02 Digital Microwave Communication Principles-20111107-B-1.0.Ppt (Mode de Compatibilité)

2016/9/9
Digital Microwave
Communication Principles
Learning Guide
• Microwave communication is developed on the basis of the

electromagnetic field theory.
Therefore, before learning this course, you are supposed to
have mastered the following knowledge:
– Network communications technology basics

– Electromagnetic field basic theory
Page 2 Page 2
Objectives
• After this course, you will be able to explain:

– Concept and characteristics of digital microwave communications
– Functions and principles of each component of digital microwave
equipment
– Common networking modes and application scenarios of digital microwave
equipment
– Propagation principles of digital microwave communication and various
types of fading
– Anti-fading technologies
– Procedure and key points in designing microwave transmission link
Page 3 Page 3
Contents
1. Digital Microwave Communication Overview
2. Digital Microwave Communication Equipment
3. Digital Microwave Networking and Application
4. Microwave Propagation and Anti-fading

Technologies
5. Designing Microwave Transmission Links
Page 4 Page 4
Transmission Methods
in Current Communications Networks
Coaxial cable communication
Optical fiber communication
Microwave TE
MUX/DEMUX MUX/DEMUX
Microwave TE
Microwave
communication
Satellite communication
Page 5 Page 5
Microwave Communication
vs. Optical Fiber Communication
Microwave Communication Optical Fiber Communication
Powerful space cross ability, little land Optical fiber burying and land
occupied, not limited by land privatization occupation required
Small investment, short construction
period, easy maintenance Large investment ,long construction period
Strong protection ability against natural Outdoor optical fiber maintenance required
disaster and easy to be recover and hard to recover from natural disaster
Limited frequency resources (frequency Not limited by frequency, license not
license required) required
Transmission quality greatly affected by Stable and reliable transmission quality

climate and landform and not affected by external factors
Limited transmission capacity Large transmission capacity
Page 6 Page 6
Definition of Microwave
Microwave
Microwave is a kind of electromagnetic wave. In a broad sense, the microwave frequency range is
from 300 MHz to 300 GHz. But In microwave communication, the frequency range is generally
from 3 GHz to 30 GHz.
According to the characteristics of microwave propagation, microwave can be considered as plane

wave.
The plane wave has no electric field and magnetic field longitudinal components along the
propagation direction. The electric field and magnetic field components are vertical to the
propagation direction. Therefore, it is called transverse electromagnetic wave and TEM wave for
short.
Page 7 Page 7
Page 8 Page 8
Development of Microwave Communication
Transmission
capacity bit/s/ch) SDH digital
155M microwave
communication
system
34/140M PDH digital
microwave
Small and medium communication
2/4/6/8M system
capacity digital microwave
communication system Late 1990s to now
480 voice Analog microwave

channels communication
system 1980s
Note:
1970s Small capacity: < 10M

Medium capacity: 10M to 100M
1950s Large capacity: > 100M
Page 9 Page 9
Concept of Digital
Microwave Communication
• Digital microwave communication is a way of transmitting digital
information in atmosphere through microwave or radio frequency (RF).
– Microwave communication refers to the communication that use microwave as
carrier .
– Digital microwave communication refers to the microwave communication that
adopts the digital modulation.
– The baseband signal is modulated to intermediate frequency (IF) first . Then the
intermediate frequency is converted into the microwave frequency.
– The baseband signal can also be modulated directly to microwave frequency, but
only phase shift keying (PSK) modulation method is applicable.
– The electromagnetic field theory is the basis on which the microwave
communication theory is developed.
Page 10 Page 10
Microwave Frequency Band
Selection and RF Channel Configuration (1)
• Generally-used frequency bands in digital microwave transmission:
– 7G/8G/11G/13G/15G/18G/23G/26G/32G/38G (defined by ITU-R Recommendations)
1.5 GHz 2.5 GHz

Regional network
3.3 GHz Long haul trunk 11 GHz

network Regional network, local network, and
2/8/34 boundary network
Mbit/s
34/140/155 Mbit/s
2/8/34/140/155 Mbit/s
GHz
1 2 3 4 5 8 10 20 30 40 50
Page 11 Page 11
• In each frequency band, subband frequency ranges, transmitting/receiving
spacing (T/R spacing), and channel spacing are defined.
Frequency range
Low frequency f0 (center frequency) High frequency
band band
T/R spacing T/R spacing
Protectio
n spacing
Channel Adjacent Channel

spacing channel T/R spacing
f1 f2 fn spacing f1’ f2’ fn’
Page 12 Page 12
Frequency range (7425M–7725M)
T/R spacing: 154M f0 (7575M)
28M
f1=7442 f2=7470 f5 f1’=7596 f2’ f5’
7G Frequency Range F0 (MHz) T/R Spacing (MHz) Channel Spacing (MHz) Primary and Non-primary
Stations
Fn=f0-161+28n,
7425–7725 7575 154 28 Fn’=f0- 7+28n,
(n: 1–5)
7575 161 7
7110–7750 7275 196 28
7597 196 28
7250–7550 7400 161 3.5
Page 13 … … … … Page 13 …
Page 14 Page 14
Page 15 Page 15
Page 16 Page 16
Digital Microwave
Communication Modulation (1)
Digital baseband signal is the unmodulated digital signal. The baseband signal cannot be
directly transmitted over microwave radio channels and must be converted into carrier signal for
microwave transmission.
Baseband signal rate
Channel bandwidth
Modulation
Digital baseband signal IF signal
Service signal
transmitted
Page 17 Page 17
Digital Microwave
Communication Modulation (2)
The following formula indicates a digital baseband signal being converted into a digital frequency
band signal.
A*COS(Wc*t+φ) PSK and QAM are

most frequently used
in digital microwave.
Amplitude Frequency Phase
ASK: Amplitude Shift Keying. Use the digital baseband signal to change the carrier amplitude (A). Wc and φ
remain unchanged.
FSK: Frequency Shift Keying. Use the digital baseband signal to change the carrier frequency (Wc). A and φ
remain unchanged.
PSK: Phase Shift Keying. Use the digital baseband signal to change the carrier phase (φ). Wc and A remain
unchanged.
QAM: Quadrature Amplitude Modulation. ). Use the digital baseband signal to change the carrier phase (φ) and
amplitude (A). Wc remains unchanged.
Page 18 Page 18
Microwave Frame Structure (1)
• RFCOH
171.072 Mbit/s
15.552 Mbit/s STM-1 155.52 Mbit/s
RFCOH SOH Payload
MLCM DMY XPIC ATPC WS RSC INI ID FA

11.84 Mbit/s 64 kbit/s 16 kbit/s 64 kbit/s 2.24 Mbit/s 864 kbit/s 144 kbit/s 32 kbit/s 288 kbit/s
RFCOH: Radio Frame Complementary Overhead

RSC: Radio Service Channel
MLCM: Multi-Level Coding Modulation
INI: N:1 switching command
DMY: Dummy
ID: Identifier
XPIC: Cross-polarization Interference Cancellation
FA: Frame Alignment
ATPC: Automatic Transmit Power Control
Page 19 WS: Wayside Service Page 19
Microwave Frame Structure (2)
• RFCOH is multiplexed into the STM-1 data and a block multiframe is formed. Each
multiframe has six rows and each row has 3564 bits. One multiframe is composed of two
basic frames. Each basic frame has 1776 bits. The remaining 12 bits are used for frame
alignment.
Multiframe 3564 bits
FS Basic frame 1 FS Basic frame 2

6 bits
6 bits 6 bits
1776 bits（148 words） 1776 bits (148 words)
I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I
I I I I I I I I b I I C2 I I I I I a I I b I I C2
I I C1 I I C1 I I C1 I I C1 I I C1 I I C1 I I C1 I I C1
12 bits (the 1st word) 12 bits (the 148th word)

I: STM-1 information bit
C1/C2: Two-level correction coding monitoring bits
FS: Frame synchronization
a/b: Other complementary overheads
Page 20
Page 20
Questions
What is microwave?
What is digital microwave communication?
What are the frequently used digital microwave frequency bands?
What concepts are involved in microwave frequency setting?
What are the frequently used modulation schemes? Which are the most frequently used modulation
schemes?
Page 21 Page 21
• What is microwave?
• Microwave is a kind of electromagnetic wave. In a broad sense,
the frequency range of microwave is 300 MHz to 300 GHz. In
microwave communication, the frequency range generally is
from 3 GHz to 30 GHz. According to the characteristics of
microwave propagation, microwave can be considered as plane
wave. The plane wave has no electric field and magnetic field
longitudinal components along the propagation direction. The
electric field and magnetic field components are vertical to the
propagation direction. Therefore, it is called “transverse
electromagnetic wave” or TEM for short.
Page 22 Page 22
• What is digital microwave communication? Digital microwave
communication is a way of transmitting digital information in
atmosphere on microwave or radio frequency (RF). It adopts
the digital modulation scheme. The baseband signal is
processed in the Intermediate Frequency (IF) unit. Then the
signal is converted into the microwave frequency band through
frequency conversion.
• What frequency bands are commonly used in digital
microwave communication?
• According to ITU-R Recommendations, the common frequency
bands include 7G/8G/11G/13G/15G/18G/23G/26G/32G/38G.
Higher or lower bands may also be employed along with the
development of technologies but the application is rare.
Different bands are applied to different fields.
Page 23 Page 23
• What concepts are involved in microwave frequency
setting?
• The concepts include central frequency,
transmit/receive spacing, channel spacing and
protection spacing.
• What are the frequently used modulation schemes?
Which are the most frequently-used?
• The frequently-used modulation modes are ASK, FSK,
PSK and QAM. The most frequently-used are PSK and
QAM.
Page 24 Page 24
Contents
4. Microwave Propagation and Anti-fading Technologies
Page 25 Page 25
Microwave Equipment Category
System Digital microwave Analog microwave

MUX/DEMUX
Mode PDH SDH
Small and medium Large capacity

Capacity capacity (2–16E1, 34M) (STM-0, STM-1, 2xSTM-1)
(Discontinued)
Trunk radio
Structure
Split-mount radio
All outdoor radio
Page 26 Page 26
Trunk Microwave Equipment
• High cost, large BRU: Branch RF Unit

transmission capacity,
more stable performance, MSTU: Main Signal
Transmission Unit (transceiver,
applicable to long haul and P modem, SDH electrical
trunk transmission interface, hitless switching)
M1
M2
• RF, IF, signal processing, SCSU: Supervision, Control and
and MUX/DEMUX units … Switching Unit
are all indoor. Only the
antenna system is outdoor. BBIU: Baseband Interface Unit
(option) (STM-1 optical
interface, C4 PDH interface)
SDH microwave equipment
Page 27 Page 27
All Outdoor Microwave Equipment
RF processing unit
• All the units are
outdoor. IF cable
• Installation is easy.
IF and baseband processing
• The equipment room unit
can be saved.
Service and power cable
All outdoor microwave equipment
Page 28 Page 28
Split-Mount Microwave Equipment (1)
The RF unit is an outdoor unit (ODU). The IF,
signal processing, and MUX/DEMUX units are Antenna
integrated in the indoor unit (IDU). The ODU
IF cable
and IDU are connected through an IF cable.
ODU
The ODU can either be directly mounted onto (Outdoor Unit)
the antenna or connected to the antenna
through a short soft waveguide. IDU
(Indoor Unit)
Although the capacity is smaller than the trunk,
due to the easy installation and maintenance,
fast network construction, it’s the most widely Split-mount microwave equipment
used microwave equipment.
Page 29 Page 29
Split-Mount Microwave Equipment (2)
Unit Functions
Antenna: Focuses the RF signals transmitted by ODUs and increases the signal
gain.
ODU: RF processing, conversion of IF/RF signals.
IF cable: Transmitting of IF signal, management signal and power supply of
ODU.
IDU: Performs access, dispatch, multiplex/demultiplex, and
modulation/demodulation for services.
Page 30
Page 30
Split-Mount Microwave Equipment
– Installation
Separate Mount Direct Mount
antenna
(direct mount)
antenna
(separate mount) ODU
Soft waveguide
ODU IF cable IF cable
中频口
IDU IF port
IDU IF port
Page 31
Page 31
Microwave Antenna (1)
Parabolic antenna Cassegrainian antenna
Antennas are used to send and receive microwave signals.

Parabolic antennas and cassegrainian antennas are two common types of microwave antennas.
Microwave antenna diameters includes: 0.3m, 0.6m, 1.2m, 1.8m,2.0m, 2.4m, 3.0m, 3.2metc.
Page 32 Page 32
Microwave Antenna (2)
Different frequency channels in same frequency band can share one antenna.
Channel Channel
1 1
Tx
1 1
Rx
n n
Tx
n n
Rx
Page 33 Page 33
Antenna Adjustment (1)
Side lobe
Side view
Half-power angle Main lobe Tail lobe
Side lobe
Top view
Half-power angle Main lobe Tail lobe
Page 34 Page 34
During antenna adjustment, change the direction vertically or
horizontally. Meanwhile, use a multimeter to test the RSSI at the
receiving end. Usually, the voltage wave will be displayed as shown in
the lower right corner. The peak point of the voltage wave indicates
the main lobe position in the vertical or horizontal direction. Large-
scope adjustment is unnecessary. Perform fine adjustment on the
antenna to the peak voltage point.
AGC
When antennas are poorly aligned, a small voltage may be Voltage detection
detected in one direction. In this case, perform coarse adjustment on point
VAGC
the antennas at both ends, so that the antennas are roughly aligned.
The antennas at both ends that are well aligned face a little bit
Angle
upward. Though 1–2 dB is lost, reflection interference will be avoided. Side lobe position
Main lobe position
AGC=Automatic Gain Control
Page 35 Page 35
During antenna adjustment, the two wrong
adjustment cases are show here.
One antenna is aligned to another antenna
through the side lobe.
As a result, the RSSI cannot meet the
requirements.
RSSI=received signal strenght indicator

Wrong Wrong Correct
Page 36 Page 36
– Antenna (1)
• Antenna gain
– Definition: Ratio of the input power of an isotropic antenna Pio to the input
power of a parabolic antenna Pi when the electric field at a point is the same
for the isotropic antenna and the parabolic antenna.
2
– Calculating formula of antenna gain: G = io = P  πD 
  ∗η
Pi  λ 
• Half-power angle
– Usually, the given antenna specifications contain the gain in the largest
radiation (main lobe) direction, denoted by dBi. The half-power point, or the –
3 dB point is the point which is deviated from the central line of the main lobe
and where the power is decreased by half. The angle between the two half-
power points is called the half-power angle.
– Calculating formula of half-power angle: θ = (650 ~ 700 ) λ
0.5
D
Half-power angle
Page 37
– Antenna (2)
• Cross polarization discrimination
Suppression ratio of the antenna receiving heteropolarizing waves, usually,

larger than 30 dB.
– XdB＝10lgPo/Px
– Po: Receiving power of normal polarized wave
– Px: Receiving power of abnormal polarized wave
• Antenna protection ratio
– Attenuation degree of the receiving capability in a direction of an

antenna compared with that in the main lobe direction. An antenna
protection ratio of 180° is called front-to-back ratio.
Page 38
– ODU (1)
ODU system architecture
Uplink IF/RF conversion
IF
Frequency Sideband Power RF
amplificat
mixing filtering amplification attenuation
ion
Local
oscillation Power
ATPC
(Tx) detection
Local
oscillation RF loop
(Rx)
IF Frequency Low-noise Bandpass

Filtering
amplification mixing amplification filtering
Supervi
sion and
control Downlink RF/IF conversion
signal
Alarm and control
Page 39 Page 39
– ODU (2)
• Specifications of Transmitter
– Working frequency band

Generally, trunk radios use 6, 7, and 8 GHz frequency bands. 11, 13 GHz
and higher frequency bands are used in the access layer (e.g. BTS
access).
– Output power
The power at the output port of a transmitter. Generally, the output
power is 15 to 30 dBm.
Page 40
– ODU (3)
– Local frequency stability
If the working frequency of the transmitter is unstable, the demodulated
effectived signal ratio will be decreased and the bit error ratio will be
increased. The value range of the local frequency stability is 3 to 10 ppm.
– Transmit Frequency Spectrum Frame

The frequency spectrum of the transmitted signal must meet specified
requirements, to avoid occupying too much bandwidth and thus causing too
much interference to adjacent channels. The limitations to frequency
spectrum is called transmit frequency spectrum frame.
Page 41 Page 41
– ODU (4)
Specifications of Receiver
Working frequency band
Receivers work together with transmitters. The receiving frequency on the local
station is the transmitting frequency of the same channel on the opposite station.
Local frequency stability

The same as that of transmitters: 3 to 10 ppm
Noise figure
The noise figure of digital microwave receivers is 2.5 dB to 5 dB.
Page 42 Page 42
– ODU (5)
– Passband
To effectively suppress interference and achieve the best transmission quality,
the passband and amplitude frequency characteristics should be properly
chosen. The receiver passband characteristics depend on the IF filter.
– Selectivity
Ability of receivers of suppressing the various interferences outside the passband,
especially the interference from adjacent channels, image interference and
the interference between transmitted and received signals.
– Automatic gain control (AGC) range

Automatic control of receiver gain. With this function, input RF signals change
within a certain range and the IF signal level remains unchanges.
Page 43 Page 43
– ODU (6)
Frequency range (7425M–7725M)
f0(7575M)
T/R spacing: 154M ODUs are of rich types
and small volume.
Usually, ODUs are
Subband A Subband B Subband C Subband A Subband B Subband C produced by small
manufacturers and
integrated by big
manufacturers.
7442 7498
Non-primary station Primary station
ODU specifications are related to radio frequencies. As

Types of ODUs = Number of
one ODU cannot cover an entire frequency band, usually, a
frequency bands x Number of T/R
frequency band will be divided into several subbands and spacing x Number of subbands x 2
each subband corresponds to one ODU. (ODUs of some manufacturers are
Different T/R spacing corresponds to different ODUs. also classified by capacity.
Primary and non-primary stations have different ODUs.
Page 44
Page 44
– IDU
Service channel
IF unit
Tributary
unit Tx IF
Microwave frame
Modulation
multiplexing
Cross-
connectio
Cable interface
n
Rx IF From/to ODU
Microwave frame
Demodulati
demultiplexing
on
Line unit
Service channel
O&M
interface
Supervision and control
Power
interface
DC/DC conversion
Page 45 Page 45
Questions
What types are microwave equipment classified into?
What units do the split-mount microwave equipment have? And what are their functions??
How to adjust antennas?
What are the key specifications of antennas?
What are the key specifications of ODU transmitters and receivers?
Can you describe the entire signal flow of microwave transmission?
Page 46 Page 46
• What types are microwave equipment classified into?
Microwave equipment may be classified in different ways.
1. By system, it may fall into digital microwave equipment and analog
microwave equipment. At present, the latter is already washed out and
seldom used.
2. By capacity, it may fall into microwave equipment of small and medium
capacity and microwave equipment of large capacity. Small and medium
capacity refers to 2 – 16 E1s or 34M, and large capacity refers to STM-0,
STM-1 and 2 x STM-1.
3. By structure, it may fall into trunk microwave equipment, split-mount
microwave equipment and all outdoor microwave equipment.
Page 47 Page 47
• What units do the split-mount microwave equipment have? And what
are their functions?
The split-mount microwave equipment is composed of four parts: Antenna,
ODU, IF cable and IDU.
1. Antenna: Focuses the RF signals transmitted by ODUs and increases the
signal gain, thus enlarging the transmission distance.
2. ODU: Implements RF processing to realize IF/RF conversion of signals.
3. IF cable: Transmits IF signals and IDU/ODU communication signals and
also supplies power to ODUs.
4. IDU: Performs access, grooming, multiplexing/demultiplexing and
modulation/demodulation of services.
Page 48 Page 48
• How to adjust antennas?
The objective of antenna adjustment is to align the main lobe of the local antenna to
the main lobe of the opposite antenna.
• First fix the opposite antenna and then adjust the local antenna in the elevation or
leveling direction. During elevation or leveling adjustment, use a multimeter to
test RSSI at the receiving end and find at least three maximum values with the
middle value being the biggest. The peak point of the voltage wave indicates the
main lobe position in the elevation or leveling direction. Large-scope adjustment is
unnecessary. Perform fine adjustment on the antenna to the peak voltage point.
• The elevation and leveling adjustment methods are the same.
• When antennas are poorly aligned, only a small voltage may be detected in one
direction. In this case, perform coarse adjustment on the antennas at both ends,
so that the antennas are roughly aligned.
• The antennas at both ends that are well aligned will face a little bit upward.
Though 1–2 dB is lost, reflection interference will be avoided.
Page 49 Page 49
• What are the key specifications of antennas?
Antenna gain, half-power angle, cross polarization decoupling,
immunity, etc.
• What are the key specifications of ODU transmitters and
receivers?
Key specifications of transmitters: Operating frequency band,
output power, local oscillator frequency stability, transmit
frequency spectrum frame, etc.
Key specifications of receivers: Operating frequency band,
output power, local oscillator frequency stability, noise figure,
passband, selectivity, AGC range, etc.
Page 50 Page 50
Can you describe the entire signal flow of microwave
transmission?
We may take the process of microwave transmission from the
transmit end to the receive end to describe the signal flow of
microwave transmission:
• In the transmit end, the service access unit completes the
access of the digital baseband signal, then the signal forms
the microwave frame at the multiplexing unit, the microwave
frame signal is modulated at the modulation unit into the IF
signal, and the IF signal is sent to the ODU. After the ODU
implements frequency mixing of the IF signal with the local
transmit oscillator, the IF signal enters the sideband filter to
become the RF signal. The converted RF signal is then
amplified via the power amplifier and finally sent out via the
antenna.
Page 51 Page 51
• In the receive end, the antenna transmits the RF signal upon receipt
of it to the ODU. The ODU first implements filtering to filter out
some interference signals and then implements low-noise pre
amplification to improve the level of the received weak RF signal.
The amplified signal undergoes frequency mixing with the local
receive oscillator, and is then filtered to become the IF signal. The IF
signal is then amplified and sent to the IDU. The IDU first
demodulates the IF signal to get the digital baseband signal. Till
now, the signal is still a complete microwave frame structure. The
digital baseband signal is then sent to the multiplexing unit, where
overheads and service signals are separated. The overheads are
sent to the control unit and the service signals are sent to the cross-
connect unit for service dispatching.
Page 52 Page 52
Summary
• Classification of digital microwave equipment

• Components of split-mount microwave equipment and
their functions
• Antenna installation and key specifications of antennas
• Functional modules and key performance indexes of ODU
• Functional modules of IDU
• Signal flow of microwave transmission
Page 53
Contents

Technologies
Page 54 Page 54
Common Networking Modes of
Digital Microwave
Ring network Chain network
Add/Drop
network
Hub network
Page 55 Page 55
Types of Digital Microwave Stations
• Digital microwave stations are classified into Pivotal stations, add/drop relay
stations, relay stations and terminal stations.
Relay station Add/Drop

relay station
Terminal station
Pivotal station Terminal station
Terminal station
Page 56 Page 56
Terminal station: It refers to the microwave station that transmits services
only in one direction.
Relay station: It refers to the microwave station that transmits services in two
directions and is required added to solve the problem existing in the microwave
line of sight communication. The relay station is classified into two types,
active relay station and passive relay station.
Add/Drop relay station: It refers to the microwave station that transmits
services in two directions and adds/drops transmitted services.
Pivotal station: It refers to the microwave station that transmits services in
three or more than three directions and transfers the services in transmission
channels in different directions. It is also called the HUB station.
Page 57 Page 57
Types of Relay Stations
• Back-to-back antenna
Passive
• Plane reflector
Relay station
• Regenerative repeater
Active • IF repeater
• RF repeater
Page 58 Page 58
Active Relay Station
Radio Frequency relay station
An active, bi-directional radio repeater system without frequency shift. The RF relay
station directly amplifies the signal over radio frequency.
Regenerator relay station
A high-frequency repeater of high performance. The regenerator relay station is used to
extend the transmission distance of microwave communication systems, or to deflect the
transmission direction of the signal to avoid obstructions and ensure the signal quality is not
degraded. After complete regeneration and amplification, the received signal is forwarded.
Page 59 Page 59
Passive Relay Station
Parabolic reflector passive relay station
The parabolic reflector passive relay station is composed of two parabolic antennas connected
by a soft waveguide back to back.
The two-parabolic passive relay station often uses large-diameter antennas. Meters are
necessary to adjust antennas, which is time consuming.
The near end is less than 5 km away.
Page 60 Page 60
Plane Reflector Passive Relay Station
Plane reflector passive relay station: A metal board which has smooth surface, proper
effective area, proper angle and distance with the two communication points. It is also a
passive relay microwave station.
Full-distance free space loss:

d1(km)
Ls = 1421
. + 20log d1d2 − 20log a ϕ
d 2(km)
a = A cosϕ 2
“a” is the effective area (m2) of the flat reflector.
Page 61 Page 61
Passive Relay Station (Photos)
Passive relay station Passive relay station

(plane reflector) (parabolic reflectors)
Page 62 Page 62
Application of Digital Microwave
Complementary networks to
optical networks (access the
services from the last 1 km)
Special transmission
BTS backhaul
conditions (rivers, lakes,
transmission
islands, etc.)
Microwave application
Emergency communications
Redundancy backup of (conventions, activities,
important links danger elimination, disaster
relief, etc.)
VIP customer access
Page 63 Page 63
Questions
What are the networking modes frequently used for digital microwave?
What are the types of digital microwave stations?
What are the types of relay stations?
What is the major application of digital microwave?
Page 64 Page 64
Contents
Page 65 Page 65
Contents

Technologies
– 4.1 Factors Affecting Electric Wave Propagation
– 4.2 Various Fading in Microwave Propagation
– 4.3 Anti-fading Technologies for Digital Microwave
Page 66 Page 66
Key Parameters in Microwave Propagation (1)
Fresnel Zone and Fresnel Zone Radius
Fresnel zone: The sum of the distance from P to T and the distance from P to R complies with
the formula, TP+PR-TR= nλ/2 (n=1,2,3, …). The elliptical region encircled by the trail of P is
called the Fresnel zone.
T O R
F 1
P
d 1 d 2
Fresnel zone radius: The vertical distance from P to the TR line in the Fresnel zone. The first
Fresnel zone radius is represented by F1 (n=1).
Page 67
Key Parameters in
Microwave Propagation (2)
d 1 ( km) × d 2 (km)
Formula of the first Fresnel zone radius: F1 = 17.32
f (GHz ) × d (km)
The first Fresnel zone is the region where the microwave transmission energy is the most
concentrated. The obstruction in the Fresnel zone should be as little as possible. With the
increase of the Fresnel zone serial numbers, the field strength of the receiving point reduces as per
arithmetic series.
Page 68 Page 68
Key Parameters in Microwave Propagation (3)
Clearance
A
M F
h3
hc B
h1 hp
hs
h5
h2
h4 h6
d1 d2
d
Along the microwave propagation trail, the obstruction from buildings, trees, and mountain
peaks is sometimes inevitable. If the height of the obstacle enters the first Fresnel zone,
additional loss might be caused. As a result, the received level is decreased and the transmission
quality is affected. Clearance is used to avoid the case described previously.
Page 69 Page 69
The vertical distance from the obstacle to AB line segment is called the
clearance of the obstacle on the trail. For convenience, the vertical
distance hc from the obstacle to the ground surface is used to represent
the clearance. In practice, the error is not big because the line segment
AB is approximately parallel to the ground surface. If the first Fresnel
zone radius of the obstacle is F1, then hc/ F1 is the relative clearance.
Page 70
Factors Affecting Electric Wave Propagation
– Terrain
The reflected wave from the ground surface is the major factor that affects
the received level.
Straight line
Straight line
Reflection Reflection
Smooth ground or water surface can reflect the part of the signal energy transmitted by the antenna
to the receiving antenna and cause interference to the main wave (direct wave). The vector sum of the
reflected wave and main wave increases or decreases the composite wave. As a result, the transmission
becomes unstable. Therefore, when doing microwave link design, avoid reflected waves as much as
possible. If reflection is inevitable, make use of the terrain ups and downs to block the reflected waves.
Page 71 Page 71
Factors Affecting Electric Wave Propagation
– Terrain
Different reflection conditions of different terrains have different effects on electric
wave propagation. Terrains are classified into the following four types:
Type A: mountains (or cities with dense buildings)

Type B: hills (gently wavy ground surface)
Type C: plain
Type D: large-area water surface
The reflection coefficient of mountains is the smallest, and thus the mountain
terrain is most suitable for microwave transmission. The hill terrain is less suitable.
When designing circuits, try to avoid smooth plane such as water surface.
Page 72
Factors Affecting Electric Wave Propagation –
Atmosphere
Troposphere indicates the low altitude atmosphere within 10 km from the ground. Microwave
antennas will not be higher than troposphere, so the electric wave propagation in aerosphere can be
narrowed down to that in troposphere. Main effects of troposphere on electric wave propagation are
listed below:
Absorption caused by gas resonance.
This type of absorption can affect the microwave at 12 GHz or higher.
Absorption and scattering caused by rain, fog, and snow.
This type of absorption can affect the microwave at 10 GHz or higher.
Refraction, absorption, reflection and scattering caused by in homogeneity of atmosphere.

Refraction is the most significant impact to the microwave propagation.
Page 73 Page 73
Contents

Technologies
Page 74 Page 74
Contents

Technologies

– 4.3 Anti-fading Technologies for Digital Microwave
Page 75 Page 75
Fading in Microwave Propagation
Fading: Random variation of the received level. The variation is irregular and the reasons for
this are various.
Received level Influence of fading on

Fading mechanism Fading time signal
Frequency selective fading

Scintillation fading
Free space propagation fading
Down fading
K-type fading
Slow fading
Fast fading
Rain fading
Absorption fading
Up fading
Flat fading
Duct type fading
Page 76 Page 76
Free Space Transmission Loss
Free space loss: A = 92.4 + 20 log d + 20 log f
(d:
d: km, f: GHz). If d or f is doubled, the loss will increase by 6 dB.
d
PTX = Transmit power
GTX GRX
PRX = Receive power
G = Antenna gain
f
Power level A0 = Free space loss
G M = Fading margin
PTX A0
PRX
G
M
Receiving threshold
Distance
Page 77 Page 77
Absorption Fading
Molecules of all substances are composed of charged particles. These particles have their own
electromagnetic resonant frequencies. When the microwave frequencies of these substances are close to
their resonance frequencies, resonance absorption occurs to the microwave.
Statistic shows that absorption to the microwave frequency lower than 12 GHz is smaller than 0.1
dB/km. Compared with free space loss, the absorption loss can be ignored.
10dB
1dB
0.1dB
0.01dB
60GHz 23GHz 12GHz 7.5GHz 1GHz
Atmosphere absorption curve (dB/km)
Page 78 Page 78
Rain Fading
For frequencies lower than 10 GHz, rain loss can be ignored. Only a few db
may be added to a relay section.
For frequencies higher than 10 GHz, repeater spacing is mainly affected by
rain loss. For example, for the 13 GHz frequency or higher, 100 mm/h rainfall
causes a loss of 5 dB/km. Hence, for the 13 GHz and 15 GHz frequencies, the
maximum relay distance is about 10 km. For the 20 GHz frequency and higher,
the relay distance is limited in few kilometres due to rain loss.
High frequency bands can be used for user-level transmission. The higher the
frequency band is, the more severe the rain fading.
Page 79 Page 79
K-Type Fading (1)
Atmosphere refraction
As a result of atmosphere refraction, the microwave propagation trail is bent. It is considered
that the electromagnetic wave is propagated along a straight line above the earth with an equivalent
earth radius of Re, Re = K * R (R: actual earth radius.)
The average measured K value is about 4/3. However, the K value of a specific section is
related to the meteorological phenomena of the section. The K value may change within a
comparatively large range. This can affect line-of-sight propagation.
Re R
Page 80
What is the earth radius? In microwave, the earth radius used is 6370
km. The circumference of earth is over 40,000 km.
For the purpose of calculation, the concept of equivalent earth radius
is used. Electromagnetic wave is considered as a straight line. The
actual earth radius “R" is equivalent to “Re". The basic principle is
that the clearance between the radial and the ground remains the
same.
Page 81 Page 81
K-Type Fading (2)
• Microwave propagation
k > 1: Positive refraction
k = 1: No refraction
k < 1: Negative refraction
Page 82 Page 82
K-Type Fading (3)
Equivalent earth radius
In temperate zones, the refraction when the K value is 4/3 is regarded as the
standard refraction, where the atmosphere is the standard atmosphere and Re which is
4R/3 is the standard equivalent earth radius.
k=∞
4/3
1
2/3
Ground surface
Actual earth radius (r)
2/3 Ground surface

1
4/3
k=∞
Equivalent earth radius (r·k)
Page 83 Page 83
Multipath Fading (1)
Multipath fading: Due to multipath propagation of refracted waves, reflected waves, and scattered
waves, multiple electric waves are received at the receiving end. The composition of these electric
waves will result in severe interference fading.
Reasons for multipath fading: reflections due to non-uniform atmosphere, water surface and
smooth ground surface.
Down fading: fading where the composite wave level is lower than the free space received level.
Up fading: fading where the composite wave level is higher than the free space received level.
Non-uniform atmosphere
Water surface
Ground surface
Smooth ground surface.
Page 84 Page 84
Multipath Fading (2)
• Multipath fading is a type of interference fading caused by multipath

transmission. Multipath fading is caused by mutual interference between the
direct wave and reflected wave (or diffracted wave on some conditions) with
different phases.
• Multipath fading grows more severe when the wave passes water surface or
smooth ground surface. Therefore, when designing the route, try to avoid
smooth water and ground surface. When these terrains are inevitable, use the
high and low antenna technologies to bring the reflection point closer to one
end so as to reduce the impact of the reflected wave, or use the high and low
antennas and space diversity technologies or the antennas that are against
reflected waves to overcome multipath fading.
Page 85 Page 85
Multipath Fading
– Frequency Selective Fading
(dBm)
Received power (dBm Flat Selective fading
Normal
Frequency (MHz)
Page 86 Page 86
Multipath Fading – Flat Fading
Up fading
Received level
in free space
Threshold level
(-30 dB)
1h
Signal interruption
Page 87 Page 87
Duct Type Fading
Due to the effects of the meteorological conditions such as ground cooling in the night, burnt warm by
the sun in the morning, smooth sea surface, and anticyclone, a non-uniform structure is formed in
atmosphere. This phenomenon is called atmospheric duct.
If microwave beams pass through the atmospheric duct while the receiving point is outside the duct
layer, the field strength at the receiving point is from not only the direct wave and ground reflected
wave, but also the reflected wave from the edge of the duct layer. As a result, severe interference fading
occurs and causes interruption to the communications.
Duct type fading
Page 88 Page 88
Scintillation Fading
When the dielectric constant of local atmosphere is different from the ambient due to the particle
clusters formed under different pressure, temperature, and humidity conditions, scattering occurs to
the electric wave. This is called scintillation fading. The amplitude and phase of different scattered
waves vary with the atmosphere. As a result, the composite field strength at the receiving point
changes randomly.
Scintillation fading is a type of fast fading which lasts a short time. The level changes little and the
main wave is barely affected. Scintillation fading will not cause communications interruption.
Scintillation
闪烁衰 fading
落示意图
Page 89 Page 89
Summary
The higher the frequency is and the longer the hop distance is, the more severe the fading is.
Fading is more severe at night than in the daylight, in summer than in winter. In the daylight,
sunshine is good for air convection. In summer, weather changes frequently.
In sunny days without wind, atmosphere is non-uniform and atmosphere subdivision easily
forms and hardly clears. Multipath transmission often occurs in such conditions.
Fading is more severe along water route than land route, because both the reflection
coefficient of water surface and the atmosphere refraction coefficient above water surface
are bigger.
Fading is more severe along plain route than mountain route, because atmosphere
subdivision often occurs over plain and the ground reflection factor of the plain is bigger.
Rain and fog weather causes much influence on high-frequency microwave.
Page 90
Page 90
Contents

Technologies
– 4.3 Anti-fading Technologies for Digital
Microwave
Page 91 Page 91
Anti-fading Technologies
for Digital Microwave System (1)
Category Effect
Adaptive equalization Waveform distortion
Automatic transmit power

Equipment level Power reduction
control (ATPC)
countermeasure
Forward error correction (FEC) Power reduction
System level Power reduction and

Diversity receiving technology
countermeasure waveform distortion
Page 92 Page 92
Frequency domain equalization
Multipath fading
Signal frequency Slope equalization Frequency spectrum
spectrum after equalization
The frequency domain equalization only equalizes the amplitude frequency response
characteristics of the signal instead of the phase frequency spectrum characteristics.
The circuit is simple.
Page 93 Page 93
Time domain equalization
Time domain equalization directly counteracts the
intersymbol interference.
T … T … T
C-n C0 Cn
Before After
-2Ts -Ts Ts Ts
-2Ts -Ts
Page 94 Page 94
• Automatic transmit power control (ATPC)
Under normal propagation conditions, the output power of the transmitter is
always at a lower level, for example, 10 to 15 dB lower than the normal level.
When propagation fading occurs and the receiver detects that the propagation
fading is lower than the minimum received level specified by ATPC, the RFCOH is
used to let the transmitter to raise the transmit power.
• Working principle of ATPC
Modulator Transmitter Receiver Demodulator
ATPC ATPC
Demodulator Receiver Transmitter Modulator
Page 95 Page 95
• ATPC: The output power of the transmitter automatically traces and changes with the
received level of the receiver within the control range of ATPC.
• The time rate of severe propagation fading is usually small (<1%). After ATPC is configured,
the transmitter works at a power 10 to 15 dB lower than the nominal power for over 99%
of the time. In this way, adjacent channel interference and power consumption can be
reduced.
• Effects of ATPC:
Reduces the interference to adjacent systems and Reduces up fading

over-reach interference
Improves residual BER
Reduces DC power consumption
Page 96 Page 96
• ATPC adjustment process (gradual change)
Transmitter output level (dBm)

Received level (dBm)
-25
High level
-35 31
-45 Low level

21
-55
ATPC dynamic range

-72
45 75 85 102
Link loss (dB)
Page 97 Page 97
Cross-polarization interference cancellation (XPIC) 680MHz
30MHz
340 MHz
In microwave transmission, XPIC is used to 80MHz 60MHz
transmit two different signals over one frequency. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 1’ 2’ 3’ 4’ 5’ 6’ 7’ 8’

V (H)
The utilization ratio of the frequency spectrum is
doubled. To avoid severe interference between two
H (V)
different polarized signals, the interference
compensation technology must be used. 680 MHz
30MHz 340MHz
80MHz 60MHz
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 1’ 2’ 3’ 4’ 5’ 6’ 7’ 8’
Electric field direction
V (H)
Horizontal
H (V)
polarization
1X 2X 3X 4X 5X 6X 7X 8X 1X’ 2X’ 3X' 4X’ 5X’ 6X’ 7X’ 8X’
Vertical polarization Frequency configuration of U6 GHz frequency band (ITU-R F.384-5)
Shape of waveguide interface
Page 98 Page 98
• Diversity technologies
For diversity, two or multiple transmission paths are used to transmit the same information and
the receiver output signals are selected or composed, to reduce the effect of fading.
Diversity has the following types, space diversity, frequency diversity, polarization diversity, and
angle diversity.
Space diversity and frequency diversity are more frequently used. Space diversity is economical
and has a good effect. Frequency diversity is often applied to multi-channel systems as it requires a
wide bandwidth. Usually, the system that has one standby channel is configured with frequency
diversity.
f1
H
f2
Space diversity (SD) Frequency diversity (FD)

Page 99 Page 99
Frequency diversity
Signals at different frequencies have different fading characteristics. Accordingly, two or more
microwave frequencies with certain frequency spacing to transmit and receive the same information
which is then selected or composed, to reduce the influence of fading. This work mode is called
frequency diversity.
Advantages: The effect is obvious. Only one antenna is required.
Disadvantages: The utilization ratio of frequency bands is low.
f1
f2
Page 100 Page 100

Space diversity
Signals have different multipath effect over different paths and thus have different fading characteristics.
Accordingly, two or more suites of antennas at different altitude levels to receive the signals at the same
frequency which are composed or selected. This work mode is called space diversity. If there are n pairs of
antennas, it is called n-fold diversity.
Advantages: The frequency resources are saved.
Disadvantages: The equipment is complicated, as two or more suites of antennas are required.
Antenna distance: As per experience, the distance between the diversity antennas is 100 to 200 times the
wavelength in frequently used frequency bands.
f1
Page 101 Page 101

Dh calculation in space diversity Rx
Tx
Dh
h1
d
Approximately, Dh can be calculated according to this formula:
l: wavelength
(nl＋l/2)d
Dh =
d: path distance 2h1
h1: height of the antenna at the transmit end
Page 102 Page 102

Apart from the anti-fading technologies introduced previously, here are two frequently used tips:
Method I: Make use of some terrain and ground objects to block reflected waves.
Page 103 Page 103

Method II: high and low antennas
Page 104 Page 104

Protection Modes of
Digital Microwave Equipment (1)
Hybrid coupler
With one hybrid coupler added between two ODUs The 1+1 HSB can also be realized in the
and the antenna, the 1+1 HSB can be realized in the configuration of two antennas. In this case, the
configuration of one antenna. Moreover, the FD FD and SD technologies can both be adopted,
technology can also be adopted. which improves the system availability.
Page 105 Page 105

Protection Modes of
N+1 (N≤3, 7, 11) Protection
In the following figure, Mn stands for the active channel and P stands for the standby channel. The
active channel and the standby channel have their independent modulation/demodulation unit and
signal transmitting /receiving unit.
When the fault or fading occurs in the active channel, the signal is switched to the standby channel.
The channel backup is an inter-frequency backup. This protection mode (FD) is mainly used in the all
indoor microwave equipment.
Products of different vendors support different specifications.
ch1 M1 M1 ch1
ch2 M2 M2 ch2
ch3 M3 M3 ch3
chP P P chP
Switching control Switching control
unit RFSOH unit
Page 106 Page 106

Protection Modes of
Configuration Protection Mode Remarks Application
1+0 NP Non-protection Terminal of the network
1+1 FD Channel protection Inter-

Select the proper mode
frequency
depending on the
1+1 SD Equipment protection Intra- geographical condition
and channel protection frequency and requirements of the
customer
1+1 FD+SD Equipment protection Inter-
and channel protection frequency
N+1 FD Equipment protection Inter- Large-capacity backbone
and channel protection frequency network
Page 107
Page 107
Questions
What factors can affect the microwave propagation?
What types of fading exists in the microwave propagation?
What are the two categories is the anti-fading technology?
What protection modes are available for the microwave?
Page 108 Page 108

Summary
• Importance parameters affecting microwave propagation
• Various factors affecting microwave propagation
• Various fading types in the microwave propagation (free space propagation

fading, atmospheric absorption fading, rain or fog scattering fading, K type
fading, multipath fading, duct type fading, and scintillation type fading)
• Anti-fading technologies
• Anti-fading measures adopted on the equipment: adaptive equalization, ATPC,

and XPIC
• Anti-fading measures adopted in the system: FD and SD
• Protection modes of the microwave equipment
Page 109 Page 109

Contents
Page 110 Page 110

Contents

– 5.1 Basis of Designing a Microwave Transmission
Line
– 5.2 Procedures for Designing a Microwave
Transmission Line
Page 111 Page 111

Basis of Designing a Microwave Transmission Line
Requirement on the point-to-point line-of-sight communication
Objective of designing a microwave transmission line
Transmission clearance
Meanings of K value in the microwave transmission planning
Page 112 Page 112

Requirement on a Microwave Transmission Line
Because the microwave is a short wave and has weak ability of diffraction, the
normal communication can be realized in the line-of-sight transmission without
obstacles.
Line propagation Irradiated wave

Antenna
Page 113 Page 113

Requirement on a Microwave Transmission Line
In the microwave transmission, the transmit power is very small, only the
antenna in the accurate direction can realize the communication. For the
communication of long distance, use the antenna of greater diameter or increase
the transmit power.
Direction demonstration of the microwave antenna
Microwave antenna
Half power angle of the microwave antenna

3 dB
Page 114
Page 114
Objective of Designing a Microwave Transmission
Line
In common geographical conditions, it is recommended that there be no obstacles within the
first Fresnel zone if K is equal to 4/3.
When the microwave transmission line passes the water surface or the desert area, it is
recommended that there are no obstacles within the first Fresnel zone if K is equal to 1.
The first Fresnel zone
k = 4/3
Page 115 Page 115

Transmission Clearance (1)
The knife-edged obstacle blocks partial of the Fresnel zone. This also causes the
diffraction of the microwave. Influenced by the two reasons, the level at the actual
receive point must be lower than the free space level. The loss caused by the knife-
edged obstacle is called additional loss.
Page 116 Page 116

When the peak of the obstacle is in the
8
line connecting the transmit end and the 6
receive end, that is, the HC is equal to 0, the 4
2
additional loss is equal to 6 dB. 0
-2
When the peak of the obstacle is above -4
Additional loss (dB)

the line connecting the transmit end and the -6
-8
receive end, the additional loss is increased -10
-12
greatly. -14
-16
When the peak of the obstacle is below -18
-20
the line connecting the transmit end the -22
receive end, the additional loss fluctuates -24
-26
around 0 dB. The transmission loss in the -28
path and the signal receiving level approach -2.5 -2.0 -1.5 -1.0 -0.5 0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 HC/F1
the values in the free space transmission. Loss caused by block of knife-edged obstacle
Page 117 Page 117
Clearance calculation
h1d 2 + h2 d1
Calculation formula for path clearance hc = − hb − hs
d
The value of clearance is required greater
than that of the first Fresnel Zone’s radius.
hc
hb stands for the projecting height of the h2

earth. hs
h1
d1 hb d2
d
d 1d 2
hb = 0 .0785
K
K stands for the atmosphere refraction factor.
Page 118 Page 118

To present the influence of various factors on microwave transmission, the field strength fading
factor V is introduced. The field strength fading factor V is defined as the ratio of the combined field
strength when the irradiated wave and the reflected wave arrive at the receive point to the field
strength when the irradiated wave arrives at the receive point in the free space transmission.
E 2
 h 
2

V = = 1 + ϕ − 2 ϕ cos π  ce  
E0   F1  
E : Combined field strength when the irradiated wave and reflected wave arrive at the receive point
E0 Field strength when the irradiated wave arrives at the received point in the free space transmission
ϕ : Equivalent ground reflection factor
Page 119 Page 119

The relation of the V and ϕ can be
represented by the curve in the figure on the
right. V（dB）
10
In the case that Φ is equal to 1, with the
5
influence of the earth considered, HC/F1 is
0
equal to 0.577 when the signal receiving level -5
is equal to the free space level the first time. φ＝0.2
-10
In the case that Φ is smaller than 1, HC/F1 φ＝0.5
-15
is approximately equal to 0.6 when the signal φ＝0.8
-20
receiving level is equal to the free space level -25
φ＝1
the first time. -30
When the HC/F1 is equal to 0.577, the -35
clearance is called the free space clearance, -40
represented by H0 and expressed in the 1 .0 4
HC/F1=N
1 .3 4
1 .4 1
1 .5 3
1 .7 6
1 .9 6
2 .0 3
2 .1 1
2 .2 0
2 .3 6
2 .4 9
2 .5 6
2 .6 4
2 .7 6
2 .8 8
3 .0 5
2
0 .6
following formula:
H0 = 0.577F 1 = (λd1d2/d)1/2 Relation curve of V and Hc/F1
Page 120 Page 120

Meaning of K Value in Microwave Transmission Planning (1)
• To make the clearance cost-effective and reasonable in the
engineering, the height of the antenna should be adjusted
according to the following requirements.
– In the case that Φ is not greater than 0.5, that is, for the circuit
that passes the area of small ground reflection factor like the
mountainous area, city, and hilly area, to avoid over great
diffraction, the height of the antenna should be adjusted
according to the following requirements:
When K = 2/3, HC ≥ 0.3F1 (for common obstacles)
HC ≥ 0 (for knife-shaped obstacles)
– The diffraction fading should not be greater than 8 dB in this
case.
Page 121 Page 121

Meaning of K Value in Microwave Transmission
Planning (2)
In the case that Φ is greater than 0.7, that is, for the circuit that passes the area
of great ground reflection factor like the plain area and water reticulation area, to
avoid over great reflection fading, the height of the antenna should be adjusted
according to the following requirements
When K = 2/3, HC ≥ 0.3F1 (for common obstacles)
HC ≥ 0 (for knife-edged obstacles)
When K = 4/3, HC ≈ F1
When K = ∞, HC ≤ 1.35F1 (The deep fading occurs when HC = 21/2 F1.)
If these requirements cannot be met, change the height of the antenna or the
route.
Page 122 Page 122

Procedure for Designing a Microwave Transmission Line
Step 1 Determine the route according to the engineering map.
Step 2 Select the site of the microwave station.
Step 3 Draw the cross-sectional chart of the terrain.
Step 4 Calculate the parameters for site construction.
Page 123 Page 123

Procedure for Designing a Microwave Transmission
Line (1)
Step 1 Determine the route according to engineering map.
We should select the area that rolls as much as possible, such as the hilly area. We
should avoid passing the water surface and the flat and wide area that is not suitable
for the transmission of the electric wave. In this way, the strong reflection signal and
the accordingly caused deep fading can be avoided.
The line should avoid crossing through or penetrating into the mountainous area.
The line should go along with the railway, road and other areas with the convenient
transportation.
Page 124
Page 124
Line (2)
Step 2 Select the site of the microwave station.
The distance between two sites should not be too long. The distance between two
relay stations should be equal, and each relay section should have the proper clearance.
Select the Z route to avoid the over-reach interference.
Avoid the interference from other radio services, such as the satellite communication
system, radar site, TV station, and broadcast station.
f1 f1 f1
f2 f2 f2
The signal from the first
microwave station interferes
Over-reach interference with the signal of the same
frequency from the third
microwave station.
Page 125 Page 125

Procedure for Designing a Microwave Transmission Line (3)
Step 3 Draw the cross-sectional chart of the terrain.
Draw the cross-sectional chart of the terrain based on the data of each site.
Calculate the antenna height and transmission situation of each site. For the line that
has strong reflection, adjust the mounting height of the antenna to block the reflected
wave, or have the reflection point fall on the earth surface with small reflection factor.
Consider the path clearance. The clearance in the plain area should not be over great,
and that in the mountainous area should not be over small.
Page 126 Page 126

Line (4)
Step 4 Calculate the parameters for site construction.
Calculate the terrain parameters when the route and the site are already determined.
Calculate the azimuth and the elevation angles of the antenna, distance between
sites, free space transmission loss and receive level, rain fading index, line
interruption probability, and allocated values and margin of the line index.
When the margin of the line index is eligible, plan the equipment and frequencies,
make the approximate budget, and deliver the construction chart.
There is special network planning

Input software, and the commonly used is
CTE Pathloss.
Input
Page 127 Page 127

There is special network
Input
planning software, and the
commonly used is CTE
Pathloss.
Input
Page 128 Page 128

Questions
What are the requirements for microwave communication?
What is the goal of microwave design?
What extra factors should be taken into consideration for microwave planning?
Can you tell the procedure for designing a microwave transmission line?
Page 129 Page 129

Equipments availability calculation
A microwave link can become unavailable for a number of reasons, but
this calculation includes only predictable equipment failures. Therefore, it
excludes problems caused by misaligned or failed antenna feeder systems,
extended loss of primary power, path propagation outages, human error,
and other catastrophic events.
• Short-term (<10 sec) propagation outages are applied to the performance
(not availability) objective and will not be used here.
• It is important to define the terms and parameters used in equipment
availability calculations as follows:
A=100(1-U) (%)
A = availability (percentage of time, percent)
U = unavailability (percentage of time, percent)
Page 130 Page 130

• For n pieces of equipment connected in series
U = U1 + U2 + … + Un
• For two pieces of equipment connected in parallel,
U = U1*U2
U=1-MTBF/(MTBF+MTRF)
U=MTRF/(MTBF+MTRF)
MTBF = mean time between failure (MTBF = 109^9/FITS)

FITS = failures in time (in 10^9 hrs)
where
MTTR = mean time to repair
RT = repair time on site
MTTR = RT + TT + (1 – P)TR TT = travel time to the site
P = probability that a spare module is available when needed
TR = time to obtain the spare module (assume 24 hrs)
Page 131 Page 131
• FITS (failures in time) is an internationally used unit for measuring or
specifying failure rates. Because individual components or subsystems are
generally highly reliable in their own right, the convention has arisen of
using a period of 10^9 hrs (114,155 yrs) as a time unit or time scale on
which to quantify failure rates (or conversely MTTFs); a failure rate of one
failure in 10^9 hrs equals 1 FIT.
N+1 Protection
In telecommunications, N+1 is a commonly applied protection
method, either for equipment and/or path protection. Here, one channel
protects multiple N channels. If the unavailability of the unprotected
channels equals U, the unavailability of one protected channel is equal
to:
Page 132 Page 132

This calculation assumes that the MTBF is the same for all radios, failures occur
independently, and the multiline switching is perfect. In practice, the switching is
not perfect and will contribute to the equipment outage.
Additionally, secondary (low priority) information can be carried by standby
channel(s) when they are not required to protect the main information streams.
Page 133 Page 133

Example:
• The typical protected MW terminal (1 + 1) has MTBF of 2,200,000 hrs; it
takes 0.5 hrs to do the actual repair at the remote site, and the travel time
is 3 hrs. With good maintenance practice and spare parts available, we can
assume P = 95 % (or 0.95). Let us calculate unavailability of four MW hops
connected in tandem (daisy-chain).
• MTTR = 0.5 + 3 + (1 – 0.95)24 = 4.5 hr
• Microwave hop (excluding all other equipment) has two terminals in
series, so the unavailability is
For the four-hop system, total unavailability is

UTOT = 4 × 0.000004091 = 0.000016364
Total availability is ATotal=100(1-UTOT) =100(1-0.00001636499)=0.99984%
Total unavailability of the microwave link can then be calculated as a sum of the equipment unavailability and
the unavailability due to the propagation issues (rain), i.e., path unavailability.
Page 134 Page 134
Linear (Daisy-chain or tandem) Topology
UTOT = U6 + U7 + U8 + U9 + U10
UTOT = U + 2U + 3U + 4U + 5U = 15U
UBTS = 15U/5 = 3U (per BTS)
Page 135 Page 135
END
Page 136 Page 136

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2016/9/9

• Microwave communication is developed on the basis of the

– Network communications technology basics

• After this course, you will be able to explain:

1. Digital Microwave Communication Overview

2. Digital Microwave Communication Equipment

3. Digital Microwave Networking and Application

4. Microwave Propagation and Anti-fading

5. Designing Microwave Transmission Links

Optical fiber communication

Transmission quality greatly affected by Stable and reliable transmission quality

Limited transmission capacity Large transmission capacity

According to the characteristics of microwave propagation, microwave can be considered as plane

480 voice Analog microwave

1970s Small capacity: < 10M

1.5 GHz 2.5 GHz

3.3 GHz Long haul trunk 11 GHz

Channel Adjacent Channel

f1=7442 f2=7470 f5 f1’=7596 f2’ f5’

Baseband signal rate

Digital baseband signal IF signal

A*COS(Wc*t+φ) PSK and QAM are

15.552 Mbit/s STM-1 155.52 Mbit/s

RFCOH SOH Payload

MLCM DMY XPIC ATPC WS RSC INI ID FA

RFCOH: Radio Frame Complementary Overhead

FS Basic frame 1 FS Basic frame 2

12 bits (the 1st word) 12 bits (the 148th word)

What is digital microwave communication?

What are the frequently used digital microwave frequency bands?

What concepts are involved in microwave frequency setting?

1. Digital Microwave Communication Overview

2. Digital Microwave Communication Equipment

3. Digital Microwave Networking and Application

4. Microwave Propagation and Anti-fading Technologies

5. Designing Microwave Transmission Links

System Digital microwave Analog microwave

Small and medium Large capacity

All outdoor radio

• High cost, large BRU: Branch RF Unit

All outdoor microwave equipment

ODU IF cable IF cable

Parabolic antenna Cassegrainian antenna

Antennas are used to send and receive microwave signals.

Half-power angle Main lobe Tail lobe

During antenna adjustment, the two wrong

adjustment cases are show here.

One antenna is aligned to another antenna

through the side lobe.

As a result, the RSSI cannot meet the

RSSI=received signal strenght indicator

Suppression ratio of the antenna receiving heteropolarizing waves, usually,

– Po: Receiving power of normal polarized wave

– Px: Receiving power of abnormal polarized wave

• Antenna protection ratio

– Attenuation degree of the receiving capability in a direction of an

IF Frequency Low-noise Bandpass

– Working frequency band

– Transmit Frequency Spectrum Frame

Local frequency stability

– Automatic gain control (AGC) range

ODU specifications are related to radio frequencies. As

How to adjust antennas?

ACOS(Wct+φ) PSK and QAM are