(Vanbanphapluat - Co) Tcvn9355 2012

LABORATORY EVALUATION OF HORIZONTAL COEFFICIENT OF
CONSOLIDATION. ch OF FIBROUS PEAT SOIL
WONG LEONG SING
UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MALAYSIA

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ch
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LABORATORY EVALUATION OF HORIZONTAL COEFFICIENT OF
CONSOLIDATION, ch OF FIBROUS PEAT SOIL
WONG LEONG SING
A project report submitted in partial fulfillment of the

requirements for the award of the degree of
Master of Engineering (Civil-Geotechnics)
Faculty of Civil Engineering

Universiti Teknologi Malaysia
NOVEMBER 2005
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To my beloved mother and father

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
First of all, I would like to thank my supervisor, Dr. Nurly Gofar for guiding
me in the writing of this project report. Her opinion and advice were indeed helpful
in the making of this project report a success.
I would also like to express my sincere gratitude to Yulindasari Sutejo, a

UTM research student for providing secondary data and assistance in my laboratory
work. Without her help, the data for the project would not be available for analysis in
this project report.
Acknowledgement is not complete without thanking the technicians in UTM

Geotechnical Laboratory for assisting either directly or indirectly in my laboratory
work. Their assistance enabled me to complete this project report on time.
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ABSTRACT
Encountered extensively in wetlands, fibrous peat is considered as

problematic soil because it exhibits unusual compression behaviour. When a mass of
fibrous peat soil with both vertical and horizontal drainage boundaries is subjected to
a consolidation pressure, rate of excess pore water dissipation from the soil in the
horizontal direction is higher than that in the vertical direction. The rates of excess
pore water dissipation from the soil in the vertical and horizontal directions are
measured by vertical and horizontal coefficient of consolidation (cv and ch)
respectively. This project report presents laboratory findings on the consolidation
behaviour of fibrous peat from Bahru village, Pontian, Johor with respect to one-
dimensional vertical and radial consolidation. Results from hydraulic consolidation
tests indicate that the ch/cv ratio of the soil is greater than 1 when the soil is subjected
to consolidation pressure of 50 kPa, 100 kPa, and 200 kPa. This implies that the
utilization of horizontal drain maybe suitable for soil improvement to accelerate the
settlement of fibrous peat soil.
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ABSTRAK
Ditemui secara meluas di kawasan paya, tanah gambut berfiber merupakan

tanah bermasalah kerana ia mempunyai sifat pengukuhan yang luar biasa. Apabila
sesuatu jisim tanah gambut berfiber yang terdedah kepada sistem saliran air secara
menegak dan mendatar dikenakan tekanan, kadar lesapan air terlebih secara
mendatar adalah lebih tinggi berbanding dengan kadar lesapan air terlebih secara
menegak daripada tanah tersebut. Kadar lesapan air terlebih secara menegak dan
mendatar daripada tanah tersebut ditentukan oleh kadar pengukuhan tanah secara
menegak dan mendatar (cv dan ch) masing-masing. Laporan projek ini
membincangkan hasil kajian di dalam makmal tentang sifat pengukuhan tanah secara
menegak dan mendatar bagi sampel-sampel tanah gambut berfiber yang didapati dari
kampung Bahru, Pontian, Johor. Hasil ujian pengukuhan hidraulik menunjukkan
bahawa nisbah ch/cv untuk tanah tersebut adalah lebih daripada 1 apabila tanah itu
dikenakan tekanan 50 kPa, 100 kPa, dan 200 kPa. Ini menandakan bahawa
penggunaan sistem saliran air secara mendatar mungkin sesuai bagi mempercepatkan
proses pemendapan tanah gambut berfiber.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER TITLE PAGE
1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Background 1
1.2 Aims of project 3
1.3 Objectives of study 3
1.4 Scope of project 3
2 LITERATURE REVIEW 5
2.1 Introduction 5
2.2 Fibrous peat soil 6
2.3 Structural arrangement of fibrous peat soil 6
2.3.1 Permeability of fibrous peat soil 9
2.3.2 Consolidation behaviour of fibrous
peat soil 14
2.4 Consolidation theory
2.4.1 One-dimensional consolidation 21
2.4.1.1 Determination of vertical
coefficient of consolidation,
cv 26
2.4.2 Secondary compression 30
2.4.3 Horizontal consolidation 41
2.4.3.1 Radial drainage to centre 41
2.4.3.2 Radial drainage to periphery 45
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2.5 Measurement of horizontal coefficient of

consolidation, ch of fibrous peat soil 48
2.6 Field evidence of fibrous peat soil
improvement 49
3 METHODOLOGY 53
3.1 Introduction 53
3.2 Preliminary tests 54
3.3 Hydraulic consolidation tests 56
3.3.1 Cell assembly and connections for
hydraulic consolidation tests 56
3.3.2 Test procedures of hydraulic
consolidation tests 63
3.3.3 Graphical analysis of Rowe cell
consolidation test 69
3.4 Hydraulic permeability tests
3.4.1 Cell assembly and connections for
hydraulic permeability test 71
3.4.2 Test procedures for hydraulic
permeability tests 75
4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 79
4.1 Soil identification 79

4.2 Standard consolidation tests 80
4.2.1 Determination of range of
consolidation pressures 80
4.2.2 Evaluation of long term compression
of the soil 80
4.3 Hydraulic consolidation tests 81
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4.3.1 Vertical consolidation test 82

4.3.2 Radial consolidation test 88
4.3.3 Results comparison between
hydraulic consolidation tests with
radial and two-way vertical drainages 92
4.4 Permeability tests 97
4.4.1 Initial permeability 98
4.4.2 Hydraulic permeability 101
4.4.3 Results comparison between constant
head and hydraulic permeability tests 101
5 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATION 103
5.1 Conclusions 103

5.2 Recommendation 104
REFERENCES 105
Appendices A - D 107-121
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LIST OF TABLES
TABLE NO. TITLE PAGE
2.1 Values of natural water content, wo, initial vertical

coefficient of permeability, kvo, and c./cc for peat
deposits (Source: Mesri et al., 1997) 13
2.2 Change in tp and ts with pressure for Portage peat

(average values for all tests) (Source: Dhowian and
Edil, 1980) 18
2.3 Theoretical time factors for one-dimensional

consolidation (Source: Leonards, 1962) 25
2.4 Determination of ch, the horizontal coefficient of

consolidation (Source: Hausmann, 1990) 49
3.1 Rowe cell consolidation tests – Data for curve

fitting (Source: Head, 1986) 71
4.1 Basic properties of the peat soil 79
4.2 Soil compression parameters of hydraulic

consolidation tests on the fibrous peat soil samples
under 50 kPa consolidation pressure analyzed by
different methods 93


4.5 Range of ch/cv ratio based on Taylor’s method 96
4.6 Range of coefficient of secondary compression, cα

ratio evaluated using Casagrande’s method 96
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4.7 Degree of consolidation (%) at which the

secondary compression of the fibrous peat soil
begins 97
4.8 Results summary of constant-head and hydraulic

permeability tests of the fibrous peat soil 102
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LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE NO. TITLE PAGE
2.1 (a) Schematic diagram of deposition of fibrous

peat deposit (b) Schematic diagram of multi-
phase system of fibrous peat (Source: Kogure et
al., 1993) 7
2.2 Photomicrographs of fibrous peat (Source:

Terzaghi et al., 1996) 8
2.3 Micrographs of Middleton fibrous peat; (a)

horizontal plane, (b) vertical plane (Source: Fox
and Edil, 1996) 9
2.4 Permeability of Middleton peat in vertical and

horizontal directions (Source: Mesri et al., 1997) 11
2.5 Coefficient of permeability versus void ratio for

vertical and horizontal specimens of Portage peat
(Source: Dhowian and Edil, 1980) 12
2.6 Vertical strain, normalized effluent outflow, and

excess pore pressure versus logarithm of time for
a Portage peat specimen under the first stress
increment (back pressure = 560 kPa) (Source:
Dhowian and Edil, 1980) 15
2.7 Consolidation data for a Portage peat specimen

(back pressure = 560 kPa) (Source: Dhowian and
Edil, 1980) 17
2.8 Log time-compression curve of fibrous peat soil 19

for one-dimensional consolidation
2.9 One-dimensional consolidation (a) Terzaghi’s

model (b) Stress-time curve (Source: Whitlow,
2001) 22
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2.10 Average degree of consolidation due to vertical

drainage (= percent vertical consolidation) as a
function of time factor, Tv (Source: Hausmann,
1990) 24
2.11 Theoretical time factor, Tv (logarithmic scale)

related to average degree of consolidation, Uv
(%) due to vertical drainage (Source: Head,
1982) 24
2.12 Square-root of theoretical time factor, Tv 0.5

related to average degree of consolidation, Uv
(%) due to vertical drainage (Source: Head,
1982) 25
2.13 Theoretical relationships between time factor and

degree of consolidation for vertical drainage for
two methods of measurement (Source: Head,
1986) 26
2.14 Typical vertical consolidation test results

(Source: Smith and Smith, 1998) 28
2.15 The square-root of time method (Source: Smith

and Smith, 1998) 29
2.16 Types of time-compression curve of soil 31
2.17 Relationship between the degree of consolidation

of theoretical time-pore water pressure
dissipation curve, Ub and the average degree of
consolidation, Uave from theoretical time factor-
compression curve (Source: Robinson, 2003) 34
2.18 (a) Time-compression curves, and (b) time-

degree of consolidation from the measured pore
water pressure dissipation curves for peat
(Source: Robinson, 2003) 35
2.19 (a)-(f) Degree of consolidation from the pore

water pressure dissipation curves (Ub)-
compression plots for peat at different load
increment ratios (LIR) (Source: Robinson, 2003) 36
2.20 (a) Time-total settlement curves for peat under a

load increment ratio (LIR) of 0.33, and (b) Time-
settlement curve after removing the secondary
compression (Source: Robinson, 2003) 38
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2.21 Theoretical log Uv - log Tv plot (Source:

Sridharan and Prakash, 1998) 39
2.22 7\SLFDOORJ/- log t plot of brown Mexico City

clay (Sridharan and Prakash, 1998) 40
2.23 Average degree of consolidation for radial flow

versus time factor for free strain and equal strain
boundary conditions; radial inflow tests with the
drain spacing ratio = 5 (Source: Trautwein, 43
1980)
2.24 Different drain patterns: equivalent cylinder

(Source: Holtz et al., 1991) 45
2.25 Theoretical curve relating square-root time factor

to degree of consolidation for drainage radially
outwards to periphery with ‘equal strain’ loading
(Source: Head, 1986) 46
2.26 Theoretical time-factor relationship with degree

of consolidation for drainage radially outwards
with ‘free strain’ loading (Source: McKinlay,
1961) 47
2.27 Soil profile at the Dalarovagen site (Source:

Larsson, 1986) 50
2.28 Measured settlement, excess pore pressures and

load at Dalarovagen site (Source: Carlsten, 1988) 51
2.29 Swelling and settlement versus logarithmic of

time at Dalarovagen site (Source: Carlsten, 1988) 52
3.1 Flowchart summarizing the methodology of the

project 54
3.2 Two-way vertical drainage and loading condition

for hydraulic consolidation test in Rowe cell with
‘equal strain’ loading (Source: Head, 1986) 56
3.3 Cutting rings containing soil sample are fitted on

top of the Rowe cell body 57
3.4 A porous disc is used to slowly and steadily push

the soil sample vertically downward into the
Rowe cell body 57
3.5 Schematic diagram of filling of distilled water

into the diaphragm (Source: Head, 1986) 58
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3.6 Realistic view of filling of distilled water into the

diaphragm 58
3.7 Diaphragm inserted into Rowe cell body

3.8 Diaphragm is correctly seated (Source: Head,

1986) 60
3.9 Radial drainage to periphery, and loading

condition for hydraulic consolidation test in
Rowe cell with ‘equal strain’ loading (Source:
Head, 1986) 61
3.10 Fitting porous plastic liner in Rowe cell: (a)

initial fitting and marking, (b) locating line of
cut, (c) final fitting (Source: Head, 1986) 62
3.11 Peripheral drain fitted into the Rowe cell body 63
3.12 Arrangement of Rowe cell for consolidation test

with two-way vertical drainage (Source: Head,
1986) 64
3.13 Arrangement of Rowe cell for consolidation test

with radial drainage to periphery; pore pressure
measurement from centre of base of sample
3.14 Downward vertical flow condition for hydraulic

permeability test in Rowe cell (Source: Head,
1986) 72
3.15 Arrangement of Rowe cell for permeability test

with vertical flow (downwards) (Source: Head,
1986) 73
3.16 Horizontally outward flow condition for

permeability test in Rowe cell (Source: Head,
1986) 73
3.17 Arrangement of Rowe cell for permeability test

with horizontal drainage to periphery (Source:
Head, 1986) 74
3.18 Arrangement for hydraulic vertical permeability

test using one back pressure system for
downward flow (Source: Head, 1986) 76
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4.1 Oedometer log time-compression curves of a 81

sample of the fibrous peat soil
4.2 Graphical plots of hydraulic vertical

consolidation test of the fibrous peat soil samples
analyzed by Casagrande’s method based on
settlement 84

analyzed by Casagrande’s method based on
dissipation of excess pore water pressure at the
centre of sample base 84

analyzed by Taylor’s method 85
4.5 Degree of vertical consolidation with two-way

vertical drainage due to dissipation of excess
pore water pressure (Ub) – compression plots of
the fibrous peat soil samples at different
consolidation pressures (Robinson’s method) 85
4.6 Graphical plots for the analysis on the beginning

of secondary compression due to vertical
consolidation with two-way vertical drainage of
the fibrous peat soil samples using Robinson’s
method (a) Log time-total compression curves
for vertical consolidation on the fibrous peat at
different consolidation pressures (b) Log time-
primary consolidation curves after removing the
secondary compression 86
4.7 Graphical plots for the determination of

coefficient of secondary compression, cα due to
vertical consolidation with two-way vertical
drainage of the fibrous peat soil samples
analyzed from Robinson’s method 87

analyzed by Sridharan and Prakash’s method 87
4.9 Graphical plots of hydraulic radial consolidation

test of the fibrous peat soil samples analyzed by
Casagrande’s method based on settlement 89
xvii

Casagrande’s method based on dissipation of
excess pore water pressure at the centre of
sample base 89

Taylor’s method 90
4.12 Degree of radial consolidation with periphery

drainage due to dissipation of excess pore water
pressure (Ub) – compression plots of the fibrous
peat soil samples at different consolidation
pressures (Robinson’s method) 90
4.13 Graphical plots for the analysis on the beginning

of secondary compression due to radial
consolidation with radial drainage to periphery of
the fibrous peat soil samples using Robinson’s
method (a) Log time-total compression curves
for radial consolidation on the fibrous peat at
different consolidation pressures (b) Log time-
primary consolidation curves after removing the
secondary compression 91
4.14 Graphical plots for the determination of

coefficient of secondary compression, cα due to
radial consolidation with radial drainage to
periphery of the fibrous peat soil samples
analyzed from Robinson’s method 92
4.15 Graph of coefficient of permeability at standard

temperature of 20°C, ko (20°C) versus initial
void ratio, eo of the fibrous peat soil samples 99
xviii
LIST OF SYMBOLS
A - Area of sample
AC - Ash content
B - Pore pressure parameter
cc - Compression index
ch - Horizontal coefficient of consolidation
cr - Recompression index
cv - Vertical coefficient of consolidation
cα, cα1 - Coefficient of secondary compression
cα2 - Coefficient of tertiary compression
D - Diameter of sample
e - Void ratio
eo - Initial void ratio
FC - Fiber content
Gs - Specific gravity
H, Ho - Initial thickness of consolidating soil layer
h - Head loss due to the height of water in the burette
i - Hydraulic gradient
kh - Horizontal coefficient of permeability
kho - Initial horizontal coefficient of permeability
kv - Vertical coefficient of permeability

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kvo - Initial vertical coefficient of permeability
L - Longest drainage path in consolidating soil layer; equal to half

of H with top and bottom drainage, and equal to H with top
drainage only
m - Secondary compression factor
mv - Coefficient of volume compressibility
OC - Organic content
p - Consolidation pressure
po - Initial pressure
p1 - Inlet pressure
p2 - Outlet pressure
Q - Cumulative flow
q - Rate of flow
r - Radius of sample
Tr - Radial theoretical time factor
Tv - Vertical theoretical time factor
t - Time
ts - Time to reach end of secondary compression
tp - Time to reach end of primary consolidation
Ur - Average degree of consolidation due to radial drainage
Uv - Average degree of consolidation due to vertical drainage
u - Excess pore water pressure at any point and any time
uo - Initial excess pore water pressure
w - Natural moisture content
û+s - Change in height of soil layer due to secondary compression

from time, t1 to time, t2
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û+t - Change in height of soil layer due to tertiary compression from

time, t3 to time, t4
ûS - Pressure difference
0i - Instantaneous strain
0p - Primary strain
0s - Secondary strain
0t - Tertiary strain
w - Unit weight of water
1
v - Effective vertical stress
δ - Total compression
δp - Primary consolidation settlement
δs - Secondary compression
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LIST OF APPENDICES
APPENDIX TITLE PAGE
A Soil sampling 107
B Apparatus for constant-head permeability

test 109
C Apparatus for hydraulic consolidation tests 111
D Steps for various methods used to evaluate 113

vertical and horizontal coefficient of
consolidation (cv and ch) and coefficient of
secondary compression (c.) of the fibrous
peat soil
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background
When a load is applied to a saturated soft soil, it is initially carried by the

pore water within a soil mass. The resulting pore water pressure, in excess of the
hydrostatic water pressure is termed excess pore water pressure. As water dissipates
from the soil pores, the applied load is gradually shifted from water to soil particles.
The load transfer is accompanied by a volume change. This process is generally
known as consolidation.
Depending on the packing of the soil mass and the drainage boundary
condition, the dissipation of excess pore water would naturally take either vertical or
horizontal flow path. The packing of the soil mass is usually governed by the soil
fabric, the shape of soil particles, and other material content. The term fabric
describes the geometrical arrangement of soil particles with respect to each other.
Generally, the greater the range of particle sizes, the smaller the total volume of void
spaces there will be.
Fibrous peat soil has many void spaces existing between the solid grains. Due
to the irregular shape of individual particles, fibrous peat soil deposits are porous and
the soil is considered a permeable material. Flow of water is occurring not only
through the inner voids within organic particles but also the outer voids between
organic particles and soil particles in the soil mass. Hence, for saturated fibrous peat
soil, the actual path taken by pore water as it flows through void spaces is tortuous
2
and erratic because of the random arrangement of the soil particles and organic
coarse particles. In this case, velocity of pore water varies considerably with the flow
direction.
The discussion in the preceding paragraph shows that the dissipation of

excess pore water pressure would follow a flow path which is dependent on the
packing of soil mass and the velocity of flow varies considerably with flow direction.
Despite of this fact, conventional consolidation theory developed by Terzaghi (1925)
considers that consolidation process takes place in vertical direction only. Up to
recently, analysis of consolidation is very often based on this theory where horizontal
consolidation of soil is ignored.
The importance of horizontal consolidation emerges with the development of

soil stabilization method especially the use of preloading system with vertical drains.
Vertical drains are used to provide horizontal drainage system in compressible soil
layer so that water would flow radially from the soil into the vertical drains. With the
use of surcharge and vertical drains, the consolidation process is accelerated by
shortening the length of the drainage path for the pore water escaping from the soil
layer. In this case, horizontal drainage flow plays an important role in the
consolidation process. Thus, an economic design of vertical drains depends on a
rational assessment of the horizontal coefficient of consolidation, ch (Berry and
Wilkinson, 1969).
Horizontal drainage becomes even more important in view of the fact that for
most transported soils, horizontal coefficient of consolidation, ch is normally greater
than vertical coefficient of consolidation, cv. Thus, the knowledge of horizontal
coefficient of consolidation, ch is very important in the selection of suitable soil
stabilization method for soft organic soils and peat.
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1.2 Aim of project
The project focuses on the study of horizontal coefficient of consolidation, ch

of fibrous peat soil and to compare the results with it’s vertical coefficient of
consolidation, cv through laboratory investigation. This is important to emphasize the
applicability of knowledge of horizontal coefficient of consolidation, ch on the
development of soil improvement method for construction on fibrous peat soil.
1.3 Objectives of study
In order to achieve the aim of the project, the study consists of the following
objectives:
1. To study the compressibility characteristics of fibrous peat soil based on the
consolidation curves obtained from hydraulic consolidation tests for vertical and
horizontal drainage
2. To study the effect of secondary compression on the determination of vertical
and horizontal coefficient of consolidation (cv and ch) of fibrous peat soil
3. To compare the vertical and horizontal coefficient of consolidation (cv and ch) of
fibrous peat soil under a range of consolidation pressures
4. To compare the vertical and horizontal coefficient of permeability, (kh and kv) of
fibrous peat soil under a consolidation pressure
5. To outline the use of knowledge of horizontal coefficient of consolidation, ch on
the development of soil improvement method for construction on fibrous peat
soil
1.4 Scope of project
The project is concentrated on the laboratory measurement of consolidation

parameters for fibrous peat soil found in Bahru village, Pontian, Johor with the
primary focus on the comparison of vertical and horizontal coefficient of
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consolidation (cv and ch) measured by Rowe consolidometer in laboratory using

‘identical’ sample. Since creep deformation is significant in fibrous peat soil,
laboratory investigation is also carried out to analyze the long term compression
behaviour of the soil.
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CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Introduction
The rapid development occurring in Malaysia has seen more and more land
consisting of fibrous peat soil is being developed. Therefore, the study of
compressibility characteristics of the soil is important through laboratory
investigation in order to determine the soil compression parameters, which in turn
can suggest economical soil improvement method for the soil.
Compressibility of fibrous peat is one of the most important mechanical

properties of the soil apart from the soil’s shear strength and permeability. The way
excess pore water pressure dissipation in both of vertical and horizontal directions in
the soil can be understood with the knowledge of consolidation behaviour of the soil.
The consolidation behaviour of the soil is influenced by it’s soil fabric and
permeability. As such, soil identification and evaluation on the soil’s permeability
are important in order to investigate how these properties affect the soil’s
compressibility.
In engineering practice, evaluation on the compressibility characteristics of

fibrous peat soil is very often based on one-dimensional consolidation theory only.
Since, horizontal rate of consolidation of fibrous peat soil is greater than it’s vertical
rate of consolidation, evaluation on the consolidation characteristics of the soil with
respect to horizontal drainage is equally important.
6
Researchers have examined fibrous peat soils from different parts of the
world and their findings differ partly from each other mainly due to different content
of peat soils. This indicates that in term of content, fibrous peat soil differs from
location to location and detailed soil investigation need to be conducted for fibrous
peat soil at a particular site where a structure is intended to be constructed. Previous
studies on properties of fibrous peat soils and how these properties affect the soil’s
consolidation behaviour are detailed in the literature review.
2.1 Fibrous peat soil
Fibrous peat is a mixture of fragmented organic material formed in wetlands

under appropriate climatic and topographic conditions. The soil has essentially an
open structure with interstices filled with a secondary structural arrangement of
nonwoody, fine fibrous material (Dhowian and Edil, 1980). Dhowian and Edil (1980)
further stated that if peat has 20% fiber content or more, then it can be classified as
fibrous peat. According to Karlsson and Hansbo (1981), fibrous peat differs from
amorphous peat in that it has a low degree of decomposition, fibrous structure, and
easily recognizable plant structure. The compressibility of fibrous peat is very high
and so it’s rate of consolidation. The formation of peat deposit led to a pronounced
structural anisotropy in which the fibers tend to have horizontal orientation. Thus,
under a consolidation pressure, water tends to flow faster from the soil in the
horizontal direction than in the vertical direction.
2.2 Structural arrangement of fibrous peat soil
Kogure et al. (1993) described that peat deposit typically has a very high
water content and extremely low bearing capacity. Thus, physical properties of
fibrous peat soil differ markedly from those of mineral soils. As such, Kogure et al.
(1993) presented the idea of multi-phase system of fibrous peat. The cross section of
7
deposition of fibrous peat is schematically shown in Figure 2.1(a) and the schematic
diagram of the multi-phase system of fibrous peat is shown in Figure 2.1(b).
Organic
matters
Organic bodies
(Solids)
Water
Organic particle
(Inner voids)
Water
Organic spaces
(Outer voids)
Soil particles
(Solids)
(a) (b)
Figure 2.1: (a) Schematic diagram of deposition of fibrous peat deposit (b)
Schematic diagram of multi-phase system of fibrous peat (Source: Kogure et al.,
1993)
It can be observed from Figure 2.1(a) that organic particles consist of solid
organic matter and inner voids. The solid organic matter is flexible with the inner
voids, which are filled with water that can be drained under consolidation pressure.
The spaces between the organic bodies, called outer voids are filled with solid
particles (solids) and water.
Kogure et al. (1993) concluded that organic particles in fibrous peat soil have
high water-holding capacity and this affect the drainage characteristics of the soil.
Soil fabric characterized by organic coarse particles, as in fibrous peat, hold a
considerable amount of water because they are generally very loose, and the organic
particle itself is hollow and largely full of water as illustrated in Figure 2.2. The peat
soil in the figure has natural water content of 610% - 830% and void ratio of 11.1 to
8
14.2. In general, the water-holding capacity decreases with increasing degree of

decomposition.
Figure 2.2: Photomicrographs of fibrous peat (Source: Terzaghi et al., 1996)
According to Dhowian and Edil (1980), fiber content appears to be a major

compositional factor in determining the way in which peat soils behave. Fox and Edil
(1996) studied the microstructures of Middleton fibrous peat through the soil’s
micrographs as shown in Figure 2.3 for a fibrous peat specimen loaded under 400
kPa consolidation pressure in one-dimensional vertical consolidation. Comparison of
the two micrographs indicates a pronounced structural anisotropy for the fibrous peat
with the void spaces in the horizontal direction larger than those in the vertical
direction resulting from the fiber orientation within the soil. Individual
microstructures remained essentially intact after compression under high-stress
conditions. This implies that for the fibrous peat soil, horizontal rates of permeability
and consolidation are larger than their respective vertical rates of permeability and
consolidation.
9
Figure 2.3: Micrographs of Middleton fibrous peat; (a) horizontal plane, (b) vertical
plane (Source: Fox and Edil, 1996)
2.2.1 Permeability of fibrous peat soil
Fibrous peat soil consists of solid particles with voids between them. In
general, the voids are interconnected, which enables water to pass through them; that
is fibrous peat soil is permeable to water. The degree of permeability is determined
by applying a hydraulic pressure difference across a sample of fibrous peat soil,
which is fully saturated, and measuring the consequent rate of flow of water. The
coefficient of permeability is expressed in terms of velocity. The flow of water
through fibrous peat soil is governed by Darcy’s law, which states that the flow is
streamline flow or laminar.
Darcy (1856) made observations on the rate of flow of water through

saturated granular soils and obtained the following empirical relationship:
v = ki (2.1)
10
where, in macroscopic or apparent flow direction, v is the discharge velocity, i is the

hydraulic gradient, and k is defined as the coefficient of permeability. Subsequent
measurements have shown that the Darcy equation of fluid motion accurately defines
the relationship between discharge velocity and hydraulic gradient in all saturated
fine-grained and coarse-grained soils unless in very coarse-grained soils, the flow is
so rapid as to be turbulent. Because the hydraulic gradient is dimensionless, the
coefficient of permeability has the units of velocity (m/s).
Two types of laboratory test for direct measurement of permeability of soils

are:
1. Constant head permeability test for soils of high permeability, such as sands.
2. Falling head permeability test for soils of intermediate and low permeability,
such as silts and clays.
For fibrous peat soil, since the soil has a good drainage characteristic, constant head
permeability tests are preferred by most researchers in evaluating the permeability of
the soil. Previous studies on physical and hydraulic properties of fibrous peat soil
indicate that the soil is averagely porous, and this certifies the fact that fibrous peat
soil has a medium degree of permeability.
Mesri et al. (1997) carried out falling head and constant head permeability
measurements during the secondary compression stage of oedometer tests on
Middleton peat. The coefficient of permeability as a function of void ratio was also
computed using the excess pore water pressure measurements at the bottom of peat
specimens in constant rate of strain (CRS) oedometer tests (Tavenas et al., 1983).
The values of the coefficient of permeability in a vertical direction, kv from
specimens that were cut with their axes parallel to the vertical direction are
summarized in Figure 2.4, together with values of kho near initial void ratio, eo from
specimens that were cut with their axes perpendicular to the vertical direction. At a
typical void ratio of 12, Middleton peat is anisotropic with a value of kho / kvo = 10.
11
Figure 2.4: Permeability of Middleton peat in vertical and horizontal directions

(Source: Mesri et al., 1997)
The change in permeability as a result of compression is drastic for fibrous

peat soils (Dhowian and Edil, 1980). Portage peat, a type of fibrous peat soil initially
has a relatively high permeability comparable to fine sand or silty sand, as shown in
Figure 2.5. The fact is supported by the finding of Colleselli et al. (2000), which
stated that the initial permeability of peats is 100 –1000 times that of soft clays and
silts. However, as compression proceeds and void ratio decreases rapidly,
permeability is greatly reduced (about 10,000-fold) to a value comparable to that of
clay (Dhowian and Edil, 1980).
12
Figure 2.5: Coefficient of permeability versus void ratio for vertical and horizontal
specimens of Portage peat (Source: Dhowian and Edil, 1980)
Also shown in Figure 2.5, at a given void ratio, the horizontal coefficient of
permeability, kh is higher (by about 300-fold) than its vertical coefficient of
permeability, kv. This also indicates that horizontal coefficient of consolidation, ch of
Portage peat is greater than its vertical coefficient of consolidation, cv.
Initial vertical coefficients of permeability, kvo of peat soils evaluated by

researchers are presented in Table 2.1. It can be observed from Table 2.1 that the
initial vertical coefficient of permeability, kvo of peat soil varies from location to
location. This is due to the physical structure and arrangement of constituent particles,
e.g. fibers and granules, in peat that greatly affect the size and continuity of pores
resulting in a wide range of hydraulic conductivities (Edil, 2003). The highly
colloidal, amorphous peat soil tends to have lower hydraulic conductivity compared
to fibrous peat soil. The dominant factors, in addition to the original structure and
material characteristics that control hydraulic conductivity of peat are density (or
degree of consolidation) and extent of decomposition. These factors can change with
13
time and result in a change in hydraulic conductivity. In its natural state, peat can
have a hydraulic conductivity as high as sand, i.e., 10-5 to 10-4 m/s. Hydraulic
conductivity decreases markedly under load down to the level of silt or clay
hydraulic conductivity i.e., 10-8 to 10-9 m/s or even lower (Hillis and Brawner, 1961;
Dhowian and Edil, 1980; Lea and Brawner, 1963).
Table 2.1: Values of natural water content, wo, initial vertical coefficient of
permeability, kvo, and c./cc for peat deposits
wo kvo
Peat % m/s c./cc Reference
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)
Fibrous peat 850 4 x 10-6 0.06 - 0.10 Hanrahan (1954)
Peat 520 - 0.061 - 0.078 Lewis (1954)
Amorphous and fibrous peat 500 - 1500 10-7 - 10-6 0.035 -0.083 Lea and Brawner (1963)
Canadian muskeg 200 - 600 10-5 0.09 - 0.10 Adams (1965)
Amorphous to fibrous peat 705 - 0.073 -0.091 Keene and Zawodniak (1968)
Peat 400 - 750 10-5 0.075 -0.085 Weber (1969)
Fibrous peat 605 - 1290 10-6 0.052 - 0.072 Samson and LaRochell (1972)
Fibrous peat 613 - 886 10-6 - 10-5 0.06 - 0.085 Berry and Vickers (1975)
Amorphous to fibrous peat 600 10-6 0.042 - 0.083 Dhowian and Edil (1981)
Fibrous peat 600 - 1590 5 x 10-7 - 5 x 10-5 0.06 Lefebvre et al. (1984)
Dutch peat 370 - 0.06 Den Haan (1994)
Fibrous peat 610 - 850 6 x 10-8 - 10-7 0.052 Mesri et al. (1997)
(Source: Mesri et al., 1997)
According to Edil (2003), the rate of decrease of hydraulic conductivity with

decreasing void ratio is usually higher than that in clays but it is not clearly
established. The large decrease in hydraulic conductivity as compression under load
progresses implies that a large strain theory of consolidation may be appropriate for
high water content fibrous peat (Lan, 1992). In general, horizontal hydraulic
conductivity, especially for predominantly fibrous peat soils, is greater than that in
vertical direction by an order of magnitude or more (Dhowian and Edil, 1980; Colley,
1950).
14
2.2.2 Consolidation behaviour of fibrous peat soil
There are a certain class of peat soils, typically highly organic and fiber
content soils with low degree of humification, that do not exhibit the basic tenets of
the conventional clay compression behaviour because of their highly different solid
phase properties and microstructure (Edil, 2003). Such peat soils are known as
fibrous peat soils. The primary consolidation of the soil is very rapid and large
secondary compression, even tertiary compression is observed. The analysis of
compression of such soils presents certain difficulties when the conventional
methods are applied because the curves obtained from the conventional oedometer
tests and the behaviour exhibits by them differ from that of clay. Furthermore, such
soils are more prone to decomposition during oedometer testing. Gas content and
additional gas generation also may complicate the interpretation of oedometer tests
(Edil, 2003). The behaviour of fibrous peat soils and the recent advances in
formulating their behaviour had been presented by some researchers.
Based on the study of consolidation behaviour of Portage peat, a typical

fibrous peat with intermediate fiber content by Dhowian and Edil (1980) using
Anteus consolidometer, the relationship between strain and the logarithmic of time
for the first increment of loading for a Portage peat specimen is given in Figure 2.6
along with pore pressure and normalized effluent outflow responses.
15
Figure 2.6: Vertical strain, normalized effluent outflow, and excess pore pressure
versus logarithm of time for a Portage peat specimen under the first stress increment
(back pressure = 560 kPa) (Source: Dhowian and Edil, 1980)
As indicated in Figure 2.6, the strain/time curve is different to those obtained

for clay soils, that is, the usual primary consolidation curve is not evident. The
VWUDLQORJDULWKPLFRIWLPH0ORJt) curve consists of four components of strain. These
components can be identified as follows:
1. DQLQVWDQWDQHRXVVWUDLQ0i, which takes place immediately after the application of

a consolidation pressure, possibly resulting from the compression of air voids and
the elastic compression of the peat;
2. D SULPDU\ VWUDLQ FRPSRQHQW 0p, which occurs at a relatively high rate and
continues for several minutes to a time tp (Figure 2.6);
3. D VHFRQGDU\ VWUDLQ FRPSRQHQW 0s, which results from a linear increase of strain
with the logarithm of time for a number of additional log cycles of time until a
16
time ts, after which the time rate of compression increases substantially giving
rise to a tertiary strain component;
4. D WHUWLDU\ VWUDLQ FRPSRQHQW 0t, which continues indefinitely until the whole
compression process ceases.
7KH 0ORJ t response in Figure 2.6 shows that the dissipation of excess pore
water pressure is nearly completed within 10 minutes for the first increment of load,
and there appears to be an approximate correspondence between the time for the
complete dissipation of excess pore pressure and tp, which designates the completion
of the primary component of strain. However, with the application of additional
stress increments, this correspondence is lost and the time for the completion of
excess pore pressure dissipation increases as the applied stress increment increases
(Dhowian and Edil, 1980). This is shown in Figure 2.7, where vertical strain, excess
pore pressure, and normalized effluent outflow responses are given as a function of
the logarithmic of time for additional stress increments.
17
Figure 2.7: Consolidation data for a Portage peat specimen (back pressure = 560 kPa)
(Source: Dhowian and Edil, 1980)
For the last two consolidation pressures, the peak excess pore pressure
develops approximately 1 minute after the application of stress increment. The
observed change in pore pressure response with increasing stress is a result of the
drastic decrease in permeability and compressibility with increasing stress.
Furthermore, with increasing time from the beginning of a test, a certain amount of
gas is generated because of decomposition in the peat, and this generated gas may
contribute to the time lag in the development of the peak excess pore pressure
(Dhowian and Edil, 1980).
The normalized effluent outflow curves, obtained by dividing the effluent

outflow by the initial volume of the specimen prior to the application of each stress
LQFUHPHQWûV / VoLQGLFDWHDFHUWDLQVLPLODULW\WRWKH0ORJt curves shown in Figure
18
2.6 and Figure 2.7. The continuous flow of water from the specimen even after the
dissipation of excess pore water pressure, thereby implying the outflow is not totally
controlled by the macro-hydrodynamic effects. The trend gives support to the
conception of the two-level structure for fibrous peat soils with a network of
interconnected macropores and micropores. Micropores result from the compressible
and porous nature of solid phase, that is, the organic matters including fibers. In this
case, after the dissipation of excess pore water pressure, the water will still continue
to flow from the micropores into the macropores and then out of the specimen to be
collected in the outflow burette for permeability test.
The average values of tp and ts, which designate the times for the transitions
from the primary to the secondary and from the secondary to the tertiary compression,
respectively, are given in Table 2.2 at various stress increments for all specimens
tested from Portage peat.
Table 2.2: Change in tp and ts with pressure for Portage peat (average values for all
tests)
Pressure increment (kPa) tp (minutes) ts (minutes)

0-25 1.35 2472
25-50 0.48 1488
50-100 0.49 1284
100-200 1.49 468
200-400 2.68 NA
(Source: Dhowian and Edil, 1980)
It is observed that values of tp lie within 1.5 minutes for all three increments
except the last one, at which there is a drastic increase in tp as tp and ts merge into
each other. On the other hand, ts decreases with increasing pressure increment from a
value of approximately 2472 minutes down to a few minutes when it approaches tp
and when the secondary and tertiary compression components merge into each other.
The disappearance of the tertiary compression took place at about 400 kPa for most
Portage peat specimens (Dhowian and Edil, 1980).
19
2.4 Consolidation theory
Fibrous peat typically has high organic and fiber content and thus, it does not
exhibit the basic tenets of the conventional clay compression behaviour (Edil, 2003).
The difference becomes particularly apparent especially at low vertical stresses i.e.,
for surficial peat deposits in early load increments in the laboratory. Figure 2.8 shows
the consolidation behaviour of fibrous peat soil based on one-dimensional vertical
consolidation test. The primary consolidation is very rapid and secondary
compression, even tertiary compression is observed.
0.00
0.01 0i
0.02
Vertical strain, 0
0.03
0.04
0p
0.05
0.06
ts
0.07 0s
0.08 tp 0t
0.09
0.10
0.1 1 10 100 1000 10000 100000
Time, t in minutes (log scale)
Figure 2.8: Log time-compression curve of fibrous peat soil for one-dimensional
consolidation
As shown in Figure 2.8, the soil’s compressibility generally occurs in several

stages (initial, primary, secondary, and sometimes tertiary compression) and thus, the
time-compression curve (compression versus logarithmic of time) consists of four
FRPSRQHQWVRIVWUDLQQDPHO\LQVWDQWDQHRXVVWUDLQ0iSULPDU\VWUDLQ0p), secondary
VWUDLQ0sDQGWHUWLDU\VWUDLQ0t).
20
1. Instantaneous strain0i)
,QVWDQWDQHRXVVWUDLQ0i, is the soil deformation relative to its initial state due

to elastic compression that takes place instantaneously following an increase in stress.
As shown in Figure 2.8, instantaneous strain results from the initial compression,
which takes place before the primary consolidation, almost instantaneously with the
load application (Bardet, 1997). The initial compression corresponds to an abrupt
settlement unexplained by the primary consolidation, and is due partly to the
compression of small pockets of gas within the pore spaces, and partly to the elastic
compression of soil grains.
2. Primary strain 0p)

Primary strain refers to the time-dependent deformation of soil relative to its
initial state due to the dissipation of excess pore water from the soil. However, this
phenomenon, hereafter referred to as the primary consolidation is not the only
phenomenon taking place during the consolidation test; it is accompanied by initial
and secondary compressions (Bardet, 1997). Primary consolidation is defined as the
volume change occurring up to the full dissipation of excess pore water pressures
(Whitlow, 2001).
3. Secondary strain 0s)

6HFRQGDU\VWUDLQ0s is the soil deformation relative to its initial state resulting
from the secondary compression, also referred to as creep, which continues after the
primary consolidation is completed and the excess pore water pressure is dissipated.
The secondary compression is caused by the particle movements and readjustments
without a change in effective stress. For most soils, it also takes place during primary
consolidation to a negligible extent, and becomes only noticeable near the
completion of the primary compression (Robinson, 2003).
Tertiary strain (0t)

It is conventionally accepted that secondary compression occurs at a constant
rate with the logarithm of time, which means decreasing settlement rate with time.
However, in some cases of low stress application on fibrous peat, there is a
significant deviation from constant coefficient of secondary compression. As such,
the term ‘tertiary strain’ is introduced as a soil strain to designate the increasing
21
coefficient of secondary compression with time. It is the soil deformation relative to

its initial state due to tertiary compression and its corresponding tertiary compression
parameter is the coefficient of tertiary compression, c. (Dhowian and Edil, 2003).
2.4.1 One-dimensional consolidation
Consolidation describes the time dependent process by which a saturated soil

changes its interstitial water volume in response to drained loading. This process is
associated with the dissipation of excess pore pressures and a transfer of load
between total and effective stresses. The start conditions, t0, and end conditions, t100,
of consolidation are states of compression, but the process in-between is referred to
as consolidation.
In 1925, Terzaghi presented a theory based on the model shown in Figure 2.9
for the evaluation of primary consolidation. Terzaghi’s one-dimensional
consolidation theory assumes that there is no change of external load with time that
both of the coefficients of volume change and the hydraulic conductivity are constant
over the relevant stress and that strains are infinitesimal. In the development of the
one-dimensional consolidation theory, the following assumptions are made:
1. The soil is saturated, homogeneous and isotropic.

2. Soil particles and pore water are incompressible.
3. Compression (deformation) and flow of pore water is one-dimensional that is in
the vertical direction only.
4. Strains (deformation) are small.
5. Darcy’s law describes the flow of water through soil. Darcy’s law is valid at all
hydraulic gradients.
6. The following soil properties remain constant throughout the consolidation
process: mv, kv and cv.
7. There is a unique relationship, independent of time, between void ratio, e and
HIIHFWLYHVWUHVV1¶v.
22
Figure 2.9: One-dimensional consolidation (a) Terzaghi’s model (b) Stress-time

curve (Source: Whitlow, 2001)
Related to the above assumptions, there are limitations of Terzaghi’s model

in practical terms:
1. Darcy’s law is known to break down at low hydraulic gradients.

2. As a soil compresses, its void ratio, e and therefore, coefficient of permeability
for vertical flow, kv decreases. As such, the coefficient of volume compressibility,
mv also decreases by the nonlinear (logarithmic) relationship between void ratio,
eDQGHIIHFWLYHVWUHVV1¶v. However, for small strains, the assumption of constant
mv, kv and cvDQGDOLQHDUUHODWLRQVKLSEHWZHHQHDQG1¶v are reasonable.
The process of consolidation is absolutely linked to the dissipation of excess

pore water pressure. Therefore, Terzaghi’s equation relates the excess pore water
pressure at depth, z with time, t.
ue = cv 2ue (2.2)

t z2
where,
ue = excess pore water pressure at time, t and depth, z
cv = vertical coefficient of consolidation (m2/yr)
Under Terzaghi’s assumptions, the vertical coefficient of consolidation, cv, can also
be defined as follows:
cv = kv / mvw (2.3)
23
where,
kv = coefficient of permeability for vertical flow
mv = coefficient of volume compressibility
w = unit weight of water (kN/m3)
Equation (2.2) allows the coefficient of volume compressibility to be calculated from

one-dimensional consolidation test results.
For constant initial hydrostatic excess pressure (equal to the surcharge for
one-dimensional consolidation), Terzaghi (1943) derived average degree of
consolidation due to vertical drainage as follows:
-m2Tv/4

+
Uv = 1 - 8 e (2.4)
2 m=1
odd
m2
where,
Tv = cvt / L2
t = time (s)
cv = vertical coefficient of consolidation (m2/s)
L = Longest drainage path in consolidating soil layer (m); equal to half of H
with top and bottom drainage and equal to H with top drainage only
H = Thickness of consolidating layer (m)
Values of Uv as a function of Tv are given in Figure 2.10. The same relationship is

given in Figure 2.11, where the average degree of consolidation due to vertical
drainage, Uv is plotted against the theoretical time factor, Tv drawn to a logarithmic
scale, and in Figure 2.12, where average degree of consolidation, Uv is plotted
against the square root of theoretical time factor, Tv 0.5.
24
Figure 2.10: Average degree of consolidation due to vertical drainage (= percent

vertical consolidation) as a function of time factor, Tv (Source: Hausmann, 1990)
Figure 2.11: Theoretical time factor, Tv (logarithmic scale) related to average degree
of consolidation, Uv (%) due to vertical drainage (Source: Head, 1982)
25
Figure 2.12: Square-root of theoretical time factor, Tv 0.5 related to average degree of
consolidation, Uv (%) due to vertical drainage (Source: Head, 1982)
The log-time curve and square-root of time curve are commonly used in the
0.5
analysis of one-dimensional consolidation. Computed values of Uv, Tv and Tv are
listed in Table 2.3.
Table 2.3: Theoretical time factors for one-dimensional consolidation
Degree of consolidation Time factor

U% Tv (Tv) 0.5
0 0 0
10 0.008 0.089
20 0.031 0.176
30 0.071 0.266
40 0.126 0.355
50 0.197 0.444
60 0.286 0.535
70 0.403 0.635
80 0.567 0.753
90 0.848 0.921
95 1.129 1.063
100
(Source: Leonards, 1962)

26
2.4.1.1 Determination of vertical coefficient of consolidation, cv
The process of comparing a laboratory consolidation curve with the

theoretical curve is known as ‘curve fitting’. It enables the vertical coefficient of
consolidation, cv to be determined for each increment of loading. Based on one-
dimensional consolidation theory, two conventional curve-fitting methods are widely
used in geotechnical application, one using the log-time/ settlement curve or log-
time/ pore water pressure dissipation curve and the other using the square-root time/
settlement curve (the square-root time method).
1. Log-time method
Log-time method was derived by Casagrande, hence it is also known as

Casagrande’s method. Based on the method, the relationship between the theoretical
time factor, Tv (plotted to a logarithmic scale) and degree of consolidation is shown
by curve A in Figure 2.13.
Figure 2.13: Theoretical relationships between time factor and degree of

consolidation for vertical drainage for two methods of measurement (Source: Head,
1986)
27
Value of theoretical time factor, T50 at 50% consolidation rate is 0.197. Hence,
based on laboratory log-time versus settlement curve and theoretical curve A,
vertical coefficient of consolidation, cv is given as follows:
cv = T50 H2 = 0.197 H2 (2.5)

t50 t50
where,
H = length of drainage path for one-way vertical drainage (For two-way vertical
drainage, length of drainage path = H/2)
t50 = time to reach 50% degree of consolidation based on the laboratory
consolidation curve
T50 = Theoretical time factor at 50% degree of consolidation
The theoretical curve for pore pressure dissipation at the centre of the base of
the sample is shown by curve B in Figure 2.13. This gives theoretical time factor, T50
of 0.379. This factor is used in conjunction with the pore pressure dissipation curve
for vertical drainage. Hence, based on the laboratory log-time versus pore pressure
dissipation curve for vertical drainage and theoretical curve B, vertical coefficient of
consolidation is determined as follows:
cv = T50 H2 = 0.379 H2 (2.6)

t50 t50
where,
t50 = time to reach 50% pore pressure dissipation based on the laboratory
consolidation curve
T50 = Theoretical time factor at 50% pore pressure dissipation
28
2. Square-root-time method
The square-root-time method was introduced by Taylor (1942), and is known

as Taylor’s method. According to Taylor (1942), if for a particular pressure
increment applied during a one-dimensional consolidation test, the compression of
the test sample is plotted against the square-root of time, the result shown in Figure
2.14 would be obtained.
Figure 2.14: Typical vertical consolidation test results (Source: Smith and Smith,
1998)
The curve is seen to consist of three distinct parts: AB (initial compression or

frictional lag), BC (primary compression) and CD (secondary compression). Taylor
(1942) stated that if the degree of consolidation due to vertical drainage, Uv against
0.5
square-root of theoretical time factor (T50 ) is plotted for the case of a uniform
initial excess pore water pressure dissipation, the curve would be like that shown in
Figure 2.15(a). Up to value of degree of consolidation due to vertical drainage, Uv
equal to about 60 percent, the curve is a straight line of equation Uv = 1.13 (T)0.5, but
if this straight line is extended to cut the ordinate, Uv = 90 percent, the abscissa of the
curve is seen to be 1.15 times the abscissa of the straight line. This fact is used to fit
the laboratory consolidation and theoretical consolidation curves.
With the laboratory consolidation curve, a corrected zero must first be

established by projecting the straight line part of the primary compression back to cut
the vertical axis at E (Figure 2.14). A second line, starting through E, is now drawn
29
such that all abscissas on it are 1.15 times the corresponding values on the test curve,
and the point at which this second line cuts the test curve is taken to be the point
representing 90 percent primary consolidation (Figure 2.15(b)).
Figure 2.15: The square-root of time method (Source: Smith and Smith, 1998)
To establish vertical coefficient of consolidation, cv, the theoretical time

factor to reach 90 percent of vertical primary consolidation, T90 is first found from
the theoretical consolidation curve to be 0.848; and the time to reach 90 percent of
vertical primary consolidation, t90 is determined from the laboratory consolidation
curve:
cv = T90 H2 = 0.848 H2 (2.7)

t90 t90
where,
t90 = time to reach 90% degree of consolidation based on the laboratory
consolidation curve
T90 = Theoretical time factor at 90% degree of consolidation
30
2.4.2 Secondary compression
A major factor affecting the results of consolidation test of soil is the

secondary compression. Conventionally, secondary compression of soil is
conveniently assumed to occur after then end of primary consolidation. However,
secondary compression of soil actually begins during primary consolidation and
dissipation of excess pore water from soil (Robinson, 2003).
In general, the time-compression curves of soil based on a laboratory one-

dimensional consolidation test can be divided into three stages, namely initial
compression, primary consolidation, and secondary compression. While initial
compression is due to elastic compression and occurs instantaneously after the
application of load, and primary consolidation is due to dissipation of excess pore
water pressure, secondary compression takes place under constant effective stress
even after the dissipation of excess pore water pressure. According to Robinson
(2003), three possibilities exist in the literature of soil mechanics regarding the
beginning of secondary compression of soil:
1. The primary consolidation occurs first, followed by the secondary compression.

2. The secondary compression begins even after some primary consolidation has
taken place.
3. The occurrence of secondary compression is concurrent with the primary
consolidation.
Analysis on the beginning of secondary compression of soil is dependent on

the types of time-compression curve. Leonard and Girault (1961) reported that there
are three types of time-compression curve of soil, namely Type I, Type II, and Type
III curves as shown in Figure 2.16.
31
Figure 2.16: Types of time-compression curve of soil
Type I curve is defined by Terzaghi’s theory with S-shaped curve in the

logarithmic of time plot. Type II curve is a transition curve with nonlinear variation
of secondary compression with logarithmic of time. Type III curve is the time-
compression curve with no inflection point. While the separation of primary and
secondary compression from Type I curve is relatively easy, it is very difficult to
identify the end of primary consolidation of Type II and Type III curves (Robinson,
2003).
Several methods have been developed in addition to conventional method

(Casagrande’s method) to evaluate the beginning of secondary compression of soil.
These methods are described in the following sections:
32
1. Casagrande’s method (Conventional method)
In conventional geotechnical engineering practice, it is assumed that

Terzaghi’s theory is valid for primary consolidation phase. Any deviation from the
theory in the later stages of consolidation is attributed to secondary compression
effects (Robinson, 2003). Conventionally, secondary compression of soil is assumed
to vary linearly with logarithmic of time and is characterized by a compression
parameter known as coefficient of secondary compression, c., which is derived from
the following formula:
c. = ûHs/ Ho (2.8)
log (t2/ t1)
where,
Ho = Initial soil layer thickness
ûHs = Change in height of soil layer due to secondary compression from time, t1
to time, t2
Casagrande’s method proves to be satisfactory to predict the secondary

compression for Type I curve but it fails to give accurate prediction of secondary
compression for Type II curve and with the absence of inflection point for Type III
curve, it cannot even be used to predict the secondary compression of the curve.
2. Extended Casagrande’s method (Dhowian and Edil, 1980)
For Type II curve, the variation of secondary compression with logarithmic

of time is nonlinear, and thus, the quantification of secondary compression through
the coefficient of secondary compression, c. becomes difficult which frequently
leads to an underestimate of the settlement. Dhowian and Edil (1980) discovered the
presence of tertiary compression in addition to secondary compression as part of long
term compression of fibrous peat soil under low stress application. As the matter of
fact, for Type II curve, secondary compression is characterized by a decreasing strain
rate after the end of primary consolidation and it’s corresponding compression
parameter is represented by the coefficient of secondary compression, c., whereas,
33
tertiary compression is characterized by an increasing strain rate after the end of

secondary compression and it’s corresponding compression parameter is denoted by
the coefficient of tertiary compression, c. defined as follows:
c. = ûHt/ Ho (2.9)

log (t4/ t3)
where,
ûHt = Change in height of soil layer due to tertiary compression from time, t3 to time,
t4
3. Robinson’s method (Robinson, 2003)
Robinson (2003) studied on the beginning of the secondary compression of

peat soil using Rowe cell of 75 mm diameter and 20 mm height. In the study, pore
water pressure dissipation data were recorded during one-dimensional consolidation
tests and were used along with the settlement data to identify the beginning of
secondary compression of the soil. Only one-way vertical drainage through the top
was permitted during the tests. The bottom porous stone was connected to a pore
pressure transducer to measure pore water pressure during consolidation.
Based on Terzaghi’s one-dimensional consolidation theory, Robinson (2003)

found a relationship between the average degree of consolidation from theoretical
time factor-compression curve (Uave) and the theoretical time factor-centre of base
pore water pressure dissipation curve (Ub). The variation of Uave and Ub is shown in
Figure 2.17. The plot shows that the variation of Uave and Ub is linear for Ub > 22%.
$VWKHFRPSUHVVLRQ/DQGUaveLVGLUHFWO\UHODWHGDSORWRIFRPSUHVVLRQ/YHUVXV
degree of consolidation from pore water pressure dissipation curve (Ub) can be
expected to be linear for Ub > 22%. Thus, if the compression is only due to
dissipation of excess pore water pressure without any secondary compression effects,
D OLQHDUUHODWLRQVKLS EHWZHHQFRPSUHVVLRQ/DQGUb can be expected beyond Ub =
22%. This aspect is used by Robinson (2003) to identify the beginning of secondary
compression.
34
Figure 2.17: Relationship between the degree of consolidation of theoretical time-

pore water pressure dissipation curve, Ub and the average degree of consolidation,
Uave from theoretical time factor-compression curve (Source: Robinson, 2003)
The effect of secondary compression is to increase the settlement in addition

to that expected from primary consolidation alone DQG WKH SORW RI / YHUVXV Ub
deviates from linearity. The point where the plot deviates from linearity at the later
stages of consolidation is regarded as the beginning of secondary compression.
Guided by the theoretical finding, Robinson (2003) conducted experiment using
Rowe’s hydraulic consolidation cell on peat soil. The time-compression-degree of
consolidation from the measured pore water pressure dissipation graphical plots for
peat are shown in Figure 2.18(a) and 2.18(b).
35
Figure 2.18: (a) Time-compression curves, and (b) time-degree of consolidation

from the measured pore water pressure dissipation curves for peat (Source: Robinson,
2003)
It can be observed that in the absence of inflection point in some time-

compression curves in Figure 2.18(a), end of primary consolidation is reached based
on their corresponding pore water pressure dissipation curves as shown in Figure
36
2.18(b). Such consolidation curves are identified as Type III curves. This renders the
unsuitability of log-time method to determine the end of primary consolidation for
such time-compression curves. Based on the experiment, the data from Figure 2.18(a)
and 2.18(b) are plotted as degree of consolidation measured from the dissipation of
excess pore water pressure at the centre of base of the sample versus total
compression of the soil in Figure 2.19(a)-(f).
Figure 2.19: (a)-(f) Degree of consolidation from the pore water pressure dissipation
curves (Ub)-compression plots for peat at different load increment ratios (LIR)
(Source: Robinson, 2003)
37
For large load increment ratios, the plots are linear over a wide range of
degree of consolidation. The point where the plot deviates from linearity is identified
as the beginning of secondary compression and is also indicated in Figure 2.19(a)-(f).
7KHFRPSUHVVLRQEHORZWKHH[WUDSRODWHGOLQHLVWKHVHFRQGDU\FRPSUHVVLRQ/s). The
compression corresponding to the point where the straight line meets the U = 100%
D[LVLVWKHWRWDOSULPDU\FRQVROLGDWLRQVHWWOHPHQW/p). Thus, using this procedure, it is
possible to separate the primary consolidation settlement and secondary compression
from time-compression data obtained from the laboratory one-dimensional
consolidation test.
Typically, a Type III curve obtained for peat for a load increment ratio of
0.33 is shown in Figure 2.20(a). The secondary compression starts at the degree of
consolidation of 62% as seen in Figure 2.19(d). Clearly, the inflection point is absent,
typically for the Type III curve. The end of primary consolidation cannot be
delineated for this curve using the log-time method, making the interpretation very
difficult. Using Robinson’s method, the secondary compression was removed from
the data shown in Figure 2.20(a) and is plotted in Figure 2.20(b). A clear S-curve is
obtained which is the shape expected if only the primary consolidation is present.
38
Figure 2.20: (a) Time-total settlement curves for peat under a load increment ratio
(LIR) of 0.33, and (b) Time-settlement curve after removing the secondary
compression (Source: Robinson, 2003)
The secondary compression-time relationship is commonly represented by a

logarithmic function. For Robinson’s method, as long as the secondary compression
varies linearly with logarithmic of time, the time-secondary compression relationship
39
is satisfactorily represented by the coefficient of secondary compression, c., which

can be evaluated using log-time method.
4. Sridharan and Prakash’s method (Sridharan and Prakash, 1998)
According to Sridharan and Prakash (1998), when the variation of secondary

compression is non-linear with logarithmic of time (Type II curve) as can be
observed in Figure 2.21, and when the linear segment representing the secondary
compression region in the log time-compression curve is not clearly defined (Type
III curve), determination of vertical coefficient of consolidation, cv and coefficient of
secondary compression, c. becomes difficult. In order to overcome such difficulties
ORJ / - log t UHSUHVHQWDWLRQ RI / - t data had been proposed to obtain vertical
coefficient of consolidation, cv and secondary compression factor, m. When the
Terzaghi’s average degree of consolidation, Uv versus theoretical time factor, Tv
relationship for one-dimensional consolidation is represented in the form of log Uv
plotted against log Tv, a linear relationship exists up to about Uv = 70% (Figure 2.21).
1
Degree of consolidation due to vertical drainage, Uv
(%) in logarithm scale
10
Point B corresponds to
(
100
0.00001 0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10
Theoretical time factor, T v (logarithm scale)
Figure 2.21: Theoretical log Uv - log Tv plot (Source: Sridharan and Prakash, 1998)
40
This line when extended, intersects the Uv = 100% line at Tv = ZKLFK
corresponds to Uv = 88.3%. This similarity is assumed to exist for the laboratory log
/- log TvFXUYHLQWKHORJ/– log t method, and cv corresponding to Uv = 88.3% can
be directly obtained with the help of t88.3, using cv = T88.3 H2/ t88.3. One of the specific
DGYDQWDJHVRIWKHORJ/- log t plot is that the variation of the secondary compression
can be linearized much more clearly, extending over a wider range of time. With this
REVHUYDWLRQ WKH ORJ / - log t method can be extended to analyze the secondary
compression also. The slope of the linearized secondary compression portion of the
ORJ/– log t plot herein is defined as the secondary compression factor, m.
m = ORJû/s/ Ho) (2.10)

log (t2/ t1)
where,
û/s = Change in height of soil layer due to tertiary compression from time, t1 to time,
t2 (Figure 2.22)
$W\SLFDOORJ/- log t plot of brown Mexico City clay is shown in Figure 2.22.
If the point of intersection of the linear portions represents the end of primary
consolidation, then the time corresponding to that point can be regarded as the
beginning of the secondary consolidation (tp).
Figure 2.22: 7\SLFDO ORJ / - log t plot of brown Mexico City clay (Sridharan and
Prakash, 1998)
41
2.4.3 Horizontal Consolidation
Designation of horizontal consolidation tests is based on two types of

horizontal drainage condition, namely inward and outward radial flows. In a
horizontal consolidation test with inward radial flow, excess pore water dissipates
radially from the soil sample towards the central drain. For a horizontal consolidation
test with outward radial flow, excess pore water dissipates radially outward from the
soil sample when compressed towards the periphery drain.
2.4.3.1 Radial drainage to centre
Barron (1948) conducted a comprehensive study of consolidation with radial

inward flow by making assumptions similar to Terzaghi’s one-dimensional
consolidation theory except that water flow was considered to be in the horizontal
direction. The following assumptions are made for the analysis of horizontal
consolidation of soil:
1. Soil is homogeneous and isotropic.

2. Soil is fully saturated.
3. Soil deforms in the vertical direction only.
4. The pore water and soil particles are incompressible.
5. Darcy’s law is valid.
6. Water only dissipates from the soil in the horizontal direction via either inward or
outward radial drainage and vertical drainage is prevented.
Two types of vertical boundary conditions were considered by Barron, i.e. (1)
Free vertical strain (2) Equal vertical strain. Free vertical strain results from a
uniform distribution of surface load. The assumption is that the vertical surface stress
is constant during the consolidation process and thus, that the resulting surface
displacement are non-uniform. Equal vertical strain results from imposing the same
vertical deformation at all points on the surface. The assumption is that the vertical
42
surface displacement are constant throughout the drained area and thus, that the
resulting vertical stress at the surface is non-uniform.
For radial consolidation test subject to free vertical strain conditions, the
governing equation in cylindrical coordinates is shown in the following equation:
u = ( 1 . u + 2u ) ch (2.11)
t r r r2
where,
u = excess pore pressure at any point and any time
t = time after an instantaneous increase of the total vertical stress
r = radial distance of the considered point from the centre of the drained soil
cylinder
ch = coefficient of consolidation for horizontal flow, defined as Ch = (khmv) / w
kh = coefficient of permeability for horizontal flow
w = unit weight of water
mv = coefficient of volume compressibility
A comparison between Barron’s free and equal strain solutions indicates that
both yield almost the same average degree of consolidation for values of the drain
spacing ratio, n = de / dw, greater than 5 (which is usual) and time factor, Th > 0.1
(Refer to Figure 2.23).
43
Figure 2.23: Average degree of consolidation for radial flow versus time factor for
free strain and equal strain boundary conditions; radial inflow tests with the drain
spacing ratio = 5 (Source: Trautwein, 1980)
This justifies the use of the simpler equal strain solution, which is given in the
following equation:
u = uo [ re2loge ( r ) - ( r2 - rw2 ) ] exp (2.12)

re2.F(n) rw 2
where,
u = excess pore pressure
uo = initial excess pore pressure
re = radius of equivalent soil cylinder (de/2)
rw = radius of drain (dw/2)
= -8Th / F(n)
Th = (Cht) / de2
n = the drain spacing ratio = (de/dw)
44
de = the diameter of cylindrical soil around drain (also known as the diameter of
influence)
dw = the diameter of drain
F(n) = n2 . ln (n) - (3n2 – 1) (2.13)

2
(n - 1) 4n2
In this case, the average degree of consolidation due to radial drainage becomes
Ur = 1 - exp [ -8Th ] (2.14)

F(n)
The diameter of cylindrical soil around drain, de is governed by two patterns

of drains. They are the triangular pattern of drains and the square pattern of drains.
The triangular pattern of drains (Figure 2.24a) has been shown to be the most
economical one (Barron, 1948), even if a square pattern of drains (Figure 2.24b) can
also be used for practical reasons (Kjellman, 1948). In both cases, the boundary
conditions of the problem to be analyzed refer to an equivalent soil cylinder of
diameter, de (Figure 2.24c), having an impermeable outside vertical surface and an
inner cylindrical drain.
45
Figure 2.24: Different drain patterns: equivalent cylinder (Source: Holtz et al., 1991)
2.4.3.2 Radial drainage to periphery
For horizontal consolidation with radial drainage to periphery with equal

strain loading, the relationship between the square-root time factor ¥Tro and degree
of consolidation is shown in Figure 2.25. The position of the T90 point in relation to
the extended linear portion of the curve gives a ‘slope factor’ of 1.17. A construction
similar to that used for the oedometer test, but with a slope factor of 1.17, is followed
for locating the ¥t90 point on a plot of settlement or volume change against square-
root obtained from a test. The ¥t50 point is found by interpolation.
46
Figure 2.25: Theoretical curve relating square-root time factor to degree of

consolidation for drainage radially outwards to periphery with ‘equal strain’ loading
(Source: Head, 1986)
Values of the theoretical time factors, from Figure 2.25, are as follows:
¥T50 = 0.294 thus, T50 = 0.0866

¥T90 = 0.537 thus, T90 = 0.288
The horizontal coefficient of consolidation, ch, is calculated from the following

equation:
With respect to 50% degree of consolidation,
ch = T50.(D/2)2 (m2/year) (2.15)

t50
With respect to 90% degree of consolidation,
ch = T90.(D/2)2 (m2/year) (2.16)

T90
47
Factors for the corresponding pore pressure dissipation readings taken at the centre
of the base of the sample are:
T50 = 0.173
T90 = 0.374
For horizontal consolidation with radial drainage to periphery with free strain
loading, a plot of settlement against square-root of time, t0.5 does not give a
satisfactory initial linear relationship. However, it was shown by McKinlay (1961)
that a plot of settlement against time raised to a power of 0.465 (t 0.465) gave a closer
approximation to linearity. Results of consolidation tests from McKinlay (1961)
using a porous confining ring in an ordinary oedometer showed a good agreement
with the theoretical curve. The theoretical time factor relationship plotted as degree
of consolidation against T0.465 is shown in Figure 2.26.
Figure 2.26: Theoretical time-factor relationship with degree of consolidation for

drainage radially outwards with ‘free strain’ loading (Source: McKinlay, 1961)
The position of the 90% consolidation point related to the extension of the
linear portion of the graph gives a slope factor of 1.22, which can be used on a
laboratory test plot of settlement or volume change against t0.465 for obtaining t90.
48
Values of the theoretical time factors derived from McKinlay’s settlement

relationship (Figure 2.26) are:
T50 = (0.277)1/0.465 = 0.0632

T90 = (0.601)1/0.465 = 0.335
Corresponding values from pore water pressure measurements taken at the centre of
the base are:
T50 = 0.200
T90 = 0.479
2.5 Measurement of horizontal coefficient of consolidation, ch of fibrous peat

soil
Horizontal coefficient of consolidation, ch is an important consolidation

parameter that has been applied in geotechnical analysis and design involving ground
improvement. Its applicability varies depending on the soil type and ground
condition. Table 2.4 lists several laboratory and field tests that can be used to
evaluate horizontal coefficient of consolidation, ch of fibrous peat soil. In laboratory,
horizontal coefficient of consolidation, ch of the soil is measured by standard
consolidation or triaxial test, and Rowe consolidation test. Whereas, in field,
horizontal coefficient of consolidation, ch of the soil can be measured by piezocone
test, in situ permeability test, in situ consolidation test, and trial embankment test. At
least one reference is given to each method.
49
Table 2.4: Determination of ch, the horizontal coefficient of consolidation
Where Test Comments; references

done
Laboratory Standard Modify equipment to provide radial drainage

consolidation or or cut specimen appropriately: Escario and
triaxial test Uriel (1961), Marsh (1963)
Laboratory Special (Rowe cell) Rowe and Barden (1966)
In situ Piezocone Torstensson (1975)
In situ Permeability test Constant or falling head tests yield

permeability, from which cv and ch can be
calculated: Wilkinson (1968)
In situ Consolidation Clarke et al. (1979)
In situ Trial embankment Interpretation of piezometer readings: Johnson

(1970)
Interpretation of field settlement records:
Asaoka (1978), Magnan and Deroy (1980),
Magnan and Mieussens (1980)
(Source: Hausmann, 1990)
2.6 Field evidence of fibrous peat soil improvement
Despite of the evidence proved by Dhowian and Edil (1980) that tertiary
compression plays an important role in the long term compression behaviour of
fibrous peat soil, Hartlen and Wolski (1996) stated that there is no field evidence of
tertiary compression and it may therefore be considered a laboratory effect, which
need not be included in the test evaluation.
Improvement of fibrous peat soil is often done through staged construction.

Staged construction consists in the filling of an embankment at a controlled rate so as
not to cause failure but to permit an increase in shear strength due to consolidation
(Hartlen and Wolski, 1996). In such a way, the obtained strengthening of the
50
foundation soil should be sufficient to support safely the required load. Thus, in
staged embankments, the precompression technique is used, which according to
Johnson (1970) is defined as compressing the soil under an applied stress prior to
placing or completing the structural load. In the case of the staged embankment, the
first stage of embankment (preloading with first stage) compresses the subsoil prior
to the filling of the second stage.
In order to illustrate the precompression technique, the construction of a road

on organic soils of mainly fibrous peat, as presented by Carlsten (1988) is briefly
described as follows:
The 850 m long section of the Dalavoragen road in Sweden was built on a
peat bog, with a fibrous layer 2 to 3 m thick, underlain by a very thin layer of gyttja
and organic clay (about 0.1 m). Under the organic soils, there was a sand layer 0.5 m
to 2.0 m thick on top of another compressible layer of slightly overconsolidated clay
and silt about 3.0 m thick. The soil profile of the organic subsoil is given in Figure
2.27.
Figure 2.27: Soil profile at the Dalarovagen site (Source: Larsson, 1986)
The embankment, 24 m wide at the crest, was constructed using the

precompression technique. In the first stage, a fill about 1 m high was built. After
about 50 days, when almost all excess pore pressure had dissipated, the second stage
51
fill about 1.5 m high including surcharge, was added. After almost one year, the
surcharge was increased by another 0.5 m, but only for half a year; then a layer about
1 m thick was removed. This simplified construction schedule and the results of
settlement and pore pressure measurements are given in Figure 2.28.
Figure 2.28: Measured settlement, excess pore pressures and load at Dalarovagen
site (Source: Carlsten, 1988)
The measurements show that the surcharging reduced and delayed the post-
construction settlements. The embankment with road being used by traffic settled
during the first four years 10 mm to 20 mm. The total settlement during the 18
months of construction was 1.2 m, of which 1.0 m occurred in the peat layer and 0.2
m in the clay layer. After removing the surcharge, a minor swelling was observed
(Figure 2.29).
52
Figure 2.29: Swelling and settlement versus logarithmic of time at Dalarovagen site
(Source: Carlsten, 1988)
53
CHAPTER 3
METHODOLOGY
3.1 Introduction
The study was experimental research, which focuses on laboratory tests. It

started with literature study to provide rationale of the project work and to gather
sufficient information on consolidation behaviour of fibrous peat. Soil sampling was
carried out at Bahru village, Pontian, Johor in order to obtain block samples of peat
below the groundwater table at a depth of 1 to 2 m from the ground surface. Index
soil properties and classification tests were conducted in order to determine the
physical characteristics of the peat and to classify the peat. Constant-head
permeability tests were carried out to determine initial hydraulic conductivity of the
peat.
While data from oedometer consolidation tests were used to decide the range
of consolidation pressures for hydraulic consolidation tests, and to observe the long
term compression behaviour of the peat, the focus of the research was to evaluate soil
parameters (ch, cv, c., kh, and kv) of the peat under a range of consolidation pressures
from hydraulic consolidation tests. Results from the tests were analyzed and
compared to the published data.
Based on detailed analysis and evaluation of the peat soil, a conclusion was
made on the consolidation behaviour of the soil. The methodology of the research is
summarized in the flowchart of Figure 3.1. All laboratory test procedures are based
54
on the manual of soil laboratory testing (Head, 1980, 1982, 1986) in accordance with
the British (BS) and U.S. (ASTM) Standards.
Literature Problem
study identification
Basic soil properties and classification
Hydraulic consolidation Constant head

and permeability tests permeability tests
(ch, cv, cα, kh, kv) (kho, kvo)
Published data Data Analysis Oedometer

consolidation data
Conclusion
Figure 3.1: Flowchart summarizing the methodology of the project
3.2 Preliminary tests
The preliminary tests involve soil identification tests, standard consolidation

tests, and constant-head permeability tests.
1. Soil identification tests
Soil identification tests are carried out in order to determine the soil’s
physical properties and to classify the soil. The tests for index properties include tests
of moisture content by oven-drying method (BS 1377-2 or ASTM D2216), and tests
55
for the soil’s unit weight (BS 1377-22 or ASTM D2167). For the tests of moisture
content, a drying temperature of 60°C is selected to expel water from the soil
samples because the soil samples cannot be dried at high temperature to avoid
charring or oxidation of organic matter. Determination of specific gravity of the soil
should be made using kerosene in accordance to BS 1377-2 or ASTM D8542.
Classification of the soil is based on Von Post degree of humification test, and sieve
analysis (BS 1377-2 or ASTM D-421, and ASTM D-422). Organic content and ash
content of the soil are determined from the loss of ignition test whereby the oven
dried mass of soil is further heated in muffle furnace at a temperature of 440°C for 4
hours (BS 1377-3 or ASTM D2974). The soil’s fiber content is determined from dry
weight of fibers retained at sieve No. 100 (>0.15 mm opening size) as a percentage
of oven-dried mass (ASTM D1997-91). Acidity of the soil is measured using pH
meter based on BS 1377-3 or ASTM D2976-71.
2. Standard consolidation tests
Standard consolidation tests are conducted as preliminary tests to determine

the range of consolidation pressures that is suitable to be applied on the soil samples
for hydraulic consolidation tests. The tests are also done in order to evaluate the long
term compression behaviour of the soil. The procedures for the tests are based on BS
1377-5. Since, settlement of peat is rapid and drastic and squeezing of peat may
occur as a result of large load, a small load of 12.5 kPa is applied as the first
consolidation pressure on the soil samples. The applied loads on the soil samples are
12.5 kPa, 25 kPa, 50 kPa, 100 kPa, 200 kPa, and 400 kPa. Each load for the tests is
maintained for 7 days or 10080 minutes in order to determine the time for the end of
primary consolidation (tp) and the end of secondary compression (ts) of the soil.
3. Constant head permeability tests
Since peat soil can be as porous as sand, constant head permeability tests are
chosen to evaluate the initial permeability of the soil. The tests are done following
standard procedures of ASTM D2434 using a mould with 105.4 mm internal
diameter and a height of 121.2 mm. The initial permeability of the soil is computed
on the basis of water that passes through the soil sample. The time for the water
56
volume collected in a beaker from an immersion tank, with overflow is required for
computation of rate of permeability of the soil.
3.3 Hydraulic consolidation tests
3.3.1 Cell assembly and connections for hydraulic consolidation tests
Assembly of the Rowe cell, and preparations for 2 different types of hydraulic
consolidation test, are described in the following sections.
A. Vertical drainage (two-way)
Designation of the hydraulic consolidation test with vertical drainage (two-

way) is shown in Figure 3.2. In this type of test, drainage takes place from both top
and bottom faces of the sample. A porous drainage disc is placed under the sample,
and is connected to the same back pressure system as the top drainage line for the
consolidation stages. Variations in certain details to suit other types of test are given
in the ensuing sections.
Diaphragm pressure
Figure 3.2: Two-way vertical drainage and loading condition for hydraulic
consolidation test in Rowe cell with ‘equal strain’ loading (Source: Head, 1986)
General procedure
(1) After covering the base with a film of water, place a saturated porous disc of
sintered bronze on the cell base without entrapping any air.
57
(2) Fit the cutting rings containing soil sample on top of the Rowe cell body (Figure
3.3). Place the sample into the Rowe cell body by slowly and steadily pushing the
soil sample vertically downwards using a porous disc (Figure 3.4).
Figure 3.3: Cutting rings containing soil sample are fitted on top of the Rowe cell
body
Figure 3.4: A porous disc is used to slowly and steadily push the soil sample
vertically downward into the Rowe cell body
(3) Flood the space at the top of the cell above the sample with de-aired water.
(4) Place a saturated drainage disc through the water onto the sample by lowering
into position using the lifting handle. Avoid trapping air under the plate. Ensure that
there is a uniform clearance all round between the disc or discs and the cell wall.
58
(5) Connect a tube to valve F and immerse the other end in a beaker containing
de-aired water. The tube should be completely filled with de-aired water making sure
that there are no entrapped air bubbles.
(6) Support the cell top at three points so that it is level, and with more than enough
clearance underneath for the settlement spindle attached to the diaphragm to be fully
extended downwards. The cell top should be supported near its edge so that the
flange of the diaphragm is not restrained. Fill the diaphragm with water using rubber
tubing about one-third the volume. The way distilled water is filled into the
diaphragm can be diagrammatically observed in Figure 3.5 and realistically observed
in Figure 3.6. Open valve C.
Figure 3.5: Schematic diagram of filling of distilled water into the diaphragm
Figure 3.6: Realistic view of filling of distilled water into the diaphragm
59
(7) Place three or four spacer blocks, about 30 mm high, on the periphery of the cell
body flange. Lift the cell top, keeping it level, and lower it onto the spacers, allowing
the diaphragm to enter the cell body. Bring the bolt holes in the cell top into
alignment with those in the body flange.
(8) Use rubber tube to add more water to the inside of the diaphragm so that the
weight of water brings the diaphragm down and its periphery is supported by the cell
body. Check that the cell body is completely filled with water. The whole of the
extending portion of the diaphragm should be inside the cell body, and the
diaphragm flange should lie perfectly flat on the cell body flange.
(9) Hold the cell top while the supporting blocks are removed, then carefully lower it
to seat onto the diaphragm flange without entrapping air or causing ruckling or
pinching (Figure 3.7). Align the bolt holes. When correctly seated, the gap between
top and body should be uniform all round and equal to a diaphragm thickness. Open
valve F to permit escape of excess water from under the diaphragm.
Figure 3.7: Diaphragm inserted into Rowe cell body (Source: Head, 1986)
(10) Tighten the bolts systematically (Figure 3.8). Ensure that the diaphragm
remains properly seated, and that the gap between the metal ranges remains constant
all round the perimeter.
60
Figure 3.8: Diaphragm is correctly seated (Source: Head, 1986)
(11) Open valve D, and press the settlement stem steadily downwards until the
diaphragm is firmly bedded on top of the plate covering the sample. Close valve D
when no more water emerges.
(12) Connect valve C to a header tank of distilled water having a free surface about
1.5 m above the sample.
(13) Completely fill the space above the diaphragm with water through valve C with
bleed screw E opened. Tilt the cell so that the last pocket of air can be displaced
through E. Maintain the supply of water at C when subsequently replacing the bleed
screw.
(14) Maintain pressure at C, and as the diaphragm expands allow the remaining
surplus water from above the sample to emerge through valve F. Open valve D for a
moment to allow the escape of any further water from immediately beneath the
diaphragm.
Escape of water from F due to diaphragm expansion may take some considerable
time because of the barrier formed by the folds of the diaphragm pressing against the
cell wall.
(15) Close valve F when it is evident that the diaphragm has fully extended. Observe
the pore water pressure at the base of the sample, and when it has reached a constant
value record it as the initial pore water pressure, uo. This corresponds to the initial
pressure po under the head of water connected to C.
If the height from the top of the sample to the level of water in the header tank is h
mm, then:
61
po = h x 9.81 = h (kPa) (3.1)

1000 102
(16) Maintain the pressure at C.
(17) Connect the lead from the back pressure system to valve D without entrapping
any air. Open valve F for a while to let out the bubble from back pressure line.
B. Radial drainage to periphery
Designation of the hydraulic consolidation test with radial drainage periphery

is shown in Figure 3.9. The procedure for fitting a porous plastic peripheral drain to
the Rowe cell is described below.
Diaphragm pressure
Vyon porous plastic drain
Figure 3.9: Radial drainage to periphery, and loading condition for hydraulic
consolidation test in Rowe cell with ‘equal strain’ loading (Source: Head, 1986)
(1) General preparation

The cell base is made ready and the ceramic insert, which is situated at the centre, is
prepared for measuring pore water pressure. The transducer block, with valve B and
the connection to the pore pressure panel, is fitted on to valve A. Since only one back
pressure system is available, the back pressure system with volume change gauge is
connected to valve F for periphery. The port connecting to ceramic inserts at the
centre should be de-aired. The connection to valve D is not used. The undisturbed
sample is prepared and set up in the Rowe cell.
62
(2) Fitting peripheral drain

a. Cut a strip of the plastic material of width equal to the depth of the cell body, and
about 20 mm longer than its internal circumference. Cut the ends square using a
sharp blade and metal straight-edge.
b. Fit the plastic tightly against the wall of the cell body. Mark the end of the
overlap with a sharp pencil (Figure 3.10).
Figure 3.10: Fitting porous plastic liner in Rowe cell: (a) initial fitting and marking,
(b) locating line of cut, (c) final fitting (Source: Head, 1986)
c. Lay the plastic material on a flat surface and mark another line exactly parallel to
the first (i.e. square to the edges) at the following distance outside it (denoted by
x in Figure 3.10):
For the 151.4 mm diameter Rowe cell: 3 mm
d. Make a clean square cut on this line.
e. Fit the plastic in the cell body again, smooth face inwards and trimmed ends
butting. Allow the additional length to be taken up in the form of a loop opposite
the joint (Figure 3.10).
f. Push the loop outwards and the plastic material will spring against the wall of the
cell. Check that it fits tightly, with no gaps.
g. Immediately before inserting the sample, remove the porous plastic for saturating
and de-airing in boiling water, then replace it in the cell. The inside face of
63
porous plastic must not be greased, because grease will prevent drainage.
Peripheral drain fitted into the Rowe cell body is shown in Figure 3.11.
Figure 3.11: Peripheral drain fitted into the Rowe cell body
(3) Preparation of sample

With exception of periphery drain and central drain installations, the procedure of
preparing and setting up the sample in the cell for radial drainage to periphery and to
centre is the same as that of vertical drainage (one way).
a. For ‘equal strain’ test, an impermeable steel disc is placed through the water on
to the soil sample, without entrapping air.
b. Fit and assemble the cell top to the body as described by the procedure for
vertical drainage (one way).
3.3.2 Test procedures of hydraulic consolidation tests
Consolidation test procedures of the laboratory work involving two types of

drainage are described as follows. The two-way vertical drainage test, which is
described in detail in the previous section, is used as the ‘basic’ test to which
reference is made in the description of the radial drainage test.
64
1. Consolidation test with vertical two-way drainage
In this type of test, drainage takes place vertically upwards and downwards while
pore pressure is measured at the central of the base. The general arrangement of the
Rowe cell is diagrammatically shown in Figure 3.12.
Figure 3.12: Arrangement of Rowe cell for consolidation test with two-way vertical
drainage (Source: Head, 1986)
The test is described under the following stages:

A. Preliminaries
B. Saturation
C. Loading
D. Consolidation
E. Further load increments
F. Unloading
G. Conclusion
H. Graphical plots
A. Preliminaries
1. Close valve B to isolate the pore pressure transducer from the flushing system
throughout the test.
65
2. Set the vertical movement dial gauge at a convenient initial reading near the
upper limit of its travel, but allow for some upward movement if saturation is to
be applied.
3. Record the reading as the zero (datum) value under the seating pressure po.
4. Set the back pressure to the required initial value, with valve D closed. The back
pressure should be greater than the initial pore pressure (uo) but it should be 10
kPa less than the first increment of cell pressure.
5. Record the initial reading of the volume gauge when steady.
B. Saturation
Saturation by the application of increments of back pressure is desirable for
undisturbed samples taken from above water table. For this type of test, application
of 10 kPa back pressure is used.
Saturation is generally accepted as being complete when the value of the pore
pressure parameter B reaches about 0.96.
C. Loading Stage
1. With the drainage lines valve A and valve D closed and valve C open, increase
the diaphragm pressure steadily to the first increment. Open valve A valve D
when set.
First increment of diaphragm pressure is taken as 50 kPa for this type of test.
2. Open valve F to allow excess water to escape from behind the diaphragm for a
short time just to allow excess water from the top of the sample.
3. Wait until the pore pressure reaches a steady value equal to diaphragm pressure.
If the sample is virtually saturated the increase in pore pressure should almost
equal the pressure increment applied to the sample.
4. Record any settlement indicated by the dial gauge before starting consolidation.
D. Consolidation stage
Consolidation is started by opening the drainage outlets (valve A and valve D in
Figure 3.12) and at the same instant starting the clock. Read the following data:
a. Vertical settlement
b. Pore water pressure
c. Volume change on back pressure line
d. Diaphragm pressure (check)
66
The primary consolidation phase is completed when the pore pressure has fallen to
the value of the back pressure. Wait for secondary consolidation to take place.
E. Further load increments

1. Increase the diaphragm pressure to give the next value of effective stress. Allow
excess water to drain from behind the diaphragm (valve F) if necessary.
2. The pore pressure should then be allowed to reach equilibrium before
proceedings to the next consolidation stage.
3. Repeat the above steps for 100 kPa and 200 kPa consolidation pressures.
F. Unloading
Unloading is not needed for this test.
G. Conclusion of test
1. Reduce the pressure to the initial seating pressure, po
2. When equilibrium has been achieved, record the final settlement, volume change
and pore pressure readings.
3. Close valve A and open valves C, D and F, allowing surplus water to escape.
Unbolt and remove the cell top and place it on the bench supports.
H. Measurement and removal of sample

1. Remove the porous disc to expose the sample surface. Measure the diameter and
height of the sample.
2. Remove the cell body from the base and remove the sample intact from the cell.
Split the sample in two along a diameter.
3. Take two or more representative sample from one half of the sample for moisture
content measurements.
4. Allow the other half to air-dry to reveal the fabric and any preferential drainage
paths, which may have affected the test behaviour.
5. Allow at least 4 hour before taking picture of the sample.
The cell components should be cleaned and dried before putting away, giving careful
attention to the sealing ring at the base. Porous bronze and ceramic discs and inserts
should be boiled and brushed; used porous plastic should be discarded. Connecting
ports and valves should be washed out to remove any soil particles. Any corrosion
67
growth on exposed metal surfaces should be scraped off, and the surface made
smooth and lightly oiled.
I. Graphical plots
As consolidation proceeds, plot the following graphs from the observed data.
1. Settlement (∆H mm) against log time. This graph should be kept up to date
during each stage so that the approach to 100% primary consolidation can be
monitored. This graph can be used to obtain Cv, tp, Cα, and ts.
2. Calculate void ratio at the end of each loading stage and plot the void ratio
against effective pressure on a log scale. This graph could be used to obtain, Cc
and Cr. Pre-consolidation pressure can also be obtained if possible.
Note for hydraulic one-way vertical consolidation test:
• T50 = 0.379; T90 = 1.031;
• Use pore water pressure measurement to estimate 100% consolidation
cv = 0.526 T v H2 (3.2)
t
where, H is in mm and t is in minutes.
2. Consolidation test with radial drainage to periphery
For equal strain loading, the arrangement of the cell and ancillary equipment
is shown in Figure 3.13.
68
Linear displacement transducer
Rigid steel disc
Figure 3.13: Arrangement of Rowe cell for consolidation test with radial drainage to
periphery; pore pressure measurement from centre of base of sample (Source: Head,
1986)
Details differ from the arrangement for one-way vertical consolidation test in the
following ways:
(1) The sample is surrounded by a drainage layer of porous plastic material.

(2) The top surface of the sample is covered by an impermeable steel disc.
(3) A back pressure system with volume gauge is connected to the rim drain at the
top of the cell, via valve F.
(4) Pore water pressure is measured at the base of the sample from the centre. The
pore pressure transducer housing block is connected to valve A which replaces the
blanking plug at that cell outlet (Figure 3.13).
(5) The top drainage line is not used and valve D remains closed.
In this case, the thickness of horizontal consolidating layer is taken as half of the
diameter of the soil sample that is 74.2 mm. With equal strain loading and sample
saturation by applying back pressure, the diaphragm pressure line is the same as used
for the one-way vertical consolidation test. With exception of periphery Vyon porous
plastic drain and installation, sample preparation is the same as that of one-way
vertical consolidation test.
69
(6) Graphical plots

As consolidation proceeds, plot the following graphs from the observed data.
a. Settlement (∆H mm) against log time. This graph should be kept up to date
during each stage so that the approach to 100% primary consolidation can be
monitored. This graph can be used to obtain Ch, tp, Cα, and ts.
b. Calculate void ratio at the end of each loading stage and plot the void ratio
against effective pressure on a log scale. This graph could be used to obtain, Cc
and Cr. Pre-consolidation pressure can also be obtained if possible.
Note for hydraulic radial consolidation test with radial drainage to periphery:
• T50 = 0.0866; T90 = 0.288;
• Use pore water pressure measurement to estimate 100% consolidation
ch = 0.131 TUH2 (3.3)

t
where, H is in mm and t is in minutes.
3.3.3 Graphical analysis of Rowe cell consolidation test
From each stage of a Rowe cell consolidation test, graphical plots are
obtained of settlement, volume change and (in most cases) pore pressure, against a
function of time, which may be logarithmic or a power function. These graphs are
used, as in the oedometer test, to derive the time corresponding to 50% or 90% of
primary consolidation (t50 or t90), from which the coefficient of consolidation can be
calculated by using an equation with the appropriate multiplying factor.
Wherever possible, it is better to use the pore pressure dissipation graph

rather than a settlement or volume change curve because the end points (0% and
100% dissipation) are both clearly defined and t50 or t90 can be read directly from the
graph. The t50 point is preferable because in the middle portion of the curve has the
best fit to the theoretical curve.
70
Factors for calculation
The factors used for calculating the coefficient of consolidation depend upon:
• Boundary conditions (‘free strain’ or ‘equal strain’)
• Type of drainage (vertical, or radially inwards or outwards)
• Location of relevant measurements
Settlement and volume-change measurements are governed by the deformation of the

sample as a whole, and analysis is dependent on an overall ‘average’ behaviour.
Some method of ‘curve fitting’ is necessary for graphs based on these measurements,
the details depending upon the test conditions. On the other hand, pore pressure
measurements relate to the conditions at a particular point, usually the centre of the
base for vertical and radial-outward drainage, or offset from centre at a specified
radius for radial-inward drainage. ‘Curve fitting’ is not needed for pore pressure
dissipation curves. However, it is important not only to distinguish between the two
types of measurement, but also to select the multiplying factor appropriate to the test
conditions for calculating cv or cro or cri. A different multiplying factor is needed in
every case.
The factors are summarized in Table 3.1, in which the consolidation location
is either described as ‘average’ for settlement or volume-change measurements, or is
stated as the point at which pore pressure is measured (e.g. ‘centre of base’).
71
Table 3.1: Rowe cell consolidation tests – Data for curve fitting
3.4 Hydraulic permeability test
3.4.1 Cell assembly and connections for hydraulic permeability test
Permeability measurements are carried out on a sample in a Rowe cell with

laminar flow of water in the vertical direction (downwards) and with radial flow
horizontally (inwards). The procedures for preparing samples for each type of
permeability test are outlined below.
72
1. Vertical permeability
Designation of the hydraulic permeability test with vertical flow of water

downwards is shown in Figure 3.14. Arrangement of Rowe cell for the permeability
test with vertical drainage is shown in Figure 3.15.
Diaphragm pressure
flow to open burette
Figure 3.14: Downward vertical flow condition for hydraulic permeability test in
Rowe cell (Source: Head, 1986)
The preparation of the sample and assembly of the cell are summarized as follows:
(1) Fit a bottom drainage disc on the cell base.

(2) Set up the sample in the cell by the method similar to that of Rowe cell
consolidation test with vertical drainage (one-way).
(3) Fit a porous stone on top of the sample.
(4) Assemble the cell top.
Two independently controlled constant-pressure systems are required for the

permeability test. One system is connected to valve C (Figure 3.15) to provide
pressure on the diaphragm. One back pressure system is connected to valve D, and
valve A is connected to an open burette.
73

for downward flow (shown)…p1 > p2
Figure 3.15: Arrangement of Rowe cell for permeability test with vertical flow
(downwards) (Source: Head, 1986)
Pore pressure readings are not required, except as a check on the B value if
incremental saturation is applied before starting the test. Valve F remains closed. The
difference between the inlet and outlet pressures should be appropriate to the vertical
permeability of the soil, and should be determined by trial until a reasonable rate of
flow is obtained. The pressures are adjusted to give downward flow.
2. Horizontal permeability
Designation of hydraulic permeability test with horizontal flow outwards is

shown in Figure 3.16. Arrangement of Rowe cell for permeability test with
horizontal drainage to periphery is shown in Figure 3.17.
Diaphragm pressure
Outflow (flow to open burette)
Inflow (back pressure system)
Figure 3.16: Horizontally outward flow condition for permeability test in Rowe cell
74
Sample preparation and assembly of the cell are summarized as follows:
(1) Fit a peripheral drain in the cell.

(2) Set up the sample in the cell by the method similar to that of Rowe cell
consolidation test with vertical drainage (two-way).
(3) Form a central sand drain
(4) Place a porous disc sealed with impervious rubber membrane on the sample.
(5) Assemble the cell top.
Linear displacement transducer
Outflow, p2
Inflow, p1
Rigid steel disc

Back pressure system
for horizontal flow (shown)…p1 > p2
Figure 3.17: Arrangement of Rowe cell for permeability test with horizontal
drainage to periphery (Source: Head, 1986)
Three independent controlled pressure systems are required, including the

one for applying the diaphragm pressure, connected to valve C. The second pressure
system is connected to valve F, and the third to valve A. The system on the inlet
should incorporate a volume-change gauge. Pore pressure readings are not necessary.
Valve D remains close. Permeability measurements are made with the flow
horizontally outwards, for which the pressure at B is greater than at F. The difference
between these two pressures should be appropriate to the horizontal permeability of
the soil, and should be determined by trial until a reasonable rate of flow is obtained.
75
3.4.2 Test procedures for hydraulic permeability tests
Permeability tests are carried out in Rowe consolidation cell under ‘equal
strain’ conditions of known effective stress, with flow of water either vertically or
horizontally (radially).
1. Vertical permeability
(1) Apparatus
The arrangement of the cell and ancillary equipment is shown in Figure 3.15. Three
independent constant pressure systems are required, one for applying the vertical
stress, the other two on inlet and outlet flow lines but since, only two independent
constant pressure systems are available, valve A at the base of the Rowe cell is
connected to an open burette.
(2) Saturation
Since saturation by incremental back pressure is to be carried out initially, the pore
pressure transducer housing should be connected to valve A. During the saturation
stage, valve A should remain closed and water admitted to the sample through valve
D as usual. Since only 2 constant pressure systems are available, the outlet from the
sample is connected to an open burette via valve A whereas; the inlet to the sample is
connected to a back pressure system via valve D. That means the direction of flow of
water in the sample upon consolidation is downwards.
(3) Applied pressure

The arrangement shown in Figure 3.15 allows water to flow vertically through the
sample under the application of a differential pressure between the base and top,
while the sample is subjected to a vertical stress from the diaphragm pressure as in a
consolidation test. Since the flow is to an open burette, the outlet pressure is zero if
the free water surface in the burette is maintained at the same level as the sample
face from which the water emerges.
76
(4) Consolidation
The sample is first consolidated to the required effective stress by the application of
diaphragm loading. Consolidation should be virtually completed, i.e. the excess pore
pressure should be at least 95% dissipated before starting a permeability test.
(5) Rowe cell vertical permeability test procedure
a. The test is first carried out by adjusting the pressure difference across the sample
to provide a reasonable rate of flow through it. The hydraulic gradient required to
induce flow should be ascertained by trial, starting with equal pressures on the
inlet and outlet lines and progressively increasing the inlet pressure, which must
never exceed the diaphragm pressure. Since only one back pressure system is
used, the outlet drainage is connected to an open burette as shown in Figure 3.18.
Figure 3.18: Arrangement for hydraulic vertical permeability test using one back
pressure system for downward flow (Source: Head, 1986)
b. When a steady rate of flow has been established, measure the time required for a
given volume to pass through. The volume of water is measured from an open
burette incorporated in the outlet of the soil sample via valve A.
c. Calculate the cumulative flow, Q (ml) up to the time of each reading, and plot a
graph of Q against time, t (minutes), as the test proceeds. Continue the test until it
can be seen that a steady rate of flow is reached, i.e. the graph is linear.
d. From the linear part of the graph, measure the slope to calculate the rate of flow,
q (ml/minute); i.e. q /Q/t (ml/minute).
e. Since the rate of flow is relatively small, the effect of head losses in the pipelines
and connections can be neglected and the pressure difference across the soil
sample is equal to p1 – p2 ûp where, p2 = 0 since the free water surface in the
77
burette is maintained at the same level as the sample face from which the water
emerges.
The vertical coefficient of permeability is calculated from the following equation:
kv = qv = qv H = qv H (m/s) (3.4)
60Ai 60A[ûp 6120Aûp
where,
qv = rate of vertical flow (ml/minute)
t = time (minutes)
A = area of sample (mm2)
i = hydraulic gradient = (102 p1 - h)/H
∆p = pressure difference (kPa) = p1 – p2
H = height of sample (mm)
p1 = inlet pressure (kPa)
p2 = outlet pressure (kPa) = (9.81h)/1000
h = head loss due to the height of water in the burette
kv = vertical coefficient of permeability (m/s)
2. Horizontal permeability
Horizontal permeability is measured with the flow of water radially inwards

where, equal strain loading condition is applied. The arrangement of the cell and
ancillary equipment for both kinds of test is shown in Figure 3.17. The top surface of
the sample is sealed with impermeable steel disc. Two independent constant pressure
systems are used, as for a vertical permeability test. A diaphragm pressure system is
connected to valve C; a back pressure system is connected to the rim drain valve at F,
and the central base outlet at A is connected to an open burette. Valve D remains
closed.
(1) Saturation
Since, saturation by incremental back pressure is carried out in order to determine the
B value; pore pressure transducer housing is connected to valve G. During saturation,
water is admitted to the periphery of the sample from the back pressure through
78
valve F. Valve A and valve B must be closed. When saturation is achieved, valve A
that is connected to the open burette, is opened.
(2) Applied pressure

Under a constant diaphragm pressure, back pressure is applied to valve F (rim drain)
as an inlet pressure, whereas outlet pressure is provided by an open burette connected
to valve A. Pore water pressure is measured by the pore pressure transducer
connected to valve G with valve B and valve D closed.
(3) Consolidation
The sample is first consolidated to the required effective stress and the consolidation
procedure is the same as described in that of Rowe cell vertical permeability test.
(4) Rowe cell outward peripheral drainage permeability test procedure

The pressure difference across the sample is adjusted to give a reasonable rate of
flow by progressively increasing the inlet pressure without allowing it to equal or
exceed the diaphragm pressure. Measure the rate of flow, when a steady state has
been achieved. Calculate the horizontal (radial) permeability from the equation
below:
kh = qh = qh r = qh r (m/s) (3.5)
60Ai 60A[ûp 6120Aûp
where
qh = rate of horizontal flow (ml/minute)
t = time (minutes)
A rH (mm2)
i = hydraulic gradient = (102 p1 - h)/r
∆p = pressure difference (kPa) = p1 – p2
r = radius of sample (mm)
H = height of sample (mm)
p1 = inlet pressure (kPa)
p2 = outlet pressure (kPa) = (9.81h)/1000
h = head loss due to the height of water in the burette
kh = horizontal coefficient of permeability (m/s)
79
CHAPTER 4
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
4.1 Soil identification
Data on the fundamental properties of the peat soil is summarized in Table

4.1. As shown in Table 4.1, the peat soil is acidic and has high organic and fiber
contents. Moisture content of 632% indicates that the peat soil has a high water-
holding capacity. Based on the finding, it was found that the peat soil could be
classified as fibrous peat with H4 degree of humification according to von Post scale.
Plant structures such as roots are easily recognizable from the soil. When squeezing a
sample of the soil by hand, brown water comes out from the soil and the soil left on
the hand has a large amount of fibers.
Table 4.1: Basic properties of the peat soil
Basic properties of the peat soil Results Published data

Natural moisture content, w (%) 632 200 - 700
Specific gravity, Gs 1.51 1.30 – 1.80
pH 3.0 – 4.5 (acidic) 3.24
Organic content, OC (%) 97 > 90
Ash content, AC (%) 3 <3
Fiber content, FC (%) 90 ≥ 20
(Source: Gofar and Sutejo, 2005)

80
4.2 Standard consolidation tests
Three soil samples of the fibrous peat soil were tested using oedometer. Each
of the soil samples has a thickness of 20.13 mm, a diameter of 50.23 mm, and was
subjected to consolidation pressures of 12.5 kPa, 25 kPa, 50 kPa, 100 kPa, 200 kPa,
and 400 kPa. Results from the tests were used to determine the range of
consolidation pressures for hydraulic consolidation tests, and to evaluate the long-
term compression behaviour of the soil.
4.2.1 Determination of range of consolidation pressures
The results indicate that the higher the consolidation pressure, the smoother is
the consolidation curve of the soil. Primary consolidation and secondary compression
characteristics of the soil can be easily identified from smooth consolidation curves.
For this reason, pressures of 50 kPa, 100 kPa, and 200 kPa were chosen as
consolidation pressures for the hydraulic consolidation tests.
4.2.2 Evaluation of long term compression of the soil
Casagrande’s method was used to analyze the oedometer consolidation data

of the fibrous peat soil in order to examine the significance of tertiary compression
on long term compression behaviour of the soil under a range of consolidation
pressures. Oedometer was chosen to evaluate the long term compression behaviour
of the soil because testing times are not excessively long due to small oedometer
specimen thickness. Oedometer log-time compression curves for one of the fibrous
peat soil samples are shown in Figure 4.1.
81
0.5
12.5 kPa
Compression (mm)
25 kPa
1
50 kPa
100 kPa
1.5
200 kPa
400 kPa
2
2.5
0.1 1 10 100 1000 10000 100000
Figure 4.1: Oedometer log time-compression curves of a sample of the fibrous peat
soil
The test results show that the values of coefficient of secondary compression,
cα1 of the fibrous peat soil samples range from 0.005 to 0.007. This implies that the
soil’s coefficient of secondary compression, cα1 varies slightly and is almost constant
with the consolidation pressure. The values of the soil’s coefficient of tertiary
compression, cα2 were found to range from 0.118 to 0.027. Interestingly, the value of
coefficient of tertiary compression, cα2 decreases as the consolidation pressure
increases. Eventually, the final value of coefficient of tertiary compression, cα2
approaches the value of coefficient of secondary compression, cα1, indicating the
tertiary component of compression merges with the secondary compression at high
consolidation pressures.
4.3 Hydraulic consolidation tests
Hydraulic consolidation tests were done in order to evaluate the

compressibility characteristics of the fibrous peat soil. The tests were done using
Rowe cell of 151.4 mm internal diameter and a height of 88.19 mm. The
consolidation pressures were applied by means of hydraulic loading system and thus,
82
the soil sample in Rowe cell was less susceptible to vibration effects. Large
consolidation pressure up to 1000 kPa that can be applied, capability of measuring
excess pore water pressure and volume change accurately, and large sample size
which provides more reliable data for settlement analysis are the main reasons why
Rowe consolidometer is more reliable than conventional oedometer.
For these reasons, hydraulic vertical and radial consolidation tests were done
on ‘identical’ fibrous peat soil sample in order to evaluate secondary compression
characteristics of the soil with respect to periphery and two-way vertical drainages.
Each soil sample has a diameter of 151.4 mm, a height of 48.78 mm, and was
subjected to hydraulic consolidation pressures of 50 kPa, 100 kPa, and 200 kPa
during the test.
4.3.1 Vertical consolidation test
Results of hydraulic consolidation test with two-way vertical drainage were

evaluated using Casagrande’s method (Figure 4.2 and Figure 4.3), Taylor’s method
(Figure 4.4) Robinson’s method (Figure 4.5, Figure 4.6, and Figure 4.7), and
Sridharan and Prakash’s method (Figure 4.8). The results indicate that Taylor’s
method provides the best estimation of vertical coefficient of consolidation, cv of the
soil. This is because the time-compression curves are best fitted to Taylor’s
theoretical curves. Therefore, using Taylor’s method, the vertical coefficient of
consolidation, cv of the soil for 50 kPa, 100 kPa, and 200 kPa consolidation pressures
were found to be 1.836 m2/yr, 5.754 m2/yr, and 4.756 m2/yr respectively.
In general, the time-compression curves for the test are similar to Type I
curve (S-shaped curve). Hence, the coefficient of secondary compression, cα due to
vertical consolidation is best predicted using Casagrande’s method based on
settlement curves. Using Casagrande’s method based on settlement curves, the
coefficient of secondary compression, cα due to vertical consolidation of the soil was
83
found to range from 0.045 to 0.057 for a range of consolidation pressure of 50 kPa to
200 kPa.
Using Casagrande’s method based on settlement curves, the time to reach the
end of primary consolidation, tp for the test with consolidation pressures of 50 kPa,
100 kPa, and 200 kPa are 314 minutes, 26 minutes, and 115 minutes respectively.
This shows that the time to reach the end of primary consolidation, tp does not
increase with increasing consolidation pressure. This can be explained by the fact
that fibrous peat demonstrates unusual compression behaviour in which the
micropores within the soil’s organic coarse particles tend to generate gas when
compressed and this influences the shape of the consolidation curves.
It is evident in Figure 4.2 that the shape of log time-compression curve under
a consolidation pressure of 100 kPa differs from the 50 kPa and 200 kPa
consolidation pressures’ log time-compression curves which are also referred to as
Type I curves. This can be explained by the fact that deformation process of fibrous
peat often strongly deviates from the simple model used in Terzaghi’s consolidation
equation, which is the basis for the Casagrande and Taylor’s evaluations of primary
consolidation and coefficient of consolidation. Results of tests performed by several
authors (Ozden and Wilson, 1970; Berry and Poskitt, 1972; Edil and Dhowian, 1979;
Szymanski et al., 1983) indicate that in organic soils (a mixture of organic fibers,
colloidal particles, water and gas bubbles), the deformation process involves elastic
strains of gas, elasto-plastic primary strains of the soil and viscoplastic creep of the
soil skeleton. These processes take place simultaneously, which significantly
influence the stress-strain-time characteristics. However, in calculations of settlement
for fibrous peat, Terzaghi’s equation is still normally used with calculation
procedures that allow for large deformations and changing parameters and boundary
conditions (Hartlen and Wolski, 1996).
84
0
2
4
Compression (mm) 6
8
p = 50 kPa
10
p = 100 kPa
12
p = 200 kPa
14
16
18
20
22
1 10 100 1000 10000
Figure 4.2: Graphical plots of hydraulic vertical consolidation test of the fibrous peat
soil samples analyzed by Casagrande’s method based on settlement
-10
0
dissipation of excess pore water pressure,
Vertical degree of consolidation due to
10
20
30
p = 50 kPa
Uv (%)
40
p = 100 kPa
50
p = 200 kPa
60
70
80
90
100
1 10 100
Tim e, t i n mi nute s (l og scal e )
soil samples analyzed by Casagrande’s method based on dissipation of excess pore
water pressure at the centre of sample base
85
0
2
4
6
Compression (mm)
8
10 p = 50 kPa
12 p = 100 kPa
14 p = 200 kPa
16
18
20
22
24
0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40 44 48 52 56 60
0.5
t (Time, t in minutes)
soil samples analyzed by Taylor’s method
Ve rtical de gree of consoli dation due to di ssi pation of e xce ss

pore water pressure , U v (%)
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
0
1
2
3
Compression (mm)
4 p = 50 kPa
5 p = 100 kPa
6 p = 200 kPa
7
8
9
10
Figure 4.5: Degree of vertical consolidation with two-way vertical drainage due to
dissipation of excess pore water pressure (Ub) – compression plots of the fibrous peat
soil samples at different consolidation pressures (Robinson’s method)
86
0
1
Total settlement (mm) 2
3
4 p = 50 kPa
5 p = 100 kPa
6 p = 200 kPa
7
8
9
10
1 10 100
Elapsed time (minutes)
(a)
0
1
2
Primary settlement (mm)
3
4 p = 50 kPa
5 p = 100 kPa
6 p = 200 kPa
7
8
9
10
1 10 100
(b)
Figure 4.6: Graphical plots for the analysis on the beginning of secondary
compression due to vertical consolidation with two-way vertical drainage of the
fibrous peat soil samples using Robinson’s method (a) Log time-total compression
curves for vertical consolidation on the fibrous peat at different consolidation
pressures (b) Log time-primary consolidation curves after removing the secondary
compression
87
2.6
2.4 /s = 1.511 (t -t o)
2.2 R2 = 0.951
6HFRQGDU\FRPSUHVVLRQ/s (mm)
2
1.8 /s = 1.315 (t -t o) p = 50 kPa
1.6 R2 = 0.822 p = 100 kPa
1.4 p = 200 kPa
/s = 0.369 (t -t o)
1.2 Linear (p = 50 kPa)
1 R2 = 1.000
Linear (p = 200 kPa)
0.8 Linear (p = 100 kPa)
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8
Time (t - t o) (t and t o are in minutes)
Figure 4.7: Graphical plots for the determination of coefficient of secondary

compression, cα due to vertical consolidation with two-way vertical drainage of the
fibrous peat soil samples analyzed from Robinson’s method
1
Compression (mm) (log scale)
p = 50 kPa
10 p = 100 kPa
p = 200 kPa
100
1 10 100 1000 10000
soil samples analyzed by Sridharan and Prakash’s method
88
4.3.2 Radial consolidation test
Results of hydraulic consolidation test with radial drainage to periphery were

evaluated using Casagrande’s method (Figure 4.9 and Figure 4.10), Taylor’s method
(Figure 4.11) Robinson’s method (Figure 4.12, Figure 4.13, and Figure 4.14). The
time-compression curves for hydraulic consolidation tests with radial drainage to
periphery resemble the shape of Taylor’s theoretical curve. As such, Taylor’s method
is still the most accurate method to evaluate the horizontal coefficient of
consolidation, ch of the soil. Using Taylor’s method, the horizontal coefficient of
consolidation, ch of the soil for 50 kPa, 100 kPa, and 200 kPa consolidation pressures
were found to be 5.394 m2/yr, 9.206 m2/yr, and 8.486 m2/yr respectively.
Coefficient of secondary compression, cα for the test is still best predicted

using Casagrande’s method because the soil’s secondary compression due to radial
consolidation varies linearly with logarithmic of time. Using Casagrande’s method,
the coefficient of secondary compression, cα due to radial consolidation was found to
range from 0.012 to 0.016 for a range of consolidation pressure of 50 kPa to 200 kPa.
Using Casagrande’s method based on settlement curves, the time to reach the
end of primary consolidation, tp for the test with consolidation pressures of 50 kPa,
100 kPa, and 200 kPa were found to be 119 minutes, 121 minutes, and 364 minutes
respectively. Different from the test with two-way vertical drainage, the test with
radial drainage to periphery shows an increasing trend of time to reach the end of
primary consolidation, tp as the consolidation pressure increases.
89
0
1
2
Compression (mm)
3
p = 50 kPa
4
p = 100 kPa
5
p = 200 kPa
6
7
8
9
0.1 1 10 100 1000 10000
Figure 4.9: Graphical plots of hydraulic radial consolidation test of the fibrous peat
soil samples analyzed by Casagrande’s method based on settlement
0
dissipation of excess pore water pressure, Ur
Radial degree of consolidation due to
10
20
30
40 p = 50 kPa
(%)
50 p = 100 kPa
60 p = 200 kPa
70
80
90
100
0.1 1 10 100 1000
soil samples analyzed by Casagrande’s method based on dissipation of excess pore
water pressure at the centre of sample base
90
2
Compression (mm)
3
4 p = 50 kPa
p = 100 kPa
5
p = 200 kPa
6
9
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110
0.5
t (Time, t in minutes)
soil samples analyzed by Taylor’s method
Radi al de gre e of consol idation due to di ssipati on of e xce ss

pore wate r pre ssure, U r (%)
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
0
2
Compression (mm)
3 p = 50 kPa
p = 100 kPa
4 p = 200 kPa
Figure 4.12: Degree of radial consolidation with periphery drainage due to

dissipation of excess pore water pressure (Ub) – compression plots of the fibrous peat
soil samples at different consolidation pressures (Robinson’s method)
91
Total settlement (mm) 2
3 p = 50 kPa
p = 100 kPa
4 p = 200 kPa
7
0.1 1 10 100 1000
(a)
1
Primary settlement (mm)
3 p = 50 kPa
p = 100 kPa
4 p = 200 kPa
5
7
0.1 1 10 100 1000
(b)
Figure 4.13: Graphical plots for the analysis on the beginning of secondary
compression due to radial consolidation with radial drainage to periphery of the
fibrous peat soil samples using Robinson’s method (a) Log time-total compression
curves for radial consolidation on the fibrous peat at different consolidation pressures
(b) Log time-primary consolidation curves after removing the secondary
compression
92
0.4
/s = 0.102 (t - t o)
6HFRQGDU\FRPSUHVVLRQ/s (mm)
R2 = 0.902
0.3 /s = 0.105 (t - t o)
p = 50 kPa
R2 = 0.805
p = 100 kPa
/s = 0.167 (t - t o) p = 200 kPa
0.2 R2 = 1.000 Linear (p = 200 kPa)
Linear (p = 100 kPa)
Linear (p = 50 kPa)
0.1
0
0 1 2 3
Time (t - t o) (t and t o are in minutes)
Figure 4.14: Graphical plots for the determination of coefficient of secondary

compression, cα due to radial consolidation with radial drainage to periphery of the
fibrous peat soil samples analyzed from Robinson’s method
4.3.3 Results comparison between hydraulic consolidation tests with radial

and two-way vertical drainages
Soil compression parameters of the tests evaluated from each method are
listed in Table 4.2, Table 4.3, and Table 4.4 for consolidation pressure of 50 kPa, 100
kPa, and 200 kPa respectively. Results from hydraulic consolidation tests indicate
that the ratio of ch/cv of the fibrous peat soil samples evaluated using different
methods range from 0.770 to 10.653 under different consolidation pressures. The
results show that in general, horizontal coefficient of consolidation, ch of the fibrous
peat soil samples is greater than it’s vertical coefficient of consolidation, cv. Based on
the Rowe consolidation data analyzed using different methods, although
Casagrande’s method based on excess pore water dissipation curves clearly define
the start and end points of primary consolidation of the soil samples, Taylor’s
method provides the most accurate estimation of horizontal and vertical coefficient
of consolidation (ch and cv) of the soil samples because the data from the tests are
93
best fitted to the theoretical curves of Taylor’s method. As such, a comparison

between ch and cv for the soil is best made using Taylor’s method.
Table 4.2: Soil compression parameters of hydraulic consolidation tests on the

fibrous peat soil samples under 50 kPa consolidation pressure analyzed by different
methods
Consolidation pressure, p = 50 kPa
Radial consolidation Vertical consolidation

Soil compression
parameter ch c. tp cv c. tp ch/cv
(m2/yr) (min.) (m2/yr) (min.)

Method
Casagrande’s method
based on excess pore 9.982 - 126 0.937 - 76 10.653
water pressure
dissipation curves (1)
based on settlement 5.459 0.016 119 0.764 0.057 314 7.145
curves (2)
Taylor’s method (3) 5.394 - - 1.836 - - 2.938
Robinson’s method (4) 5.847 0.003 126 1.494 0.008 76 3.914
Sridharan and Prakash’s - - - 9.375 0.039 121 -

method (5)
94

methods

Soil compression

Method
water pressure
curves (2)
Taylor’s method (3) 9.206 - - 5.754 - - 1.600

method (5)
95

methods

Soil compression

Method
water pressure
curves (2)
Taylor’s method (3) 8.486 - - 4.756 - - 1.784

method (5)
References:
(1), (2), and (3): Head (1986)

(4): Robinson (2003)
(5): Sridharan and Prakash (1998)
It can be observed from Table 4.5 that for a range of consolidation pressure of
50 kPa to 200 kPa, the ch/cv ratio for the soil based on Taylor’s method range from
1.600 to 2.938. The ratio of ch/cv of the soil is greater than 1 implies that more void
spaces are created within the soil horizontally than vertically as the consolidation
pressure is applied incrementally on the soil. Hence, excess pore water within the soil
tends to dissipate faster in the horizontal direction than in the vertical direction when
96
the soil is subjected to a consolidation pressure. The results indicate that the
utilization of horizontal drain maybe suitable for soil improvement to accelerate the
primary consolidation process of the soil.
Table 4.5: Range of ch/cv ratio based on Taylor’s method
Range of consolidation pressure, p Range of ch/cv ratio based on Taylor’s

(kPa) method
50 - 200 1.600 – 2.938
The ranges of coefficient of secondary compression, cα of the soil for both

radial and vertical consolidation evaluated using Casagrande’s method based on
settlement curves are given in Table 4.6. A comparison of the soil’s secondary
compression in Table 4.6 shows that the coefficient of secondary compression, cα
due to vertical consolidation is higher than that due to radial consolidation for a
range of consolidation pressure of 50 kPa to 200 kPa. This indicates that secondary
compression is more significant in hydraulic consolidation test with two-way vertical
drainage than that with radial drainage to periphery.
Table 4.6: Range of coefficient of secondary compression, cα ratio evaluated using

Range of consolidation Range of cα due to Range of cα due to

pressure, p (kPa) radial consolidation vertical consolidation
50 – 200 0.012 – 0.016 0.045 – 0.057
According to Robinson (2003), secondary compression of soils actually starts

during the dissipation of excess pore water pressure from the soil. Using Robinson’s
method, secondary compression and primary consolidation can be separated from the
total compression during excess pore water dissipation of the soil. As such, the
beginning of secondary compression of the soil during excess pore water dissipation
can be determined and the results are tabulated in Table 4.7.
97
Table 4.7: Degree of consolidation (%) at which the secondary compression of the
fibrous peat soil begins
Beginning of the secondary compression of the fibrous

Consolidation peat soil (Degree of consolidation %)
pressure, p (kPa) Hydraulic radial Hydraulic vertical
consolidation consolidation
50 96.04 95.18
100 88.82 45.13
200 78.16 63.33
It can be observed from Table 4.7 that the secondary compression of the
fibrous peat soil starts earlier for hydraulic consolidation test with two-way vertical
drainage if compared to that of hydraulic consolidation test with radial drainage to
periphery at a particular consolidation pressure. This shows that the influence of
secondary compression of the soil during the soil’s excess pore water dissipation is
more significant in hydraulic consolidation tests with two-way vertical drainage than
that in hydraulic consolidation tests with radial drainage to periphery. The secondary
compression of the fibrous peat soil began as early as 45.13% under 100 kPa
consolidation pressure for hydraulic consolidation test with two-way vertical
drainage. This is possible due to the fact that organic soils exhibit very large
secondary compression compared to the inorganic soils (Robinson, 2003).
4.4 Permeability tests
The rate of consolidation of the fully saturated and undisturbed fibrous peat
soil is affected primarily by the permeability of the soil. Compression of the soil
occurs rapidly when a new loading is applied and this is directly related to the high
permeability of the soil. As such, it is important to evaluate the permeability of the
soil, which is defined as the ability of water to flow through the soil. The
permeability of the soil is characterized by the soil’s permeability parameters,
namely vertical coefficient of permeability, kv, and horizontal coefficient of
permeability, kh. Thus, for this research, the initial coefficients of permeability of the
soil are measured by constant head permeability tests in the soil’s natural state
98
whereas; the coefficients of permeability of the soil under consolidation pressure are
measured by hydraulic permeability tests.
4.4.1 Initial permeability
Constant head permeability tests were carried out on 4 undisturbed horizontal

soil samples, which were cut with their axes perpendicular to the vertical direction of
the in situ soil, and 3 undisturbed vertical soil samples, which were cut with their
axes parallel to the vertical direction of the in situ soil. The purpose of the tests was
to determine the initial rate of permeability of the soil with respect to horizontal and
vertical directions. Based on the results of the test, it was found that in the soil’s
initial state, the average horizontal coefficient of permeability of the soil at standard
temperature of 20°C, kho (20°) is 9.48 x 10-5 m/s whereas, the average vertical
coefficient of permeability of the soil at standard temperature of 20°C, kvo (20°) is
1.20 x 10-4 m/s. This indicates that in the soil’s initial state, the average horizontal
coefficient of permeability, kho is slightly lower than the average vertical coefficient
of permeability, kvo. The ratio of kho / kvo is 0.79. With the average value of kho (20°C)
= 9.48 x 10-5 m/s and kvo (20°C) = 1.20 x 10-4 m/s, the initial permeability of the soil
is classified as medium and the soil has a good drainage characteristic.
The relationship between the coefficient of permeability of the soil in it’s

initial state at standard temperature, ko (20°C) and it’s initial void ratio, eo is plotted
in Figure 4.15. It can be observed from Figure 4.15 that the fibrous peat soil samples
have high initial void ratios with the void ratios range from 8 to 12. At a typical
initial void ratio, eo of 10, the vertical coefficient of permeability of the soil, kvo is
about 1.32-fold higher than it’s horizontal coefficient of permeability, kho. It can also
be observed from Figure 4.15 that initial permeability of the soil varies from sample
to sample. This shows that the soil is anisotropic and the anisotropy in initial
permeability of the soil results from the natural soil imperfections or discontinuities,
such as root holes, animal burrows, joints, fissures, seams, and soil cracks, that
significantly contribute to high initial permeability of the soil. A significant visual
99
observation on all the soil samples after constant head permeability tests were done,
is the presence of horizontal as well as vertical rootlets that create many open voids
and channels, and that explain why the fibrous peat soil is as porous as clean sand.
1.00E-03
Coefficient of permeability, ko (20°C) (m/s)
9.00E-04
8.00E-04
Vertical
7.00E-04
R2 = 0.96
6.00E-04
5.00E-04
4.00E-04
3.00E-04
2.00E-04
Horizontal
1.00E-04 R2 = 0.99
1.00E-07
8.00 8.50 9.00 9.50 10.00 10.50 11.00 11.50 12.00
Initial void ratio, e o
Figure 4.15: Graph of coefficient of permeability at standard temperature of 20°C, ko

(20°C) versus initial void ratio, eo of the fibrous peat soil samples
Based on the finding, the factors affecting initial permeability of the fibrous
peat soil are detailed as follows:
1. Particle size distribution
The permeability of the soil is influenced by it’s particle size distribution. The
presence of organic particles and soil particles in the soil creates inner voids as well
as outer voids in the multi-phase structure of the soil and this generates a low
resistance to flow of water through the soil. In other words, this results in high
permeability of the soil.
2. Voids ratio
The way in which a soil is placed has a considerable effect on the size and
disposition of the voids between the soil particles, and hence on the permeability. As
100
such, it is very important to minimize soil disturbance when preparing undisturbed

fibrous peat soil samples for the constant head permeability tests. The volume of
voids is expressed in term of the voids ratio, e.
3. Degree of saturation
The extent to which the voids are filled with water is crucial in permeability
measurements. Bubbles of air can block seepage channels between soil particles,
thereby appreciably reducing the permeability. If the degree of saturation is less than
about 85 %, air is likely to be continuous, instead of being in isolated bubbles, which
invalidates Darcy’s law. Thus, in constant head permeability tests, efforts were made
to eliminate air so that the soil can be assumed to be fully saturated.
4. Soil fabric
As claimed by Dhowian and Edil (1980), fibrous peat soil is not

homogeneous but is anisotropic, due to it’s horizontal stratification resulting from the
fiber orientation within the soil. This is true for the fibrous peat soil as it contains
about 90% fiber content but the dominating features of anisotropy, which influence
the initial permeability of the soil, are natural soil imperfections or discontinuities
such as, fissures, cracks, rootlets and pockets of organic material. These features of
anisotropy together with the presence of macropores and micropores within the
fibrous peat soil result in a high initial permeability of the soil.
5. Temperature
An increase in temperature causes a decrease in the viscosity of water, i.e. the

water becomes more ‘fluid’, which affects the value of the measured permeability.
The measured value can be corrected to a standard temperature. For a laboratory
permeability test, the standard temperature is 20°C.
101
4.4.2 Hydraulic permeability
After the end of each hydraulic consolidation test, hydraulic permeability test
was carried out at a consolidation pressure of 200 kPa and an inlet pressure of 180
kPa on the soil sample. The outlet pressure was determined by the height of the water
collected by a burette connected to the outlet of water flow from the Rowe
consolidometer. The burette has an internal diameter of 12.19 mm, an external
diameter of 15.15 mm and a maximum volume capacity of 100 ml. All hydraulic
permeability tests were conducted at a room temperature of 25°C. Results of
hydraulic permeability tests on the soil samples indicate that at a consolidation
pressure of 200 kPa, the horizontal coefficient of permeability of the soil at a
standard temperature of 20°C, kh (20°C) is 4.29 x 10-9 m/s whereas, the vertical
coefficient of permeability of the soil at a standard temperature of 20°C, kv (20°C) is
2.36 x 10-10 m/s. This shows that at a consolidation pressure of 200 kPa, horizontal
coefficient of permeability of the soil is 18.18-fold greater than it’s vertical
coefficient of permeability. This support the validity of the hydraulic consolidation
test results that at a consolidation pressure of 200 kPa, horizontal coefficient of
consolidation, ch of the soil is greater than it’s vertical coefficient of consolidation, cv.
4.4.3 Results comparison between constant head and hydraulic permeability

tests
The results of constant-head and hydraulic permeability tests are summarized

in Table 4.8. It can be observed in Table 4.8 that for constant-head permeability test,
the fibrous peat soil initially has high vertical and horizontal rates of permeability
comparable to those of clean sand. However, the results from hydraulic permeability
test show that when the soil is loaded to a consolidation pressure of 200 kPa, the
vertical and horizontal rates of permeability of the soil decrease to values comparable
to those of intact clay. This indicates that the change in permeability of the fibrous
peat soil as a result of compression is drastic.
102
Table 4.8: Results summary of constant-head and hydraulic permeability tests of the
fibrous peat soil
Type of permeability test Constant-head Hydraulic permeability

permeability test test (200 kPa
consolidation pressure)
Coefficient of permeability
kh (20°C) (m/s) 9.48 x 10-5 4.29 x 10-9
kv (20°C) (m/s) 1.20 x 10-4 2.36 x 10-10
kh/kv 0.79 18.18
103
CHAPTER 5
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATION
5.1 Conclusions
In conclusion, fibrous peat is considered as problematic soil because it

exhibits unusual compression behaviour. Based on the study of compressibility of the
fibrous peat soil, results of consolidation tests of the soil are concluded as follows:
1. The soil has a high compressibility with significant secondary compression stage,
which is not constant with the logarithmic of time in some cases. Also, the soil
has a short duration of primary consolidation due to its high initial permeability.
2. Secondary compression of soil actually begins during the dissipation of excess
pore water from the soil (Robinson, 2003). Hence, for the hydraulic consolidation
tests, the values of ch and cv determined by Robinson’s method were found to be
different from those of Casagrande’s method because they are based purely on
primary consolidation with the secondary compression separated from the total
compression during the dissipation of excess pore water from the soil.
3. Analysis on the time-compression curves of the soil with respect to radial and
vertical consolidation from hydraulic consolidation tests using different methods
indicates that Taylor’s method proved to be most suitable to determine the
horizontal and vertical coefficient of consolidation (ch and cv) of the soil because
the soil’s time-compression curves are best fitted to the theoretical curves of
Taylor’s method. Thus, using Taylor’s method, the ch/cv ratio of the soil was
found to range from 1.600 to 2.938 for consolidation pressures of 50 kPa, 100
kPa, and 200 kPa.
104
4. Results of hydraulic permeability tests done at 200 kPa consolidation pressure

show that the kh/kv ratio of the soil is 18.18. This suggests that the soil is more
permeable in the horizontal direction than in the vertical direction when subjected
to consolidation pressure.
5. The ratio of ch/cv of the soil greater than 1 when subjected to a consolidation
pressure implies that the utilization of horizontal drain maybe suitable for soil
improvement to accelerate the settlement of the fibrous peat soil.
5.2 Recommendation
Improvement of fibrous peat should be recommended only after careful

evaluation on the mechanical properties of the soil. As such, it is recommended that
further study involving field investigation on the fibrous peat soil need to be done to
justify the laboratory investigation on the soil from this study. Field investigation on
the soil is beyond scope of this study. Regardless of the type of soil investigation
performed on fibrous peat soil, the consolidation theory should be emphasized since
it provides a reliable basis of economic considerations of soil improvement. Deeper
theoretical insight into the processes of fibrous peat soil improvement may either
avoid or at least reduce the amount of expensive field testing.
105
REFERENCES
1. Berry P.L., and Wilkinson, W.B. The Radial Consolidation of Clay Soils.
Geotechnique. 1969. 19(2): 253-284.
2. Dhowian, A.W., and Edil, T.B. Consolidation Behavior of Peats. Geotechnical
Testing Journal. 1980. 3(3): 105-114.
3. Kogure, K., Yamaguchi, H., and Shogaki, T. Physical and Pore Properties of
Fibrous Peat Deposit. Singapore: 11th Southeast Asian Geotechnical Conference.
1993.
4. Terzaghi, K., Peck, R.B., and Mesri, G. Soil Mechanics in Engineering Practice.
3rd Edition. New York: John Wiley & Sons. 1996.
5. Fox, P.J., and Edil, T.B. Effects of Stress and Temperature on Secondary
Compression of Peat. Canadian Geotechnical Journal. 1996. 33(3): 405-415.
6. Mesri, G., Stark, T.D., Aljouni, M.A., and Chen, C.S. Secondary Compression of
Peat with or without surcharging. Journal of Geotechnical and
Geoenvironmental Engineering. 1997. 123(5): 411-421.
7. Colleselli, F., Cortellazzo, G., and Cola, S., “Laboratory Testing of Italian Peat
Soils,” Geotechnics of High Water Content Materials, ASTM STP 1374, Edil,
T.B., and Fox, P.J. (Eds.), American Society for Testing and Materials, West
Conshohocken, PA, 2000.
8. Edil, T.B. Recent Advances in Geotechnical Characterization and Construction
over Peats and Organic Soils. Putrajaya (Malaysia): 2nd International
Conferences in Soft Soil Engineering and Technology. 2003.
9. Lan, l.T. A Model for One-dimensional Compression of Peat. Ph.D. thesis.
University of Wisconsin, Madison, U.S.A; 1992.
10. Colley, B.E. Construction of Highways over Peat and Muck Areas. Am.
Highways. 1950. 29(1): 3-6.
11. Bardet, J.P. Experimental Soil Mechanics. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall. 1997.
12. Whitlow, R. Basic Soil Mechanics. 4th edition. Essex: Pearson Education Ltd.
2001.
13. Robinson, R. G. A study on the Beginning of Secondary Compression of Soils.
Journal of Testing and Evaluation. 2003. 31(5): 1-10.
14. Hausmann, M.R. Engineering Principles of Ground Modification. New York:
McGraw-Hill. 1990.
106
15. Head, K.H. Manual of Soil Laboratory Testing, Volume 2: Permeability, Shear
Strength and Compressibility Tests. London: Pentech Press Limited. 1982.
16. Head, K.H. Manual of Soil Laboratory Testing, Volume 3: Effective Stress Tests.
London: Pentech Press Limited. 1986.
17. Smith, G.N. and Smith I.G.N. Element of Soil Mechanics. 7th edition. Cambridge:
Blackwell Science Ltd. 1998.
18. Sridharan, A., and Prakash, K. Secondary Compression Factor. Geotechnical
Engineering. 1998. 131(2): 96-103.
19. Holtz, R.D., Jamiolkowski, M.B., Lancellotta, R., and Pedroni, R. Prefabricated
Vertical Drains: Design and Performance. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann Ltd.
1991.
20. Head, K.H. Manual of Soil Laboratory Testing, Volume 1: Soil Classification and
Compaction Tests. London: Pentech Press Limited. 1980.
21. Hartlen, J., and Wolski, W. (Eds.). Embankments on Organic Soils. Armsterdam:
Elsevier Science B.V. 1996.
22. Gofar, N., and Sutejo, Y. Engineering Properties of Fibrous Peat. Senai
(Malaysia): Seminar Penyelidikan Kejuruteraan Awam (SEPKA), Universiti
Teknologi Malaysia (UTM). 2005.
107
APPENDIX A
Soil sampling
Figure A1: A block sampler was Figure A2: A block sample was carved
manually pushed into the bottom of a test out by a digger from the bottom of a test
pit pit
Figure A3: A peat block was Figure A4: Each peat block was covered with 2
covered with 2 cylindrical cubical pieces of wood, tied with ropes, and then
pieces of wood, and sealed put into a wooden box to prevent the soil sample
with melted candles, which from moving during transportation and then
hardened at normal transported and kept in the laboratory
temperature to preserve the
natural moisture content within
the fibrous peat soil block
sample
108
Figure A5: The fibrous peat soil block sample
Figure A6: A thin wall fixed piston Figure A7: A thin wall fixed piston
samplers was manually pushed and sampler was sealed with moisture-
carved from the bottom of a test pit to resistant plastic covers to preserve the
obtain vertical undisturbed fibrous peat moisture content of undisturbed fibrous
soil samples peat soil sample in the sampler
109
APPENDIX B
Apparatus for constant-head permeability test
Figure B1: The extruder used to transfer soil sample from the sampling tube to the
mould for constant-head permeability test
Figure B2: Permeameter cell components for constant-head permeability test

110
Figure B3: Arrangement of constant-head permeability test

111
APPENDIX C
Apparatus for hydraulic consolidation and permeability tests
Figure C1: Two independently Figure C2: Power supply and readout
controlled water pressure systems, giving unit for the electric pore pressure
maximum pressure up to 1000 kPa used transducer
for hydraulic consolidation and
permeability tests in laboratory
Figure C3: Volume change Figure C4: Sintered bronze disc of 4 mm

gauge thickness
112
Figure C5: Rowe cell top attached to Figure C6: Rowe cell body of 151.4 mm
diaphragm internal diameter
Figure C7: Rowe cell base Figure C8: Bolt tightened Rowe cell
connected to linear transducer
Figure C9: A burette connected to Rowe consolidometer for hydraulic permeability

test
113
APPENDIX D
Steps for various methods used to evaluate vertical and horizontal coefficient of
consolidation (cv and ch) and coefficient of secondary compression (c.) of the
fibrous peat soil
1. Casagrande’s method based on settlement curve
For a typical consolidation pressure, the settlement of soil is plotted against

the logarithmic of time. A typical consolidation curve of Casagrande’s method based
on settlement curve is shown in Figure D1. The following steps with reference to
Figure D1 are needed to evaluate vertical or horizontal coefficient of consolidation
(cv or ch), and coefficient of secondary compression (c.) of soil:
Step 1: Project the straight portions of the primary consolidation and secondary
compression to intersect at A. The ordinate of A, d100, is the settlement for 100%
primary consolidation.
Step 2: For the initial portion of the consolidation curve, which is parabolic in shape,
select times, tA and tB with their corresponding settlements (dA and dB) such that the
initial settlement for 0% primary consolidation, d0 is defined as follows:
d0 = dA¥tB - dB¥tA
¥tB - ¥tA
Note that the selected times, tA and tB must be within the time corresponding to
average degree of consolidation, U < 60%.
Step 3: Calculate the ordinate for 50% primary consolidation as d50 = (d0 + d100)/2.
Draw a horizontal line through this point to intersect the curve at B. The abscissa of
point B is the time for 50% primary consolidation, t50.
Step 4: With equal strain loading condition, the theoretical time factors for 50%
primary consolidation for one-dimensional two-way vertical and peripheral radial
consolidation are 0.197 and 0.0866 respectively (Table 3.1) and as such, the vertical
and horizontal coefficient of consolidation (cv and ch) for the soil are defined by
equations 2.5 and 2.15 respectively, whereas the soil’s coefficient of secondary
compression is defined by equation 2.8.
114
Figure D1: A typical consolidation curve of the fibrous peat soil analyzed by
Casagrande’s method based on settlement
2. Taylor’s method
In this method, a plot of settlement versus the square root of time is drawn for
a typical consolidation pressure as shown in Figure D2. The steps to determine the
vertical and horizontal coefficient of consolidation (cv and ch) of soil for Taylor’s
method with reference to Figure D2 are as follows:
Step 1: Plot the settlements versus square root of times.
Step 2: Draw the best straight line through the initial part of the curve intersecting
the ordinate at O and the abscissa (¥WLPHDW$1RWHWKDWWKHRUGLQDWHDW2LVGHILQHG
as the beginning of initial compression based on Taylor’s method.
Step 3: The time at point A is noted as ¥tA.
Step 4: Locate a point B, 1.15 ¥tA, on the abscissa.
Step 5: Join OB.
Step 6: The intersection of the line OB with the curve, point C, gives the settlement
read off the abscissa is ¥t90 and as such, when the average degree of consolidation, U
and the time for 90% degree of consolidation (t90). It should be noted that the value
is equal to 90%, the theoretical factors for one-dimensional two-way vertical and
peripheral radial consolidation with equal strain loading condition are 0.848 and
0.288 respectively (Table 3.1). Thus, the vertical and horizontal coefficient of
consolidation for the soil are defined by equations 2.7 and 2.16 respectively.
115
Taylor’s method
3. Casagrande’s method based on excess pore water pressure dissipation

curve (Pore water pressure measurement)
In this method, the dissipation of excess pore water pressure measured at the
central base of Rowe consolidometer is plotted against the square root of time for a
typical consolidation pressure as shown in Figure D3. Steps for evaluating vertical
and horizontal coefficient of consolidation (cv and ch) of soil based on pore water
pressure measurement are illustrated as follows:
Step 1: Plot the dissipation of excess pore water pressure in percentage versus the
logarithmic of time. The dissipation of excess pore water pressure is expressed by the
following equation:
U (%) = [(uo – u) / (uo – ub)] x 100
where,
U = dissipation of excess pore water pressure (%)

uo = Initial excess pore water pressure
u = Excess pore water pressure at any time
ub = Back pressure which is taken as 10 kPa
116
Step 2: The starting and ending points of the excess pore water pressure dissipation
curve are defined as the beginning and ending of primary consolidation of the soil (d0
and d100) and their corresponding times are denoted by t0 and t100 respectively.
Calculate the ordinate for 50% primary consolidation as d50 = (d0 + d100)/2. Draw a
horizontal line through this point to intersect the curve at A. The abscissa of point A
is the time for 50% primary consolidation, t50.
consolidation are 0.379 and 0.173 respectively (Table 3.1). Therefore based on pore
water pressure measurement, vertical and horizontal coefficient of consolidation (cv
and ch) of soil are defined by equations 2.6 and 2.15 respectively.
Figure D3: A typical excess pore water pressure dissipation curve of the fibrous peat
soil based on pore water pressure measurement
4. Extended Casagrande’s method
This method is suitable to evaluate the log time-compression curve when

tertiary compression is evident in addition to secondary compression as part of long-
term compression of soil. With reference to Figure D4, steps for evaluating the
vertical coefficient of consolidation (cv) and coefficient of secondary compression
(denoted as c.) of soil are similar to those of Casagrande’s method based on
settlement curve with addition to the following step:
Step 1: Project the straight portions of the secondary compression and the tertiary
compression to intersect at C. The ordinate at C is the point that signifies the end of
secondary compression and the beginning of tertiary compression (ts) of soil.
Corresponding to the point, coefficient of tertiary compression (c.2) of soil is defined
by equation 2.9.
117
extended Casagrande’s method
5. Sridharan and Prakash’s method
For a typical consolidation pressure, the method considers a relationship

between logarithmic of compression and logarithmic of time of soil as shown in
Figure D5. Such method can only be used to evaluate vertical coefficient of
consolidation (cv) and coefficient of secondary compression (c.) of soil since
Sridharan and Prakash (1998) only developed the theoretical curve using the method
for one-dimensional vertical consolidation (Figure 2.21). Using the method, steps for
evaluating vertical coefficient of consolidation (cv) and coefficient of secondary
compression (c.) of soil are as follows:
Step 1: Plot the logarithmic of compression versus the logarithmic of time.
Step 2: Project the straight portions of the primary consolidation and secondary
compression to intersect at A. The point of intersection at A between the two linear
portions is regarded as the end of primary consolidation and the beginning of
secondary compression of soil.
Step 3: The beginning of primary consolidation of soil is determined for the

consolidation curve using Casagrande’s method based on settlement curve.
Step 4: Calculate the ordinate for 88.3% primary consolidation as d88.3 = (d0 + d100) x
(88.3/100). Draw a horizontal line through this point to intersect the curve at B. The
abscissa of point B is the time for 88.3% primary consolidation, t88.3.
IRU RQH-dimensional vertical consolidation. As such, the vertical coefficient of

Step 5: Using the method, the theoretical factor of 88.3% primary consolidation is
118
consolidation of soil is defined as cv [ H2 / t88.3 whereas, the coefficient of

secondary compression (c.) of soil is defined by equation 2.10.
Sridharan and Prakash’s method
6. Robinson’s method
The method considers that secondary compression actually begins during the
dissipation of excess pore water pressure from soil. Using the method, steps for
evaluating vertical and horizontal coefficient of consolidation (cv and ch) and
coefficient of secondary compression (c.) of soil are as follows:
Step 1: Plot the settlement versus the dissipation of excess pore water pressure (in
percentage) of soil as shown in Figure D6. The point (Point A) where the plot
deviates from linearity at the later consolidation stage is regarded as the beginning of
OLQHDULW\ UHSUHVHQWHG E\ / s is the secondary compression during the dissipation of

secondary compression of soil. With reference to Figure D6, the deviation from
excess pore water pressure from soil.
Step 2: Plot the total compression corresponding to the dissipation of excess pore
water pressure from soil against the logarithmic of time as shown in Figure D7 (a).
Step 3:6XEWUDFWWKHVHFRQGDU\FRPSUHVVLRQ/s) during the dissipation of excess pore

water pressure from the total compression of soil to give primary consolidation of
soil free from the influence of secondary compression.
Step 4: Plot the primary consolidation versus the logarithmic of time of soil as shown
in Figure D7 (b). The starting and ending ordinates of the primary consolidation
curve are regarded as the beginning and ending of primary consolidation (d0 and d100)
of soil respectively. There corresponding times are denoted by t0 and t100 respectively.
119
consolidation are 0.197 and 0.0866 respectively (Table 3.1) and as such, the vertical
and horizontal coefficient of consolidation (cv and ch) for the soil are defined by
equations 2.5 and 2.15 respectively, whereas the soil’s coefficient of secondary
compression is defined by equation 2.8.
SUHVVXUHIURPVRLO/s) against their corresponding time (t – to) as shown in Figure D9.
Step 6: Plot the secondary compression during the dissipation of excess pore water
The coefficient of secondary compression of soil (c.) is determined by dividing the

slope of the linear relationship between the secondary compression during the
dissipation of excess pore water presVXUHIURPVRLO/s) and their corresponding time
(t – to), by the thickness of the consolidating soil layer, H.
Figure D6: A typical degree of consolidation due to dissipation of excess pore water
pressure (Ub) – compression plot of the fibrous peat soil
120
Figure D7: A typical graphical plot for the analysis on the beginning of secondary
compression of the fibrous peat soil using Robinson’s method (a) Log time-total
compression curves (b) Log time-primary consolidation curves after removing the
secondary compression
121
Figure D8: A typical graphical plot for the determination of coefficient of secondary
compression, cα of the fibrous peat soil analyzed by Robinson’s method
WONG LEONG SING SARJANA KEJURUTERAAN (AWAM-GEOTEKNIK) 2005 UTM

(Vanbanphapluat - Co) Tcvn9355 2012

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LABORATORY EVALUATION OF HORIZONTAL COEFFICIENT OF

CONSOLIDATION. ch OF FIBROUS PEAT SOIL

WONG LEONG SING

UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MALAYSIA

WONG LEONG SING

A project report submitted in partial fulfillment of the

Faculty of Civil Engineering

To my beloved mother and father

I would also like to express my sincere gratitude to Yulindasari Sutejo, a

Acknowledgement is not complete without thanking the technicians in UTM

Encountered extensively in wetlands, fibrous peat is considered as

Ditemui secara meluas di kawasan paya, tanah gambut berfiber merupakan

CHAPTER TITLE PAGE

2.5 Measurement of horizontal coefficient of

4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 79

4.1 Soil identification 79

4.3.1 Vertical consolidation test 82

5 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATION 103

5.1 Conclusions 103

TABLE NO. TITLE PAGE

2.1 Values of natural water content, wo, initial vertical

2.2 Change in tp and ts with pressure for Portage peat

2.3 Theoretical time factors for one-dimensional

2.4 Determination of ch, the horizontal coefficient of

3.1 Rowe cell consolidation tests – Data for curve

4.1 Basic properties of the peat soil 79

4.2 Soil compression parameters of hydraulic

4.3 Soil compression parameters of hydraulic

4.4 Soil compression parameters of hydraulic

4.5 Range of ch/cv ratio based on Taylor’s method 96

4.6 Range of coefficient of secondary compression, cα

4.7 Degree of consolidation (%) at which the

4.8 Results summary of constant-head and hydraulic

FIGURE NO. TITLE PAGE

2.1 (a) Schematic diagram of deposition of fibrous

2.2 Photomicrographs of fibrous peat (Source:

2.3 Micrographs of Middleton fibrous peat; (a)

2.4 Permeability of Middleton peat in vertical and

2.5 Coefficient of permeability versus void ratio for

2.6 Vertical strain, normalized effluent outflow, and

2.7 Consolidation data for a Portage peat specimen

2.8 Log time-compression curve of fibrous peat soil 19

2.9 One-dimensional consolidation (a) Terzaghi’s

2.10 Average degree of consolidation due to vertical

2.11 Theoretical time factor, Tv (logarithmic scale)

2.12 Square-root of theoretical time factor, Tv 0.5

2.13 Theoretical relationships between time factor and

2.14 Typical vertical consolidation test results

2.15 The square-root of time method (Source: Smith

2.16 Types of time-compression curve of soil 31

2.17 Relationship between the degree of consolidation

2.18 (a) Time-compression curves, and (b) time-

2.19 (a)-(f) Degree of consolidation from the pore

2.20 (a) Time-total settlement curves for peat under a

2.21 Theoretical log Uv - log Tv plot (Source:

2.22 7\SLFDOORJ/- log t plot of brown Mexico City

2.23 Average degree of consolidation for radial flow

2.24 Different drain patterns: equivalent cylinder

2.25 Theoretical curve relating square-root time factor

2.26 Theoretical time-factor relationship with degree

2.27 Soil profile at the Dalarovagen site (Source:

2.28 Measured settlement, excess pore pressures and

w - Unit weight of water