R - CESP3 - Cooking and Heating Techs

Biomass for Cooking & Heating
Technologies for domestic needs

CESP 3
Prof. Emanuela Colombo,
Eng. Francesco Lombardi
Department of Energy
Comprehensive Energy Solutions Planning (CESP)
PRIORITIES
NEEDS IDENTIFICATION CESP1
DIAGNOSIS CESP2
BASELINE LOAD DEMAND & FORECAST
RESOURCE ASSESMENT
0. INTERNATIONAL
STANDARDS
CESP3
SOLUTION IDENTIFICATION
STRATEGY SELECTION 0. OTHER ISSUES
FROM PCM
TECHNICAL DESIGN CESP4 (LIKE INSTITUTIONAL
FRAME &
TECHNOLOGY OPTIMISATION
STAKEHOLDERS
COMPREHENSIVE DESIGN CESP5
BUSINESS MODEL IDENTIFICATION
IMPACT EVALUATION CESP6

Courtesy of Unesco Chair
EXPECTED IMPACT
2
1. Access to energy for domestic use
2. Implications of traditional energy uses

- Impact on Health
- Impact on Environment
- Impact on Social Development
3. Improved biomass stoves

- The Energy Ladder theory
- Technical concept
- Design types (Traditional, Improved, Advanced)
- Fuel production – traditional solid fuels
- Challenges
4. Testing protocols
- Lab vs Field
- Research at UNESCO Chair in Energy for Sustainable Development
5. Modern technologies
- Solar, electric, liquid fuel and gas stoves
- Small scale biogas systems
33
1. Access to energy for domestic use in DCs
1. Access to energy for domestic use
Traditional use of biomass
Around 2.8 billion people in the world lack access to

clean sources of energy for cooking, water heating and space
heating.
Of these, 2.6 billion rely on the traditional use of biomass
IEA, WEO 2014
55
The International Energy Agency (IEA) provides a list of all Developing Countries
with the relative percentage of the population relying on traditional biomass use
In some countries, especially in

Africa, this share almost
reaches 100%
66
Moreover, the IEA forecasts for 2030 are not encouraging!
2.5 billion people will still lack access to clean

cooking and heating facilities in 2030:
• AFRICA: + 21%
• DEVELOPING ASIA: - 16%
• LATIN AMERICA: ~ 0%
• MIDDLE EAST: ~ 0%
77
Possible strategies
Technological Improved
improvement
1. Stove biomass
still based on solid
fuels
stoves
Fuel change Modern fuel

2. Fuel Towards non-solid stoves
fuels
88
2. Implications of traditional energy use
People with no access to clean cooking and heating facilities typically rely on the
traditional Three-Stone Fire cookstove fuelled by wood biomass
This inefficient use entails serious implications on three main dimensions:
SOCIAL
HEALTH ENVIRONMENT
DEVELOPMENT
10
10
Impact on health
Around 4.3 million people per year die prematurely from illness attributable to
the household air pollution from cooking and heating with solid fuels WHO 2016
22%
26%
• ALRI: acute lower respiratory disease;

6% • COPD: chronic obstructive pulmonary disease;
• IHD: ischaemic heart disease.
12%
34%
IHD Stroke ALRI Lung cancer COPD
11
11
Impact on health
Deaths attributable to the smoke from biomass are more than those attributable
to all other most common diseases in DCs combined
5
4,5
4
Million of deaths/year
3,5
3
2,5
2
1,5
1
0,5
0
Malaria Tuberculosis HIV HAP WHO 2016
12
12
Impact on environment
Direct impact: increasing wood collection may lead to pressure on forests and
natural resources. This entails consequences on:
loss of biological
mud-slides desertification of lands resources and
ecosystems
water quality, flow

loss of wetland and
loss of protected areas regime and the fish
marshland
stocks in lakes
13
13
Impact on environment
Indirect impact: release of climate-forcing pollutants
 Biomass is CO2 neutral only when harvested on a sustainable basis!

 Even in case of sustainable harvesting, biomass burnt using inefficient devices
releases products of incomplete combustion (PICs): CO, CH4, Black Carbon
Traditional biomass use

may be responsible for 25%
of global BC emissions
Rehman 2011
IPCC 2013
14
14
Impact on social development
Wood collection is highly time-consuming. Especially for women and children, this
limits their time available for education and possibly for other income generating
activities.
15
15
The Energy Ladder theory
To address those issues, more efficient and clean technologies and fuels are
typically promoted based on the concept of the “energy ladder”
Modern non-solid fuels
Traditional solid fuels
However, the shift towards different technologies is not only driven by economic
considerations, but also depends on socio-cultural factors.
17
The Energy Ladder theory
As shown by several studies, when households’ income increases different fuels

are used simultaneously for different tasks (stove stacking)
Wood
LPG
18
Technical concept
Improved biomass stoves (frequently called Improved Cooking Stoves) are
promoted as an intermediate/short-term solution
Claimed benefits
 Fuel savings
 Reduced emission of pollutants
 Time savings
$413 million – 63 million stoves

GACC 2015
19
Technical concept
Simplified concept of Improved Cooking Stove (ICS)
Reduced heat losses towards

the surroundings
Optimal air flow to avoid PICs

formation
20
Technical concept
Pundle – ETHOS conference 2016
21
Design types
Improved Cooking Advanced Cooking

Traditional Cooking Stoves
Stoves Stoves
Rocket wood Improved Forced-draft

Mud stoves Metal stoves Clay stoves Gasifiers
stoves Charcoal Stoves stoves
Efficiency
Pollutants emissions
22
Design types - Traditional
Mud stove
Mud-stoves are simple stoves made of mud, designed primarily for firewood and biomass residuals.
They can be easily constructed by using locally available materials. Due to their low performances,
mud stoves should be used only in situations where the use and promotion of more durable pre-
fabricated cookstoves is not feasible.
Energy savings over three-stone: 20-50%

Efficiency 15 – 18%
CO emission 12 – 15 g/MJpot
PM emission 600 – 1000 g/MJpot
23
Metal stove
Metal stoves are simple stoves made of metal, designed primarily for firewood and biomass
residuals, but can be adapted to use charcoal by inserting a grate or a similar support inside the fire
chamber. They can be easily constructed by using local waste materials and by cutting out the stove
components from a prefabricated stencil. Due to these reasons, the cost is very low or null and easy-
to-make, but they have a very short lifespan.

PM emission 600 – 900 mg/MJpot
24
Clay stove
Clay stoves are stoves made of mud fired in appropriate kilns which increases their durability and
reliability. They could be used with wood and charcoal, but also crop waste such as maize stalks and cobs,
and animal dung. This type of stove is considerably harder to build than the previous models described
above, because it requires specific construction skills and moulds. Due to these reasons, the cost is higher
than the previous models, but they have a longer lifespan.
Energy savings over three-stone: up to 65%

Efficiency up to 25%
25
Design types - Improved
Rocket wood stove

The term Rocket Stove refers to stoves whose combustion chamber is made up of two orthogonal
parts: an insulated upright chimney and a horizontal zone where wood sticks are placed. Different
models exist: from a domestic to an institutional use, insulated or not, with and without pot-skirt, etc.
Rocket stoves are usually prefabricated and have high costs, but eventually they could be built with
local waste materials such as cans and sands for the insulation.

26
Improved charcoal stove

Since a large fraction of urban populations in developing countries relies on charcoal for cooking,
several models of charcoal ICSs exist. Those charcoal stove incorporate design characteristics from
wood ICSs and modify them to apply to the type of heat charcoal produces. However, charcoal
production consumes more wood than direct biomass use, and the whole supply chain needs to be
considered.
Energy savings over three-stone fire: 50-70%

Efficiency 25 – 40 %
27
Focus – technical improvements
The performance of ICSs is enhanced by means of technical improvements and
fabrication materials. In particular, the main elements affecting the efficiency and
quality of an ICS are the following ones:
Insulation materials Air draft Pot-skirt
While the first two components depend on the stove model, the pot-skirt is a very simple
additional component that is worth being considered and added to any ICS, when not conflicting
with cooking habits.
28
Focus – technical improvements
A pot-skirt is a simple round piece of metal which is added at the top of the combustion chamber,
where the flames get in contact with the bottom of the pot. The presence of a skirt increases the
efficiency of the stove by enclosing the pot and forcing the thermal exchange between the pot and
the hot gases. Pot-skirts can be easily built with waste pieces of metal and the cost is very low or
null.
Energy (& fuel) savings compared to stoves without a pot-skirt: up to 25-30%
29
Design types - Advanced
Forced-draft wood stove

The term advanced wood stoves refers to recently developed, factory-manufactured cookstoves,
based on modern technical and product development research. These next-generation cookstoves
are commonly based on a rocket design, but include some advanced features, such as chimneys and
induced or forced airflow for cleaner burning. The forced airflow is usually powered by batteries
(typically charged with solar panels) or by thermoelectric generators (TEGs). However, the cost of
such models can be very high.

Efficiency 30-60%
CO emission 0.5 – 20 g/MJpot
30
Focus – thermoelectric generators (TEGs)

An additional thermoelectric recovery and conversion system can be added to the stove. It allows
recovering the heat losses of the stove and converting them into electrical energy (thermoelectric
effect); it may be positioned under the pot or above the stove body.
TEGs are used to power fans in advanced stove models, but they can be used as well
for charging mobile phones or lighting small LEDs, whose need is often felt as a
priority by the local populations
31
Micro-gasifier
The term micro-gasifier or wood-gas stove refers to a model of stove realising a two-stage
combustion: biomass is firstly oxidised in the lower part of the combustion chamber causing a
decomposition of the biomass into volatile gases, vapours and solid char (Pyrolysis). Through a second
flux of air towards the top of the stove, the gases that are released in the first stage are subsequently
mixed and burned (Gas-combustion). These stoves are usually prefabricated, but they could be built
with local waste material such as Billy cans. If bought, are quite expensive but durable, efficient and
clean.
32
Focus – gasification principle and products
Biochar
GIZ – Micro-gasification, 2013
33
Focus – the biochar cycle
• Increases water retention capacity
• Improved fertiliser uptake through longer retention in soil by adsorption
• Carbon-negative thermal energy to further reduce carbon footprint
34
Micro-gasifiers can be equipped with electric fans for

forced-draft ventilation and power regulation.
Currently, TLUD (top-lit up-draft) gasifiers, with

forced airflow, represent the best available
technology in terms of efficiency and emission
performance, according to the most recent
performance standards (ISO-IWA 2012)
Mimi-moto, ETHOS 2016
35
Fuel production – Traditional solid fuels
ICSs are still based on traditional solid fuels. Apart from wood, some processed fuels may
be used. In some contexts (e.g. urban and peri-urban areas) there may be a complete lack
of firewood and its supply may be too expensive or forbidden. In these situations, other
energy sources exist and may be more appropriate.
Solid fuel production
Peat Briquettes Charcoal
Energy quality
36
Peat
Peat results from the accumulation of organic matter created by an incomplete decomposition of
wetland vegetation in particular conditions of excess moisture and oxygen deficiency.
The use of peat reveals some advantages in terms of fuel use reduction but it must be dried before
use. It may be hard to light and is often smoky.
10 – 25% more specific energy

Advantages content than wood
- hard to light
Disadvantages
- smoky
37
Briquettes
Briquettes are an institutional and household fuel, made by compacting biomass wastes into a
mould. They can be made with a lot of waste with different shapes and size (field residues, process
residues, domestic and industrial organic waste). The common feature is a high surface area
(compared to its weight) to make the combustion uniform (e.g. with holes in the middle). Two types
of briquettes exist: Non-carbonized briquettes and Charcoal briquettes.
- double energy content if charcoal

Advantages briquettes
- longer burn time
- agricultural and forestry waste
recycle
- investment for the press

Disadvantages - smoky if made by hand
38
Briquettes
39
Charcoal
Charcoal is the direct product of the pyrolysis of wood that is a sort of combustion of wood without
oxygen. Charcoal has a high-energy content (almost double than firewood) and its use allows
reducing the use of fuel for cooking. On the other hand, the way charcoal is produced in developing
countries consumes wood and the energy balance on the total production chain shows a greater
consumption of wood, compared to direct biomass use (about 6.5 kg of wood for 1 kg of charcoal).
This aspect is worth being underlined, as the increasing urbanisation process in developing countries
may lead to a critical shift from wood to charcoal, causing further stress on national forest resources..
Advantages - double energy content than wood

- charcoal burn more efficiently
Disadvantages - greater consumption of wood

if all the supply chain is
considered
40
Challenges
However, it is critical to consider that biomass consumption rate is not merely
influenced by the stove efficiency, but rather depends on a mix of drivers
Grid
Season: Wood/Char
Ease of connection
dry/wet Rural/peri- Economic coal Nutritional
Family size Wood and fuel
hot/cold urban Dev. (efficiency) Habits
Access alternatives
 Season: dry/wet hot/cold - dependence on climate conditions

 Family size: scale effect linked to the number of people in the family
 Ease of Wood Access: presence of forests and accessibility
 Rural/peri-urban: location of the village/area
 Grid connection and fuel alternatives: presence of infrastructure and access to other modern fuels
 Economic Dev/local condition: presence of other activity then subsistence; energy may be used not
only for basic needs but also for agriculture and rural industry
 Wood/Charcoal (efficiency): shifting to Charcoal increases the quantity of biomass used
 Nutritional Habits: this is one of the key elements and has a socio-cultural origin
4. Testing Protocols
However, promoted benefits and manufacturers datasheet are not always
reliable
A case study from the Massachusetts Institute of
Technology (MIT) in the province of Orissa, India
found:
 NO fuel savings
 NO reduced emission of pollutants
Though success stories exist as well, the example

suggests that attention should be paid on the
methodologies by which the improvement is
evaluated
Indeed, researchers worldwide started to
criticise current methodologies for performance
evaluation
43
Lab vs Field
Cookstove
“Cheaper and easier to
implement”
Lab Lee et al. 2013

(design phase)
Field
(validation)
Improved
Tiers of Performance based on lab tests
44
Lab vs Field
Example of typical lab testing procedure (Water Boiling Test)
45
Lab vs Field
Example of other testing protocols

(Chinese standard)
46
Lab vs Field
General weaknesses of laboratory-based tests
1. A fixed cooking system – fixed pot, fixed fuel, fixed burn sequence – cannot
encompass the variety of tasks and conditions occurring in a real-life context
2. Performance may significantly differ when boundary conditions change
POLIMI – ICS lab Field context Fuel used in the field
47
Research at UNESCO Chair in Energy for Sustainable Development
Current researches at the Department of Energy focus on the definition of a reliable

and effective methodology, composed of:
 A scientifically validated and repeatable procedure for laboratory data acquisition
 An integration with the final context of use – simulation of complex burn sequences
and different conditions
48
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
𝑄𝑄̇ 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 − � 𝑄𝑄̇ 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙,𝑖𝑖 = + 𝑚𝑚̇ 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 ∆ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
𝑖𝑖
49
50
5. Modern technologies and fuels
Recent evidences about ICSs
Most recent studies based on randomised control trials showed poor real-life
benefits, especially in terms of impact on health
Though in some contexts (e.g. humanitarian crises and refugee camps) ICSs still
represent the only viable option, new strategies should be adopted for the medium
and long term
HIVOS suggest to start thinking about electric cooking, biogas or even power to gas
(P2G) technologies, especially if considering the exponential population growth that is
expected for SSA.
52
53
Solar, electric, liquid and gas stoves
Solar stoves
Different types of solar stoves exist:
 Panel cookers: easy to construct, concentrate radiations on the pot but have a short lifetime;
 Box cookers: insulated box, do not concentrate radiation and provide a small amount of thermal
power;
 Parabolic cookers: parabolic reflectors, can easily reach high temperatures and excellent
performances, but risks of scalds & burnt food.
A detailed assessment of the cooking habits is essential to elaborate on the potentials

of supplemental solar technologies to an existing household energy mix
CO emission 0 mg/gfuel
PM emission 0 mg/gfuel
54
Electric stoves
Electric stoves transform electrical energy into heat. The most common technologies are:
 Electric/Induction plates: simple devices composed by one or two metal plates heated by an
electrical resistance or by an induction field. Electric plates have low efficiency, but induction is
highly efficient.
 Microwave ovens: they heat food with electromagnetic radiation. Time of cooking is typically
lower compared with classical cooking methods but the cost is very high and often not
compatible with cooking habits of people.
Energy savings over three-stone: up to 80%

CO emission 0 mg/gFUEL
be careful to the electricity
supply chain!
PM emission 0 mg/gFUEL
55
Focus: microgrid-powered Induction cooking
Induction stoves are the most efficient cooking technology from an energy conversion
perspective. If they are powered by renewable sources, they also entail no emissions
Can renewable induction cooking be a long-term solution?
Problem: high electric power absorbed, suitable for micro-grids where other energy-
intensive appliances are installed
56
Focus: microgrid-powered Induction cooking
System sized to power only basic needs (village with lighting and basic appliances):
Base load scenario Full cooking scenario

PV capacity [kW] 11.55 37.4
Battery capacity [kWh] 123.3 356.6
LCOE [USD/kWh] 0.228 0.237
NPC [USD] 43’771 136’547
The introduction of induction cooking requires a huge additional investment
System sized to power energy-intensive appliances (small community service):

Base load scenario Full cooking scenario
PV capacity [kW] 7.7 9.35
Battery capacity [kWh] 68.8 85.2
LCOE [USD/kWh] 0.274 0.258
NPC [USD] 29’441 34’412
The introduction of induction cooking does not change much the investment required
57
Liquid burner
Liquid fuel stoves are typically fuelled by kerosene (paraffin) and ethanol. Two categories exist:
pressure burner where the fuel is vaporized before combustions in a loop of pipe arising from the fuel
tank usually located at the base of the stove; and wick burner where the combustion occurs through a
wick. Ethanol stove is less polluting and cheaper than kerosene stoves, which are not affordable due
to high cost of fuel.

CO emission 15 – 40 mg/gFUEL
PM emission 0,01– 0,08 mg/gFUEL
58
Gas burner
In gas stoves, the burner is a premix multi-holed burning port type where gas in supplied at specific
pressures and then lit. It consists of the following features: gas supply tube, gas tap/valve, gas injector,
primary air hole(s) or regulator, nozzle or throat, gas mixing tube, burner head, burner port, pot
supports and body frame. They are less polluting than kerosene stoves and more efficient, but the
fuel is more expensive and makes them not affordable.

CO emission 5 – 15 mg/gFUEL
PM emission 0,03– 0,05 mg/gFUEL
59
Small scale biogas systems
Gas burners can be fuelled by biogas, renewable fuel produced from anaerobic digestion
of organic matter – the conversion of organic waste, in the absence of air (oxygen), into a
mixture of combustible gases. The process usually takes place in an airtight tank called
digester where animal, human and agricultural wastes produce gas through a process
called anaerobic digestion. Biogas is composed mainly by methane and carbon dioxide.
Wild About Africa

(WordPress.com)
Advantages - higher efficient fuel if compared with
charcoal and firewood
- versatile technology
- technically reliable
- sanitation improvements
- high investment
- Corrosive impurities (H2S)
decrease efficiency and
Disadvantages economic benefits
- cultural barriers
- water needed
60
Definition of biogas
Renewable fuel produced from anaerobic digestion of organic matter.
It is a mixture of colourless, odourless gases.
Chemical formula Percentage

Methane CH4 25 - 75
Carbon dioxide CO2 30 - 40
Hydrogen sulphide H2S 0.1 - 0.5
Water vapour H2O 1-2
Ammonia NH3 0.1 - 0.5
Carbon monoxide CO 0 - 0.5
 Composition depends on the feedstock and the completeness of the process

 Calorific Value is in the range of 21 - 37.5 MJ/m3 (1 m3 of biogas is equivalent to 5.5
kg of wood fuel)
61
Main components of a digester
 Inlet: for the input of the raw material

referred to as feedstock;
 Digester: hosts the feedstock and is where

the anaerobic process takes place;
 Gas holder: stores the gas produced for

later use;
 Outlet or compensation tank: collects the

digested material from the digester;
 Pipeline: conveys the gas to the consumption point
62
Batch feed digester
Made up by digester, gasholder & pipeline only
Main characteristics
 Periodic load and discharge of feedstock
 Slurry remains stationary in the digester during the
retention time
 Digester and gasholder separated or as one unit
 Labourious operation and maintenance
 Limited quantity of gas produced
 Does not take up much space
63
Semi continuous mode

Made up by inlet, digester, gasholder, outlet,
compensation tank, pipeline
 Daily loading and automatic discharge of
slurry Fixed Dome
 Less laborious operation & maintenance
 Requires more space
 Digester is burried underground
Main types
 Fixed Dome → gasholder volume is fixed
 Floating Drum → gasholder volume is
variable (fixed gas pressure)
Floating Drum
64
Continuous mode
Made up by inlet, digester, gasholder, outlet,
compensation tank, pipeline
 Daily loading of feedstock
 Continuous flow of slurry
 Less laborious operation & maintenance Tubular/Plastic
 Requires more space
 Digester and gasholded usually separated
Two types
Plug-flow or cross-flow (tubular)
- Relatively cheaper
- Lower gas production
Well (Completly) Mixed
- Mostly at industrial levels
- O&M more sophisticated and costly Well mixed
65

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Biomass for Cooking & Heating

Technologies for domestic needs

BUSINESS MODEL IDENTIFICATION

IMPACT EVALUATION CESP6

2. Implications of traditional energy uses

3. Improved biomass stoves

Around 2.8 billion people in the world lack access to

IEA, WEO 2014

In some countries, especially in

Moreover, the IEA forecasts for 2030 are not encouraging!

2.5 billion people will still lack access to clean

Fuel change Modern fuel

This inefficient use entails serious implications on three main dimensions:

• ALRI: acute lower respiratory disease;

IHD Stroke ALRI Lung cancer COPD

water quality, flow

Indirect impact: release of climate-forcing pollutants

 Biomass is CO2 neutral only when harvested on a sustainable basis!

Traditional biomass use

Modern non-solid fuels

Traditional solid fuels

As shown by several studies, when households’ income increases different fuels

$413 million – 63 million stoves

Simplified concept of Improved Cooking Stove (ICS)

Reduced heat losses towards

Optimal air flow to avoid PICs

Pundle – ETHOS conference 2016

Improved Cooking Advanced Cooking

Rocket wood Improved Forced-draft

Energy savings over three-stone: 20-50%

PM emission 600 – 1000 g/MJpot

Energy savings over three-stone: 40-55%

PM emission 600 – 900 mg/MJpot

Energy savings over three-stone: up to 65%

PM emission 600 – 900 mg/MJpot

Rocket wood stove

Energy savings over three-stone: 40-80%

PM emission 300 – 460 mg/MJpot

Improved charcoal stove

Energy savings over three-stone fire: 50-70%

PM emission 360 – 600 mg/MJpot

Insulation materials Air draft Pot-skirt

Energy (& fuel) savings compared to stoves without a pot-skirt: up to 25-30%

Forced-draft wood stove

Energy savings over three-stone fire: 60-70%

CO emission 0.5 – 20 g/MJpot

PM emission 100 – 300 mg/MJpot

Focus – thermoelectric generators (TEGs)

PM emission 5 – 100 mg/MJpot

Focus – gasification principle and products

GIZ – Micro-gasification, 2013

Micro-gasifiers can be equipped with electric fans for

Currently, TLUD (top-lit up-draft) gasifiers, with

Mimi-moto, ETHOS 2016

Solid fuel production

Peat Briquettes Charcoal

10 – 25% more specific energy

- double energy content if charcoal

- investment for the press

Advantages - double energy content than wood

Disadvantages - greater consumption of wood

 Season: dry/wet hot/cold - dependence on climate conditions

Though success stories exist as well, the example