establishing suitable infrastructure and transport facilities.
3. Coal creates many environmental-problems in its mining and subsequently in its use and these
problems inhibits the growth of coal mining industry.
4. Potential markets for the use of coal are not yet fully developed as in many countries still other
forms of energy are cheaper, and hence, there is less incentive to increase the production of coal.
5. The gestation period from the time the first sod is cut to the time the mine is brought to full
production can be very long. It demands that the capital investment is forthcoming now before potential
energy shortages develop.
At the World Coal Institute's Conference on "Coal for Development", held in London in 1993, in his
key-note address, Mr. Bill Mcknight said that for coal to maintain its importance as a reliable fuel three
things must happen: the environmental issues must be solved, the development of market must be free from
artificial barriers and investment in coal resources must be increased.** The coal industry now faces the
substantial task of putting into place the framework that will insure its future through technology and
investment as the world's principal energy source for the next century. Efficient production coupled with
environmental safeguards will be the key aims of the mining industry in the years ahead.
 1.3 ROLE OF COAL
Traditionally coal has been consumed in thermal power stations, in coke ovens and in the industry
besides its domestic use and there will be considerable development in the existing ways of its use. Besides,
there are other major new ways in which coal will be used:
(i) through fluidised bed combustion, in the industrial market and for power generation;
(ii) through gasification to replace natural gas for domestic use and to drive gas turbines, and
(iii) through the liquefaction and conversion of coal in a coal refinery to produce liquid fuels and
petrochemicals replacing naturally occurring oil. The aim will be to ensure that coal can be used as a
replacement for any thing that natural gas or oil is used for today (Ezra, 1979).
* "IEA Governing Board Ministers Review World Energy Prospects", The Mining Engineer, 1979, Vol. 139,
No. 215pp. 119-120.
** Mining Journal, London, April 12, 1993, pp. 246-47. Mil
In India, coal has played a significant role in the operation of Indian railways, but its roll the running
of railways will decline in the years to come. There will be large increase in demand of coal for power
generation, for steel making and in the industry (Sharma, 1982). C may also be used for conversion into oil
and gas (Lahiri, 1969).

1.4 WORLD COAL RESOURCES AND THEIR GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION

Table 1.5 sets out the world coal resources, from which it will be seen that the world cc resources of
all kind total to 1,36,09,298 million tonnes of which the economically recoverable ranks total to 8,98,788.7
million tonnes and the measured reserves of all ranks total to 19,63,886.6 million tonnes. The former USSR
with 43.5% of the world coal resources dominates the world coal scene followed by the USA and China
with 26.4% and 10.8% respectively of world coal resources. These three countries contain 80.7% of the
world coal resources. Table 1.5 also presents the distribution of coal resources in different countries/regions.
It will be seen that South America has the lowest resources of coal (0.4% of the world total) and Africa
1.6% of the world total.
Table 1.5; World coal resources x 106 tonnes
Country Year of Economicall Economically Measured Total Percent of
references y recoverable reserves all resources world
recoverable lower ranks ranks all ranks resources
hard coal
Former Soviet Union 1979 104000 129000 276000 5926000 43.5
North & Central America
United States 1974 107183 116076 397657 3599657 26.4
Canada 1978 1607 4299 16091 474412 3.5
Mexico 1979 1200 384 1980 3280 < 0.1
Total North & Central 109990 120759 415728 4077349 30.0
America
South America
Brazil 1978 189 924 1590 15807 0.1
Chile 1979 26.5 1150 1381 4426 < 0.1
Colombia 1979 1010 25 2073 10063 < 0.1
Venezuela 1979 134 6.3 178 9178 < 0.1
Others - 150 309 10748 < 0.1
Total South 1359.5 2255.3 5531 50222 0.4
America

Africa
Botswana 1977 3500 7000 107006 0.8
South Africa 1975 25290 58749 92511 0.7
Morocco 1979 50 100 140 < 0.1
Mozambique 1976 240 240 425 < 0.1
Swaziland 1961 1820 2020 5020 < 0.1
Zaire 1978 600 600 NA NA
Zambia 1979 24 32 130 < 0.1

Zimbabwe 1977 734 965 2500 8310 < 0.1

Others 496 417 1400 4361 < 0.1
Total Africa 32754 1382 72641 217897 1.6
Asia
China 1979 99000 - 600000 1465000 10.8
India 1978 12610 1588 22634 114034 0.8
Indonesia 1979 10.9 528.4 674 20117.6 0.15
Bangladesh 1978 242 - 1053 NA NA
Japan 1979 1050 18 8707 8707 < 0.1
 North Korea 1978 300 300 2300 7200 < 0.1
South Korea 1978 116.3 - 182 1231 < 0.1
Pakistan 1972 - 645 646 646 < 0.1
Thailand 1978 - 246 246 NA NA
Turkey 1978 186.2 1728.1 4209 54127 < 0.1
Others 411.3 222 25093.5 26570.5 0.2
Total Asia 113926.7 5275.5 665744.5 1648918.8 12.1
Europe
Former West - 1979 23991 35150 99000 285300 2.1
Germany
Poland 1978 27000 12000 76000 184000 1.4
Former 1971 70 16500 177600 181477 1.3
Yugoslavia
United 1977 45000 - 45000 149500 1.1
Kingdom
Former East 1978 NA 25000 NA 30000 0.2
Germany
Czechoslovakia NA 2700 2860 12950 20090 0.15
Austria 1978 - 65.4 132.5 201.5 < 0.1
Belgium 1978 440 - 670 3287 < 0.1
Bulgaira 1979 30 3700 4454 6354 < 0.1
France 1977 550 60 1473 1708 < 0.1
Greece 1976 - 1550 3600 4750 < 0.1
Hungary 1966 225 4000 4850 9400 < 0.1
Ireland 1979 55 - 55 95 < 0.1
Italy 1979 - 31 33 55 < 0.1
Spain 1979 398 553 1082 4595 < 0.1
Others 73.3 16534 18151.6 240206 < 0.2
Total Europe 100532.3 118003.4 445131.1 904833.1 6.6
Oceania
Australia 1979 25400 33940 82900 779900 5.7
New Zealand 1979 35 176 211 4179 < 0.1
Total Oceania 25435 34116 83111 784079 5.8
Total World 487997.5 410791.2 1963886.6 13609298 100.0
Source: World Coal (1982), Vol. 8, No. 6, p. 64.
The figures given above are not exact, as the estimates from different sources vary considerably.
Besides, the definition of economically recoverable reserves or resources have not universal acceptance. In
1978, the World Energy Conference defined cut-offs for proved recoverable reserves as 1,500 m depth for
hard coals and 600 m for lignites, the minimum seam thickness being 600 mm and 2 m, respectively. The
1980 World Energy Conference modified these to take account of local mining practices, for instance a
minimum seam thickness of 300 mm was applied in Algeria compared to 2 m in Indonesia, Zaire and
Zambia. For comparison the cut-offs recommended by the US Bureau of Mines in 1976 were 350 mm
thickness for hard coal and 750 mm for sub-bituminous coal and lignite, the maximum depth being 1,800 m
and the ash limit 33%.* These are the reserves which can be regarded as actually recoverable under
technical and economic conditions prevailing at present. In other words, they allow for exploitation factor.
On the other hand, geological resources are such resources which will attain the economic value to mankind
at some time in the future; and these are defined by the WEC as resources up to 2,000 m in depth in the case
of hard coal and up to 1,500 m in depth in the case of brown coal without restriction as to their technical and
economical exploitation. It is pertinent to observe here that coal resources exist beyond the above depth
limits and may become available for use to mankind when suitable techniques develop in the future.
Figure 1.3 shows the geographical distribution of the world coal resources from which it wjll be seen
that the vast bulk of all solid fuel resources exist in the areas above 30°N parallel principally in three
countries, viz., the former USSR, USA, and China. An analysis of data in Table 1.5 further shows that the
bulk of me coal resources lie in the Eastern Hamisphers.
Martin (1987) has reported that the World's recoverable Coal reserves total to 986.72 billion short
tonns i.e. 881000 million tonnes and that the USA with its recoverable reserves, of 283.41 billion short tons
(257061.22 million tonnes) tops the list closely followed by the former USSR, with 204.88 short tons
(2,40,253.97 million tonnes) of coal reserves. China with 11% of world total recoverable reserves stands at
the third place. These countries are followed by Australia, West Germany, South Africa, and Poland in that
order. The above seven countries contain 91.4% of world's total recoverable reserves of coal (Table 1.6).
 Table 1.6: World recoverable coal reserves (After Martin, 1987)

Country Recoverable reserves short World Total, %

tons x 109
USA 283.41 28.7
Former USSR 264.88 26.9
China 108.90 11.0
Australia 72.42 7.3
Former West Germany 71.64 7.3
South Africa 57.03 5.8
Poland 43.20 4.4
Former Yugoslavia 18.23 1.8
Canada 6.51 0.7
Czechoslovakia 6.15 0.6 -
Other countries 54.35 5.5
World total 986.72 100.0
Mining Journal, London, 1982, Vol. 296, No. 7640, p. 57.

Hard and soft coal deposits

Figure 1.3: Distribution of World Coal Resources by Geographical Areas.

At the end of 1993, world's total coal reserves are estimated to be 10,39,182 Mt. The former Soviet
Union with its share of 23.7% tops the list followed by the USA with its share of 23.1% and China with its
share of 11% in that order (Table 1.7). Latin America stands at the bottom of the list.

1.5 COAL INDUSTRY IN MAJOR COAL PRODUCING COUNTRIES

World's total hard coal production in 1993 stood at 3,160 Mt and the production of lignite/brown
coal totalled to 1,233 Mt. The major hard coal producing countries were PRC, USA, CIS, India, South
Africa, Australia, Poland. UK, and Germany. These countries together produced 2,894 Mt of hard coal, i.e.,
91.45% of the World's total hard coal. The USA, with 300 Mt of lignite/brown coal production topped the
list of lower rank coal producers followed by Germany and CIS. However, vigorous efforts are under way
even in some non-traditional coal mining countries to step up coal production.
Table 1.7 : World Coal reserves at the end of 1993 in million tonnes
Country/Region Hard Coal Other Total Share of
Anthracite and Sub- Total %
Bit urmi nous coal bituminous
and Lignite
USA 112668 127892 240560 23.1
Canada 4509 4114 8623 0.8
Total North America 117177 132006 249183 24.0
Brazil - 2359 2359 0.2
Colombia 4240 299 4539 0.4
Mexico 1252 468 1720 0.2
Venezuela 417 - 417 •
Other Latin America 991 1404 2395 0.2
Total Latin America 6900 4530 11430 1.15
France 178 32 210 V
Germany 23919 56150 80069 7.7
Greece - 3020 3000 0.3
Turkey 162 6986 7148 0.7
UK 3300 500 3800 0.4
Other OECD Europe 1774 923 2697 0.3
Total OECD Europe 29333 67591 96924 9.3
Fromer Soviet Union 104000 137000 241000 23.7
Poland 29600 11600 41200 4.6
Other Non-OECD Europe 2567 30681 33249 3.2
Total Non-OECD Europe 136167 179282 315449 30.4
South Africa 55333 - 55333 5.3
Zimbabave 734 734 0.1
Other Africa 4744 1267 6011 0.6
Middle East 193 - 193 *
Total Africa & Middle East 61004 1267 62271 6.0
Australia 45340 45600 989^0 8.8
New Zealand 27 90 1 17 *
Total Australasia 45367 45690 91057 8.8
China 62200 52300 114500 11.6
India — 60648 1900 62548 6.0
Indonesia 962 31101 32063 3.1
Japan 827 17 844 0.1
Korea (ROK) 203 - 203 *
Taiwan 100 - 100 *
Other Asia 525 2085 2610 *
Total Asia 125465 87403 212668 20.5
Total World 521413 517769 1039182 100.0
* Less than 0.05%
Source: Chadwick, J., (1994) World Coal, Mining Magazine, Vol. 171, No. 3, pp. 150-155.
High level technological developments have taken place in most of the major coal producing
countries and such developments are finding application in less developed countries also. Further
innovations in coal mining technology, its beneficiation and utilization techniques are foreseen. A brief
review of coal mining industry in major coal producing countries is given below:
1.5.1 China
China has a reported verified coal reserve of 770 billion tons distributed over its 5.5% of land area;
40% of the reserves are located in the north; 32% in the north-west and 21% in the north-east (Hoddinott,
1985). China's coal resources of all rank aggregate to 10.8% of the world's total coal resources.
From 30 million tons produced in 1949 China increased its coal production to 847 million tonnes in
1986 and to 1,147 million tonnes in 1993, an average annual increase of 4.42%. In 1985 China achieved the
distinction of being the largest coal producing country in the world.
Coal is China's main source of energy and it fuels 70% of China's energy needs. As the Chinese
economy expands, more coal will be needed. New capacity production will come mostly from surface
mines.
Increased production is scheduled to he achieved by developing the massive coalfields of Shenfu
Dongsheng, Shanxi Province, the Jungar coalfield in Mongolia and two small mining coalfields in Huating
and in Henan Province.
In future the Ministry of Coal Production is committed to programmes of upgrading existing
operations in order to increase and plan and construct new mines. The policy is to develop simulatneously
large, medium and small coal mines. Small mines, in general, be designed and constructed to use local work
forces and meet local domestic needs. However, the Ministry of Coal Industry operated mines will be
designed and constructed for full mechanisation and high production for industrial and other national needs.
The Chinese future plans have put top priority on mechanisation of mines. A high proportion of
Chinese production is extracted from underground mines and between 1980 and 1990 mechanisation of
these operations increased from 36% to 63% of output.
Longwall mining is the most popular mining method in China. Other methods used underground
include hydraulic mining and room and pillar method. The longwall faces with shearers have established
national monthly record of 1,42,460 tonnes and 1.18 million tonnes in one year.
Foreign investment has also been encouraged to developed new modern mines. The plan published
by the Ministry of Coal Industry includes suggestions for stronger cooperation and technical exchange with
"The outside World". These developments are to be undertaken in parallel with elimination of subsidies,
liberalised coal pricing and stricter environmental regulation, particularly with respect to sulphur and
nitrogen oxide emissions. The Ministry also intends to crackdown on unsafe mining practices, (Hoddinott,
1994).
 1.5.2 The USA
The USA, produced 856 Mt of hard coal and lignite/brown coal in 1993 and was the second largest
coal producing country in the world.
The USA possesses about 25% of the world's known total coal resources and there are over 4.00,000
million tons of economically recoverable reserves in the USA which is sufficient to last for hundreds of
years (Stocks, 1983).
In the USA, almost 160 billion metric tons of the demonstrated coal reserve base can be recovered
through surface mining techniques and 270 billion metric tons of reserves are suitable for mining by
underground methods. Coal mined by surface techniques stood at about 60% of the total production in 1982
which was only 4% some 50 years ago (Samples, 1982). Of the production obtained by underground
methods, the maximum production comes from bord and pillar method of mining, though the share of
underground production obtained by longwall mining is steadily increasing. It increased from 4% of the
total underground production in 1978 to 17.7% in 1985 (Kuti, 1988).
The first mechanised longwall face was introduced in 1960, and since then the number of
mechanised longwall faces has been on the increase which stood at 101 in 1986. There has been gradual
improvement in the performance of longwall faces from 1890 tonnes production per longwall face in 1983
to 2,545 tonnes per longwall face in 1986. The improvements in the performance of longwall faces have
been brought about by improved equipment and high availability: longer faces and automation, improved
coal and material transport, improved entry stabilities and face-end techniques; spare equipment, rapid
moves and increase in skill and high degree of safety and low rates of accidents. The rapid, and then steady
increase in the production of longwall-mined coal indicates the wide acceptance of this technology and in
the years to come the number of longwall faces will further increase. The longwall faces have given high
production and productivity. For example, at Ireland Creek mine on 4.4. 1984 one face produced 21951 ions
in two 12 hour shifts (Tregelles. 1985). All the same, bord and pillar method of mining continues to be
predominant method of mining coal in the USA, which is Highly sophisticated. Continuous miners are
widely used and automation is on the increase.
The coal industry has enhanced the standards of safety so that coal can be mined and transported
with a minimal risk to the work force. Reclamation practices on land disturbed by surface mining have also
improved. Under government guidelines, coal producers now return all mineral land to its original contour,
reclaim farmland to its productive capacity, maintain water quality, protect the water supply in arid regions
and preserve the environmental integrity of the land during and after mining operations.
The coal mining technology in the USA has attained high levels of efficiency and productivity and
research programmes have been undertaken to insure that this trend will continue. Also, scientists are
continuing to develop utilisation technologies that will make coal the fuel of choice, from both an
environmental and an economic standpoint, for utility and industrial boilers.
1.5.3 CIS
After the dissolution of the Soviet Union, 11 Republics have formed a loose economic relationship
with a degree of political and defence related coordination within the Commonwealth of Independent States
(CIS). In the CIS, the Russian Federation, Ukraine and Kazakhastan are the main coal producing countries.
The CIS output in 1993 amounted to 420 Mt of hard coal and 119 Mt of lignite/brown coal. The CIS, has
over 23% of global coal reserves consisting of 104 Bt of hard coal and 132 Bt of sub-bituminous and lignite
coal (Hoddinott, 1994).
In 1992, Russia was the third largest producer of coal in the world, Ukraine the ninth largest
producer and Kazakhastan was the tenth largest producer of coal. Within the CIS there are 500 major
underground mines and 80 opencast mines. There are 22 coal mining organisations in the Ukraine, 26 in
Russia and two large ones in Kazakhastan.
In Russia for increased coal production attention will be focussed on surface mining organisations
like the largest in Kuznetsk basin: Kuzbassrazrezugol, where all 20 mines are opencast with a capacity of 62
Mt/y. The second largest coal producing organisation is Kransnoyarskugin which mines brown coal from
the Kansk-Achinsk basin, which provides the hulk of 50 Mt/y output. In this field seams up to 50 m thick
occur. The Pechora Basin in the extreme north-east of European Russia is the major supplier of coking coal
from underground mines operating at an average depth of 500 m. Highly mechanised longwall methods are
employed following substantial investment in recent years. The Russian coal industry has identified
priorities for the coming years involving the development of clean coal production, improved coal
preparation and cleaning, raionalisation of coal transport and improved energy recovery from coal use.
Overall opencast mining is expected to increase its share of production to 60% by 2000 and 66% by 2010.
The Ukraine has over 300 mines concentrated in Donetsk basin. Mining conditions are difficult and
depth of mining has increased to over 600 m and seams have thinned out and the coal seams are prone to
methane outburst.
Kazakhastan produces some 125 Mt/y of coal of which some 40 Mt, is derived from underground
mines. The coal industry of Kazakhastan is managed by two companies: Ekibastazugol and Karagandangol,
both managed by State Corporation. Kazakhastunog. The two largest coal producing regions are Ekibastuz
(70 Mt/y) in Pavlodar oblast, where four opencast mines operate and Karganda (35 Mt/y) which has some
25 underground mines and three surface mines. The world's largest surface mine, Bogatyr (50 Mt/y) is at
Ekibastuz.* Bogatyr is mining three seams with a total thickness approaching 150 m. Ekibastazugols
productivity at 850 t/man month is the highest in the CIS, and it has the lowest cost (Hoddinott, 1994).
 Production from the Karaganda Basin has traditionally been from underground longwall mines, but
the importance of surface mining is now growing,
The CIS, had successfully developed hydraulic mining technology and underground gasification of
coal. Techniques of mining at great depths (in excess of 910 m) were well developed. The 21st century will
see much advancement in these techniques the world over.

1.5.4 India
sl.v section 1.6
Mining Journal. London, March II, 1994, Vol. 322, No. 8266, Country Supplement, Kazakhastan. p. 7. 16

1.5.5 South Africa

In the African continent. South Africa is the largest producer of coal. Its coal production in 1986
stood at 172 million tonnes and at 183 Mt in 1993. The long-term projections allow for a compound rate of
growth of some 4.8% over the period 1980 to the year 2000 when production will total to some 280 mjllion
tonnes per year. According to the Mineral Bureau in Johannesburg, total domestic coal requirement would
rise to about 250 million tonnes a year by the year 2000.
The emergence of larger coal mines has been feature of the South African coal industry with--,
smaller operations (notably in Natal) being phased out in a process aimed at increasing productivity.
Many efforts have been put in to increase productivity. In 1981 the industry employed 1, 30,000
personnel to produce 130 Mt of coal. By 1991 the work force had reduced to 95500 while the output rose to
174 Mt. Since then output levels have been broadly maintained, although manning levels have fallen below
75,000. A productivity level of 2200 t/man-year has been achieved but more is still to be done to come to
the level of productivity in Australia (3,500 t/man-year) and in the USA (4,000 t/man-year), which is
expected to be achieved through workers education, accelerated career development to alter the racial mix at
all levels and assistance with employee's housing.
As the coal seams generally occur at shallow depths and are comparatively thick, bord and pillar
mining is the predominant method of mining coal in South-Africa. In recent years some longwall faces have
been worked successfully. The industry is changing fast from labour intensive methods to modern efficient
but more capital intensive techniques. In bord and pillar mining, mechanisation with continuous miners,
backed by shuttle cars has given high production and productivity. For example, in one installation one
continuous miner in March 1984 produced 121008 tonnes. On the other hand modern longwall faces also
with shearers and heavy duty powered supports have established high level of performance; e.g. at Sasol's
Secunda Collieries*^ from face Brandsprint 65's Anderson Stralhclyds AM 500 Shearer set a new world
record for one month in October 1985 cutting 2.19.445 metric tonnes of which 63436 tons was cut in one
week (Chadwick, 1985). One face in South Africa produced 1 million tonnes in seven months (Tregelles,
1985).
South Africa is the only country in the world which converts coal into oil on commercial basis. This
country has been a pioneer of coal conversion since South African Synthetic Oil Ltd. (Sasol) was founded in
1950. Sasol is already a major consumer of coal and its importance is likely to grow.
1.5.6 Australia
Australia has a economically recoverable coal reserves of 69.34 billion tonnes which works out to be
7.71 % of the world total and its total resources of all ranks of coal aggregate to 779.9 billion tonnes which
amount to 5.7% of the world total. Queensland and New South Wales have high quality of coking and steam
coals and in other states brown coal deposits are of importance. In 1993, Australia produced 182 million
tonnes of hard coal and 40 million tonnes of lignite. Approximately 60% of Australia's hard coal output is
extracted from the country's 96 underground operations and the remainder from 54 surface coal mines. New
South Wales and Queensland produce the majority of the output. New South Wales has mostly deep mines
whereas Introduction 17
80% of Queensland's operations are opencast. Lignite mining operations are concentrated in Latrobe
Valley, Victoria.
In underground mines, the main method of mining is bord and pillar and mining operations are
highly mechanised, with continuous miners, etc. Some newer techniques of mechanised pillar extraction
have been developed of which 'Wongawilli' method merits special mention. The longwall method of mining
with shearers and powered supports has found successful application in Australian mines and large scale
expansions of this method of mining is foreseen. Shortwall mining has also been very successful in
Australian coal mines. In an Australian mine, a 500 DERD (double-ended ranging drum) shearer equipped
with one 375 kW motor. 2-m ranging arm, Roll Rack chainless haulage and a lump breaker produced in
1984 in one week, 49,300 tonnes of coal in a seam 2.5-3.5 m thick. In equipping longwall faces the
emphasis is on heavy duty reliable machines incorporating the latest technology. The equipment selected
have radio control {including water on/off), electric controls at each end of the machine, health monitoring
with data transmission interface, an orifice test unit for haulage pressure and a venturi ventilation system for
under frame tunnel in view of the dusty nature of the coal (Chadwick, 1985).
1.5.7 Poland
Poland produced approximately 192 million tonnes of hard coal and 58 million tonnes of lignite in
1985 and of which 185 million tonnes was produced from underground mines. But the coal production of
Poland has since declined considerably taking Poland down to the seventh place in the world coal
production from fourth place in 1985. In 1993, Poland produced 130 Mt of hard coal and 68 Mt of
lignite/brown coal.
Upper Silesia is the most important coalfield in Poland and future development emphasis will
concentrate on it. It has 30 prospective mining areas with commercial reserves estimated to be more than
40,000 million tonnes. To work Silesian coal deposit its present depth of mining of 560m will increase to
740 m by the year 2000 and to 870 m by 2030. Zabransk and Rybnik mines will on the average be more
than 1.000 m deep. Deeper penetration will require improved ventilation; measures to prevent high methane
concentration, a better understanding of deep mine working conditions, and cost effectiveness studies.
Mining methods will have to be reconsidered to be able to work simultaneously at lower and greater depths,
to prepare alternate face workings, and to adapt equipment to work at greater depths. Mining technology
will need greater sophistication.
The industry has prepared long-range plans which project output of 214 million tonnes in 1990, 225
million tonnes in 2000, 210 million tonnes in 2010, 184 million tonnes in 2020, and 155 million tonnes in
2030, from mines already in existence or in construction (Stocks, 1983). To obviate this fall in the next
century, it will obviously be necessary to open new mines and it has been estimated that until 2005 a new
mine will be opened every second year, and between 2005 and 2028 one mine every year. It is projected that
180 new shafts will be sunk. 120 shafts will be deepened, 7753 m3 of new chambers will be constructed and
coal washing capacity of 52,800 tonnes per hour will have to be provided. Massive investment will be
needed in new mining Technology in shaft sinking, infrastructure and coal preparation facilities (Swiss,
1982, b).
Productivity is gradually increasing from 1.87 t/man-shift in 1990 to 2.02 t/manshift in 1992 but
there will have to be major investment in mine development and equipment to make and keep the Polish
industry internationally competitive. Poland has very large brown coal deposits and output is based on five
large opencast mines at Belchatow, Turow, Adamow, Konin and Sieniawa.
There have been growing concerns regarding acid rain, landscape devastation and environmental
pollutions.
Poland largely depends on coal for its energy needs; some 80% of energy needs are met by coal and
it also exports large quantity of coal. Besides exporting coal to Comecon, it also exports coal to the west and
Japan.
Poland has developed new mining technologies especially for shaft sinking and for thick seam
mining and offers consultancy in different countries of the world in coal mining technology.

1.5.8 The United Kingdom

The UK has an estimated coal reserves of 45,000 million tonnes and resources of 1,64,000 million
tonnes. The seams are generally thin and lie at varying depths-shallow to great depths.
Intensive exploration programmes undertaken in the UK have proved considerable additional
reserves of lignite/coal in the UK. A reserve of 150 million tonnes of lignite at Bally- munney has been
delineated. The lignite bed is reported to be 106 m thick with a flat dip and stripping ratio of 2 nv1 of waste
to 1 tonne of lignite. Also new reserves of coal mostly suitable for power station have been discovered north
and south of Selby coalfield, South Warwickshire, at Witham in East. Nottinghamshire and West
Lincolnshire and in a new coalfield around Branbury Oxfordashire. In South Wales several seams with
thickness of up to 3.1 m have been proved at depths ranging from 300-1200m.
The UK produced 124.3 million tons of coal in 1981-82 of which 108.6 million tons came from
surface mines. The UK's coal production has since fallen. Ironically, it produced barely 9*~ million tonnes
in 1985.
The output of the UK fell down to 68 Mt in 1993 yet the country was the largest hard coal producer
in the European Union. The UK coal is still by some margin the cheapest domestically- produced coal in
Europe. Decpmined output is currently achieved with a productivity of 6.4 t/man-shift.
In less than 50 years, UK's coal industry has contracted from 958 mines employing 7,00,000 miners
producing 185 Mt7y of coal to a conceivable situation in 1996 when there could be less than twelve mines
producing 20 Mt/y employing some 18,000 miners. Overall prospects for the UK coal are bleak with a
virtual extinction of a major industry. On the other side, the British manufacturers of underground coal
mining equipment have built on the strong domestic base to lead technological and market development
world wide. Underground coal mining technology, particularly longwall mining technology in the UK has
developed almost to a stage of perfection and has much to offer to the world.
The productivity in British pits has been raised by "improvement in technology benefits from major
investment programmes under the plan for coal, and the successful operation of the incentive scheme" as
summarised by Ezra*. The Advanced Technology Mining (ATM) and Heavy Duty (HD) mechanisation
programmes produced outputs twice as much as the conventional faces. Technical progress made in other
areas includes the increased use of power loading machines equipped with double-ended ranging drum
shearers in medium and thicker seams and use of floor mounted shearers in thinner seams. The length of
longwall faces has been increased where possible and face-ends designs have been improved. For
underground development work heading machines are being increasingly used. The first drilled shaft for a
UK coal mine was sunk at Betws Colliery.

* "Exports Double. Productivity Continues to Rise in United Kingdom", World Ctwl, 1987, Vol 8, No. 6. pp.
114-115.
 The British coal mining is an increasingly capital intensive operation and in the latter half of 1986.
British Coal turned its attention to improving the productivity of the capital and in that direction noteworthy
success has been achieved—productivity rising to 6.4 t/man-shift.
In the UK, the underground mines are almost wholly worked by the longwall methods. The longwall
methods are nearly fully mechanised. The longwall mining equipment and technology are highly developed
and have reached a level of near perfection. The British longwall equipment and technology are finding
application in many developed and developing countries of the world, e.g., the USA, South Africa,
Australia, Czechoslovakia, China and India, etc.
Mechanised surface mining with high ratios of overburden to coal had been considered economic
venture in some cases. For example, a ratio of as high as 1 coal to 50.95 overburden has been practised
(Rhodes, 1982).
Britishers are looking forward to bring in innovation and newer technologies in coal mining to meet
the challenges of the 21st century. In that direction experimentation is underway to establish techniques of
underground gasification of coal and hydraulic mining of coal in addition to remote control and manless
mining at longwall faces.

1.5.9 Germany

Germany produced 58 Mt of hard coal and stood at the 9th place in hard coal production in the
world. But the government plans are to reduce hard coal production to 52 Mt/y by 2000, although the IEA
Coal Research believes that this could be 34-45 Mt/y. In the brown coal sector, Germany's production in
1993 amounted to 222 Mt but it may fall to 200 Mt, in 2000 and to 175 Mt in 2010. German outputs will
continue to decline due to environmental problems and fall in demand for energy.
East Germany used to be the world's highest brown coal producer prior to reunification, but this
incurred huge environmental and social costs. With concern regarding SO2 and NO2 emissions some of the
regions ageing power stations may have already been closed and output could fall to 150 Mt/y. There is,
however, a future for lignite extraction. For example, in West Germany brown coal production in 1991 grew
by 4% to 112 Mt,
West Germany has been one of the leading coal producing countries of the world and has developed
high level technology both for underground and surface mining.
West Germany's total resources of all ranks of coal are estimated at 2,85,300 million tonnes, i.e.,
2.1% of the world's total, of which the measured reserves are 99,000 million tonnes, and economically
recoverable reserves of hard coal and lower rank coals are 2,31,991 and 35,150 million tonnes, respectively.
Most of the West Germany's hard coal production is derived from underground mines extracting coal
beneath the industrial areas to the north of Ruhr valley. These reserves are, however, rapidly becoming
exhausted and further coal production will have to be obtained by exploiting resources under forest lands
northwards towards and beyond the river Ippe. But in these areas the establishing of shafts and coal
preparation plants is becoming environmentally unacceptable and hence development schemes have
involved driving long trunk roadways underground to connect with shafts which are used for ventilation and
access.
In West Germany underground mines are generally deep mines with high VRT (Virgin Rock
Temperature) and present formidibable ventilation problems. To ameliorate climatic condition some mines
need air conditioning. The mining technology is highly advanced and large percentage of coal is won by
coal ploughs. Mines have been opened out by horizon system of mining which use long distance locomotive
haulages.
In West Germany, for almost 60% of electric power generation coal and lignite are used with a trend
of coal substituting for oil and natural gas. But the coal industry is under great pressure to reduce
environmental pollution from coal-fired power stations, Search is on for elimination of sulphur dioxide and
oxides of nitrogen from power stations while achieving a net thermal efficiency of 45%. A power plant with
these characteristic was opened in Volklingen-Furstenhausen in Saarland. This demonstration plant gasifies
coal by a process known as Pressurised Entrained Flow Gasification.

1.6 GROWTH OF COAL MINING INDUSTRY IN INDIA

The first published reference to the mining of coal in India dates back to the year 1774 when coal
mining on a small scale was started in the Raniganj coalfield.*. After facing many vicissitudes the coal
industry stabilised by the second half of the last century and by 1900 the coal production rose to 6.096
million tonnes. The increase in production was closely linked to the development of railways in India
(Helsop, 1910).
 Figure 1.4: A Typical Layout of Coal Mine Workings in the Early Ninetees (After Pringle, 1910)

Mining was confined to shallow depths and the policy of "more hole-more coal" was generally
followed. Bord and pillar method was the method of mining, though a longwall face was reported to have
been operated at Narsumuda colliery near Sitarampur railway station around 1888 (William, 1908). The
whole property was developed into pillars without barriers. Figure 1.4 shows a typical layout of workings of
those days (Pringle, 1910). Coal was cut manually and loaded by baskets into tubs and until the beginning
of the present century mechanisation was almost nonexistent (Singh. 1982).
* Report of the Indian Coalfields Committee G.O.I., Manager of Publications, Delhi, 1946, Vol.1, p.19.

During the first half of the present century coal production built up to over 30 million tonnes.
Although bord and pillar mining continued to be the predominant method of underground mining,
experimental longwall faces were started for mining Dishergarh seam at depth. During the Second World
War years mechanised open pit mining was also introduced. Sand stowing as a measure of conservation was
adopted in many collieries for working thick seams. In some mines mechanisation with coal cutting
machines, conveyors, electric drills was introduced and even coal loading was mechanised at some mines
using gathering arm loaders or Huwood loaders.
Growth of coal mining industry and
technological development were accelerated after India
became independent in 1947. Five-year plans were
formulated and planning at the national level was done
on a five-year basis. A significant development of the
post-independence era was establishment of
collaborations with countries other than UK also, i.e.,
with Poland, France, former USSR, and former FRG,
which enabled coal industry to experiment with newer
technologies, e.g., inclined slicing of thick seams in
descending order, sub-level caving; full-bore stowing;
horizontal slicing, Yankowice system of mining, horizon
mining and mechanised shaft sinking, etc. Mechanisation
was stepped up which has culminated in the introduction
of fully mechanised longwall faces with powered
supports.
A significant development was the nationalisation
of coal mines in early 1970s excepting a few captive
mines of Tata Iron and Steel Company and Indian Iron
and Steel Company. This has enabled proper planning of
mines on sound technical lines. The government
ownership also made available funds needed for
reorganisation of old mines and opening out of new
mines and exploration, ere. The 1973 energy crisis gave
a jolt to the policy-makers in India also, and coal became
primary source of energy in India, the production of which must be increased to meet the growing
requirements of energy in India. This has resulted in an all-round growth and the coal industry is looking
forward to produce about 400 million tonnes of coal by the end of the present century.
( Figure 1.5 shows the trend of production of coal in India over the period 1951 to 1992. It will be
seen that the production has increased by more than seven times over this period and the trend has always
been on the increase excepting in 1977 when the production fell down slightly to pick up again. The current
projections indicate that the demand of coal by 2000 A.D. will rise to 400 million tonnes. Figure 1.5 also
shows the trend in average daily employment which also shows increasing trend. The technology of mining
has undergone great changes. Mines are becoming bigger units, more mechanised and the projections are to
introduce more number of fully mechanised longwall faces and open up high capacity highly mechanised
opencast mines."
Table 1.8 shows the production obtained from opencast mines and underground mines (development
and depillaring) over the period 1951-1992. The production of opencast coal over this period has gone up
from 47,84,000 tonnes to 178879,000 tonnes, i.e,, by 37.39 times. Also production from development
workings has gone up but the production of coal from extraction of pillars has come down. The share of
opencast coal has shown an increasing trend from 13.69% of the total in 1951 to 35.02% of the total in 1980
and to 59.08% in 1987, and 71.5% in 1992.

Table 1.8: Trend in average daily employment and production of coal in India
Year Number of men Output of coal by place of work x 10 Total output x 103
3
employed x 10 tonnes tonnes
Below ground Opencast
1951 352 35199 4784 34983
1956 352 35125 4786 39911
1961 411 44987 10822 55709
1966 425 57000 13387 70387
1971 382 58552 17090 75642
1976 510 76199 28440 104639
1981 513 76205 51125 127325
1986 543 75027 95132 170159
1987 550 75402 111777 187179
1988 538 76245 122104 198349
1989 548 73904 133043 206947
1990 549 69533 143208 212741
1991 554 70731 167026 237757-
1992 552 71062 178879 249941'
Source: Statistics of Mines in India, G.O.I., Ministry of Labour, D.G.M.S., Dhanbad, Vol. 1 -Coal, 1990, pp. 3
and 26.
'Courtesy D.G.M.S. Office, Dhanbad.

Table 1.9: Trend in the application of longwall mining in India .

Year Number of longwall faces Output obtained from longwall face, tonnes

1966 29 999494*
1967 29 848201*
1968 20 746279*
1969 20 665809*
1970 20 751252*
1971 16 810244*
1976 13 1071029*
1977 26 753525*
1978 30 836467*
1979 18 563488*
1980 22 1165538*
1981 -
1982 -
1983 - 1716000**
1984 - 1613000**
1985 - 2453000**
1986 - 2796000**
1987 - 2476000**
Source : - A.K. Ghose and A.K. Ghosh, J. of Mines, Metals and Fuels, Vol XXXI, No. 9,
pp. 383-388,1983 " Statistics of Mines in India, Vol. I (Coal), 1987, DGMS, Dhanbad.

Table 1.9 shows the trend in the application of longwall mining in India from which it will be seen
that the production from longwall faces has also shown increasing trend. Full scale mechanisation of
longwall faces with powered supports has been firmly established. The first fully mechanised longwall face
with powered supports was introduced at the Moonidih Colliery in August 1978. This was followed by
installation of similar faces in Eastern Coalfields Ltd. at Dhemo Main Colliery and in Western Coalfield
Ltd. at Pathakhera No. 2 Mines; and in Godawari Valley Coalfield at Ramagundam GDK. No. 7 Incline.
The Longwall face at GDK. No. 7 Incline in Ramagundam was designed on the principle of Advanced
Technology Mining (ATM) and was equipped with AM 500 Double Ended Ranging Drum shearer and 4 x
325 ton chock shields. Figure 1.6 shows a view of the face. Many more such faces are planned. Although
the average output from these faces has not been encouraging, record output of 3000 tonnes per day at
Moonidih, PS-3 face was reporled (Ghose, 1983) and the longwalf face with powered supports in the top
seam at V.K. No. 7 Incline, Kothagudem produced 3,717 tonnes on 31-10-1985 and established an average
output of 2,000 tonnes per day {Pai, Reddy and Subbaiah, 1986).

Figure 1.6: A view of the Powered Support Face, G.D.K. No. 7 Incline, Ramagundam
(Courtesy: SCC Ltd.)
Table 1.10: Trend in the production of coal by different methods of mining
Method of Mining 1951 1961 1981 1984 1985 1986 1987
Opencast 13.6 19.42 40.15 51.27 52.76 55.90 59.08
Underground method 86.4 80.58 59.85 48.73 47.24 44.10 40.92 *
(i) Longwall - 2.17 3.32 3.72 3.28
(ii) Fully mechanised - 48.79 41.54 42.96 38.46
and semi-mechanised
(iii) Solid blasting and — — 51.20 58.45 52.09 61.83
others
Table 1.10 indicates the trend in the main methods of mining and the technology which have
evolved over the years. The projections envisage an increase in opencast mining of coal and increase in
mechanisation and longwall mining and decrease in conventional bord and pillar mining. A significant
development in longwall technology has been the introduction of 1,100 volt supply at the face at GDK No.
7 Incline in Ramagundam, high powered shearer AM 500 and high capacity chock shields (4 x 325 tonnes).
The powered supports have revolutionised longwall mining. Side-by-sidc it is planned to introduce newer
technologies especially for mining thick seams. For example, sub-level integrated caving; hydraulic mining;
and working steep thick seams with descending shields and high lift (4.5 m ) longwall caving are some of
the newer technologies which will undergo trials in underground mining.
 Figure 1.7: A view of the 1400 litre Bucket Wheel Excavator Neyveli Lignite mine, South Arcot
(Courtesy: NLC Ltd.)
In the opencast mining field, the mines will become larger and much deeper; the projected depth of
Mukunda mine in the Jharia Coalfield is_4_80 m. Considerable R & D efforts are being put in to modernise
the industry and to adopt technologies proven elsewhere under similar conditions.
Impressive developments have taken place in open pit mining technology using bucket wheel
excavators for mining lignite deposits at Neyveli, Tamil Nadu. Figure 1.7 shows a view of a mine with a
1400 litre bucket wheel excavator in operation.
A Central Mine Planning and Design Institute has been established which is responsible for planning
all the mines, besides, a Central Mining Research Institute for researches in mining and mine safety and a
Central Fuel Research Institute for researches in coal beneficiation and coal utilisation etc., have been
established. The government is funding R & D projects liberally. The coal industry in India is firmly set on
the path of growth and modernisation and will witness the introduction of many newer technologies in
exploration, exploitation, beneficiation and utilization of coal.
The technological innovations in coal mining which are foreseen are listed below:
(i) Extended application of opencast mining,
(ii) Extended application of longwall mining methods, particularly Advanced Technology
Mining (ATM) faces and automation.
(iii) Increased level of mechanisation.
(iv) Adaptation of various techniques of thick seam mining developed abroad.
(v) Hydraulic mining,
(vi) Underground gasification of coal,
(vii) Evolution of suitable techniques for the control of strata and subsidence and for the
protection of environment.
(viii) Development of newer techniques for exploration and development.
(ix) Increasing application of computers in mine planning and in mining operations.