Introduction To Renewable Energy Resources: Department of Mechanical Engineering, RLJIT

Solar water distillation 2014-15
CHAPTER 1
Introduction to renewable energy resources

All energy, the exception of geothermal resources, is derived from the sun. Fossil fuels are
just solar energy stored in organic material converted to hydro-carbon fuels by pressure and
temperature over geologic time. Unlike hydrocarbon fuels, solar energy is pollution free and
for practical purposes, inexhaustible. The sun will continue to shine for the next billion years
or so. The principal technologies used to extract energy from the various natural processes
generated from the radiant energy of the sun include the following:-
1. Solar photovoltaic
2. Solar thermal
3. Wind(Derived from the sun’s radiant heating and movement of the earth’s atmosphere)
4. Biomass(Conversion of biological matter into energy)
5. Hydropower(Derived from the sun’s hydrological cycle)
Most of these technologies can produce mechanical and thermal energy directly, but they are
being used more frequently to produce electric power. Each technology and how it is used to
produce electric power are briefly described here. Solar radiation is used to generate
electricity using two technologies which are Photovoltaic (PV) and solar thermal.
Photovoltaic systems convert sunlight directly into electricity, without converting into heat
first. Conversion efficiencies are typically in the range of 12%-20% without concentrators,
and 22%-28% with concentrators. These systems generate electricity directly from solar cells
made from semiconductor materials. The solar cell is specially treated to give one layer (the
n-layer), a negative charge and other layer (the p-layer) a positive charge when sunlight
enters the cell structure.
This sets up a cell barrier between semiconductor layers, creating a current and voltage
across the cell. Sunlight striking the cell excites electrons which move across the cell. The
electron flow is conducted by metallic contacts placed on the cell in a grid-like fashion.
PV cells are electrically and physically linked together into modules. The entire structure,
along with the supporting elements, is called an array. Each module is given a peak power
Department of Mechanical Engineering, RLJIT Page 1

rating according to the output under standard test conditions. Arrays are typically designed to
meet the electricity requirement for specific applications.
Figure 1.1 Direct conversion of solar to electricity
Modules usually provide electricity in the form of direct current (DC) at 12 or 24 volts. The
relative simplicity, lack of moving parts, and the promise of little or no maintenance make a
photovoltaic an attractive technology. Ideal conditions for generating electricity using
photovoltaic cells are long, clear, cold, sunny days. In order to provide electricity during the
night and on cloudy days batteries are used to store some of the electricity generated during
the daylight hours. Complete systems including batteries, inverters and control systems are
needed for most applications as shown in figure 1.1.

CHAPTER 2
SOLAR ENERGY
2.1 What is solar energy? What is sun?
The sun is a star, not much different from the billions of others in the universe. The main
difference to us is that the sun is our star. Because we are much closer to the sun, its energy is
more intense than that of other stars and we can make use of its energy to meet our needs.
Our sun and other stars are the nuclear reactor that fuses hydrogen atoms together to form
helium atoms. A great deal of energy is released in this process. The reaction is similar the
equivalent of many thousands of hydrogen bombs all going off at the same time.We are
fortunate that sun is 93,000,000 miles away and that by the time energy gets to us, it is
gentler and more widely dispersed than it is at the surface. Solar energy comes to us in the
form of electromagnetic radiation.
Measurements indicate that energy flux received from sun outside the earth’s atmosphere is
essentially constant. Solar constant is the rate at which energy is received from sun on a unit
area perpendicular to rays if the sun, at the mean distance of the earth from sun. The value
of solar constant has been subject of much experimental investigation. Based on
measurements made up to 1970 a standard value of 1353 W/m2 was developed. However
based on subsequent measurements a revised value of 1367 W/m2 was recommended.
The earth revolves around sun in an elliptical orbit having a very small eccentricity and with
sun of at foci. Consequently, distance between sun and earth varies a little throughout the
year. Due to this variation extra terrestrial flux varies. The radiation coming from sun is
essentially equivalent to black body radiation. Research and development advances have
lowered PV costs dramatically. Costs are still high, but continue to drop. Capital cost is
currently Rs. 1, 98,000 – 4, 40,000 per kW (compared to wind at about Rs.44, 000 per kW).
Cost is sensitive to size of order. Because energy costs (per unit) are usually high, at about
Rs.18 per kWh, PV is not widely deployed. Yet, its advantages often make it appropriate in
off-grid applications. Solar thermal systems are comprised of a collection component,
working fluid circulation system, storage component, and controls. These functions together
are used to convert solar radiation into heat, which can be used in various applications.

2.2 SOLAR COLLECTORS

There are three main types of thermal solar collectors, low temperature, medium temperature
and high temperature. What you get out of a solar collector is the difference between what
went into the collector and what the solar collector lost to its environment.
2.2.1 Solar pond
Figure 2.1Solar pond
A schematic diagram is shown in the above figure. The solar pond combines the functions of
heat collection with long-term storage and can provide sufficient heat for the year. Typically,
it is about 1 or 2 meters deep with thick durable plastic liner lay at bottom. Materials used for
liners include Low Density Polyethylene (LPDE), High Density Polyethylene (HPDE),
woven polyester yarn (XB-5), and hypalon reinforced with nylon mesh. Salts like magnesium
chloride, sodium chloride or sodium nitrate are dissolved in water, concentration varying
from 20 to 30 percent at bottom to almost zero at top. Left to itself, salt concentration
gradient will disappear over a period of time because of upward diffusion of salt. In order to
maintain it, fresh water is added at top of the pond, while slightly saline water is run off. At
the same time, concentrated brine is added at bottom of the pond. The amount of salt required
for this purpose is about 50 g/m2 in a day, which is large quantity when considered on annual
basis. For this reason normal practice is to recycle salt by evaporating saline water runoff
from the surface in an adjacent evaporation pond.

In order to extract energy stored, hot water is removed continuously from bottom, passed
through a heat exchanger and returned to bottom. Alternatively heat is extracted by water
flowing through heat exchanger coil submerged at bottom. Because of movement and mixing
of fluid both at top and bottom, the solar pond is characterized by three zones:
1. A surface convective zone
2. A non-convective concentration gradient zone
3. A lower convective zone
The Surface Convective Zone (SCZ) usually has small thickness, around 10 to 20 cm. It has
low uniform concentration which is close to zero, as well as fairly uniform temperature,
which is close to the ambient temperature. The Non-Convective Zone (NCZ) is much thicker
and occupies more than half of the pond. It serves principally as the insulating layer reduces
the heat losses in the upward direction and it serves also as the part of the thermal storage.
The lower convective zone is comparable in thickness to the non-convective zone. Both the
concentration and temperature are nearly constant in this zone. It serves as main heat-
collection as well as thermal storage medium. The lower convective zone is often referred to
as the storage zone or as the bottom layer. Typically, the temperature in the lower convective
zone of a well designed large solar pond operating in India might fluctuate cyclically
between a maximum value of 850 to 950 C in summer and a minimum of 500 to 600 in winter.
2.2.2 Photovoltaic converter

The first solar cells were made in fifties from single crystal silicon. Even today silicon is the
material generally used for making most cells. Single crystal silicon cells are thin wafers
about 300 micrometer is thickness, sliced from a single crystal of p-type doped silicon. A
shallow junction is formed at one end by diffusion of n-type impurity. Metal electrode made
from a Ti-Ag solder are attached to front and back side of cell, on the front side, electrode is
in form of a metal grid with finger which permits sunlight to go through, while on backside,
the electrode completely covers surface, an anti-refection coating of Silo, having a thickness
of 0.1micro meter, and a thin transparent encapsulating sheet are also put on top surface to
complete the assembly. A typically cell develops a voltage of 0.5-1V and a current density of
20-40 amp/cm². In order to obtain higher voltages and currents, ,individual cells are fixed
side by side on a suitable back-up board and connected in series and parallel to form a

module. In turn a number of modules are interconnected to form an array. Earlier the cells
used to be circular in shape with diameter ranging from 6 to 15 cm.
Now they are often rectangular in shape, resulting in more compact modules, Apart from
single crystal silicon, silicon solar cells are now also made in larger number from
polycrystalline silicon and amorphous silicon.
Two important steps are involved in the principle of working of a solar cell. These are,
1. Creation of pairs of positive and negative charges in solar cell by absorbed solar
radiation.
2.Separation of the positive and negative charges by a potential gradient within the cell.
For the first step to occur, the cell must be made of a material which can absorb the energy
associated with photos of sunlight. The energy (E) of a photon is related to the wave length
(λ) by the equation
E= hC/λ ……………………………………………….. (2.2)
Where h= Planck’s constant 6.62×10-27 erg-s
C= velocity of light 3×10-8m/s
Substituting these values, we get
E= 1.24/λ……………………………………………….. (2.3)
Where E is in electron volts and λ is in micrometer.
The only material for absorbing the energy of the photons of sunlight are semiconductors
like silicon, cadmium, supplied, gallium, arsenide, etc. in a semiconductor, electrons occupy
one of two energy bands, the valance band and the conduction band. The valance band has
electrons at lower energy level and is fully occupied, while the conduction band has electron
at higher energy level and is not fully occupied. The difference between energy level of
electrons is in two bands called as band gap energy. Photons of sunlight having energy E
greater than band gap energy are absorbed in cell material and excite some of electrons.
These electrons jump across the band gap from the valence band. Thus electron hole pairs are
created. The electron in the conduction band and holes in valence band are mobile. They can
be separated and made to flow through an external circuit if a potential gradient exists within
the cell. In case of silicon, potential gradient is obtained by making the cell as sandwich of
two of silicon, p-type and n-type. Silicon of p-type is silicon ‘doped’ with some atoms of
boron, while silicon of n-type is silicon ‘doped’ with some atoms of phosphorus. The energy

level of conduction and valance in p-type silicon are slightly higher than corresponding
levels in n-type silicon. Thus when a composite of two types of silicon is formed, a jump in
energy level occurs at the junction interference. This potential gradient is adequate to
separate electrons and holes, and cause a direct current to flow in the external load. In a
silicon cell, the junction is thin region separating n-type and p-type portions. Since basic
material is all silicon, such a junction is more specifically called a homo-unction. Solar cells
can also be made from dissimilar materials.
2.2.3 Low temperature solar collectors
The low temperature solar collector has nothing to lose to the outside air environment
because it operates at or below the outside air temperature. A solar swimming pool collector
is a typical example. They are the simplest and most efficient collectors available, but they
are limited to low temperatures. You just hang a black plastic mat out in the sun, and run
pool water through it to take the heat away. The black plastic receives and absorbs 95% of
the available solar energy, with only a small amount reflecting away. You get it to keep all of
this energy harvest because the low operating temperature. But if the operating temperature
goes higher, the efficiency goes down rapidly.
Figure 2.2 Low Temperature collector

Heat is transferred (and in this case lost) in three ways:
By conduction:When the molecules of one material come in contact with the molecules of
another, heat is transferred from the warmer one to the colder one by kinetic energy of the
molecules.

By convection: When a warm surface heats the air that is in contact with it, the air flows
away due to gravity.
By radiation: All matter gives off long wave infrared radiation in proportion to its
temperature. If object gives off more radiation than it receives from environment, it will lose
heat. Due to low temperature solar collector does not control any of these heat loss factors;
performance falls off very rapidly as collector temperature rises above ambient temperature.
2.2.4 Medium temperature solar collectors
But many of our heating requirements occur at temperature well above the ambient air
temperature. At this temperature, simple collectors rapidly reach the point where they are
losing as much heat as they are receiving, and the efficiency drops to zero. A heat trap must
be constructed; sometime that will let the sun’s energy in, but not it out again.
The cover material will be glass. There are only few materials that will meet requirements.
Carbon dioxide will meet optical requirements, but it wouldn’t make a very good cover.
Simple plastics might work, but they are not stable enough at higher temperature.
Figure 2.3 medium temperature collector
With the implementation above it can be concluded, that the usage of covers over the
absorbers will allow storing the heat that is transmitted by the solar radiation. There is also a
limitation that there are no such perfect covers to trap the heat and store it without any
radiation losses. The glass cover-sheet will reflect about 10% of incoming solar energy and
absorb another 14% for a loss of about 24% for higher temperature; the solar collectors will
cost more money and will also lose some of the available solar energy right from the start.

2.2.5 High temperature solar collectors

In high temperature collectors, the energy that is achieved in the collector can be conserved
in a couple of ways, by using thicker insulation, or by adding additional cover sheets, or by
evacuating the air from the solar collector. All of these measures will result in a collector that
can operate at a higher temperature, but there will be increased trade offs. The measures that
conserve even more energy will prevent even more solar energy from striking the absorber
plate. More cover plates will reflect or block even more solar energy from getting in. thicker
insulation and evacuated tube collectors both result in less solar aperture, (less black area in
the sun) so again less solar energy will arrive at the collector in the first place.
Figure 2.4 High temperature collector systems

2.3 STORING SOLAR ENERGY
If solar energy is going to be very useful, an effective method of storage must be
implemented. After all, the sun doesn’t shine every day, and it never shines at night.
The various properties of matter relating to storage are:
Thermal mass (or heat storage capacity):- This is the ability matter to store heat.
Conductivity:-This is the ability of matter to transfer heat from one material to another by
being in contact with it.
Insulation ability:-This is the ability of matter the flow from one material to another. When
we want to store heat, we will select materials with high heat storage capacity.
For transportation of heat one place to another, a material with high conductivity is selected.
The metals, such as copper, aluminum, etc. have high conductivity. To prevent the movement
of heat from one place to another, a material with low conductivity is selected.

Table 2.1 heat capacities of several common materials.

Material Heat Capacity (Joules)
Water 9.092
Cast iron 7.856
Concrete 4.611
Glass 4.029
Oak 3.899
Brick 3.608
Earth 2.909
Gypsum 2.953
Pine 2.633
Air 0.002618
If a material is a gas, the molecules are spaced far apart. There are fewer molecules in a given
volume of materials, because heat is the kinetic motion molecules and as there are few
molecules, a gas will store less heat than a solid. A gas will conduct heat less effectively than
a solid as there are fewer molecules to move the heat to the other material.
Figure.2.5 (a) Molecules of gas Figure 2.5 (b) Solid dispersion

2.3.1 Special cases
Water - Note the very high heat capacity of water. This is because of particular shape of
molecules it has a “polar” shape such that the molecule has a positive has a positive charge
at one end (hydrogen end) and a negative charge at the other end (oxygen bend). They tend to
stick together better like little magnets.
Without getting into too much atomic physics, this means that it takes a lot more energy to
make molecules move, and therefore, it takes more energy to warm it up and it will give off
more energy as is cools to the original temperature.
Characteristics
1. Water is a good material to use for storing heat.
2. Water is a good material to transport heat.
3. Water is an expensive material to heat, and hot water is expensive to waste.

Solar energy storage:

One of the major problems associated with utilization of solar energy is its variability in
different seasons. Most applications require some type of energy storage system. The main
purpose of such a system is to store energy when it is in excess of requirement of an
application and to make it available for extraction when supply of solar energy is absent.
Methods of storing solar energy:
Energy storage can be various forms, which are listed below.
1. Thermal storage
1) Sensible heat
2) Latent heat
2. Chemical storage
1) Thermal chemical storage
2) Fuel
3) Hydrogen storage
3. Mechanical storage
1. Fly wheel
2. Compressed air
3. Hydroelectric storage
4. Electric storage
1. Capacity storage
2. battery storage
3. electromagnetic storage
Solar constant and solar spectra:
The rate at which solar energy arrives at top of atmosphere is called solar constant (Isc).
Solar constant may be defined as the amount of energy received inunit time on a unit area
proportional to the suns directions at the mean distance ofthe earth from the sun. The rate of
arrival solar radiations varies throughout theyear. The standard value expressed by NASA is
1.353 KW/𝑚2 . The orbit of the earth is elliptical; hence the distance between the earth and
sunvaries over the year, leading to apparent solar irradiation values throughout the year
approximated by following equation.

𝑁
𝐼0 = 𝐼𝑆𝐶 [1 + 0.033𝐶𝑜𝑠 (365 ∗ 3600 )]……………………………………………….(2.1)
Where ISC= Solar constant.

N=Day of the year. With January 1 equal to 1. The solar constant generally accepted
by the space community is approximately 1.3661 kW/m2
Figure 2.6: Extraterrestrial and photovoltaic reference solar spectra.

The direct plus circumsolar Spectrum is the direct normal component of
the 37◦ south global tilt (AM1.5) spectrum. The diffuse component (not shown)
is the difference between the two AM1.5 spectra. Solar radiation consists of several
frequencies, in addition to visible light. The extraterrestrial solar spectrum is called the Air
Mass Zero (AM0) spectrum and is defined by ASTM E490 standard. Spectrum of sunlight
reaching earth’s surface is affected by atmospheric conditions and varies by location and
time of day. The photovoltaic (PV) industry accepts a standard spectrum for testing and
rating PV devices.
Figure 2.7 Solar radiation spectrum

Solar angles
The declination is the angular distance of the sun north or south of the earth’s equator.The
declination angle, δ, for the Northern Hemisphere (reverse the declination anglesign for the
Southern Hemisphere) is
𝑁+284
δ = 23.450 sin [ ∗ 3600 ]………………………………………………………….. (2.2)
365
The earth is divided into latitudes and longitudes. For longitudes, global communityhas
defined 0◦ as prime meridian which is located at Greenwich, England.
The longitudes are described in terms of how many degrees they lie to east or west of prime
meridian. A 24-hr day has 1440 mins, which when divided by 360◦, means that it takes 4
mins to move each degree of longitude. The apparent solar time, AST (or local solar time) in
the western longitudes is calculated from
4min
𝐴𝑆𝑇 = 𝐿𝑆𝑇 + ( deg ) (𝐿𝑆𝑇𝑀 − 𝐿𝑜𝑛𝑔) + 𝐸𝑇………………………………………… (2.3)
Where,
LST = Local standard time or clock time for that time zone (may need to adjust for daylight
saving time, DST, that is LST = DST − 1 hr),
Long = local longitude at the position of interest, and
LSTM = local longitude of standard time meridian, which is
𝐿𝑜𝑛𝑔
𝐿𝑆𝑇𝑀 = 15𝑂 ∗ ( 15𝑜 ) ………………………………………………..… (2.4)
𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟
Thedifference between true solar time and mean solar time changes continuously day-to-day
with an annual cycle. This quantity is known as the equation of time. The equation of time,
ET in minutes, is approximated by
𝐸𝑇 = 9.87 sin(2𝐷) − 7.53 cos(𝐷) − 1.5 sin(𝐷)……………………………….….. (2.5)
(𝑁−81)
Where, 𝐷 = 360𝑂 365
As illustrated in Fig. 2.8, there are several angles of interest in describing the positionof the
sun at a particular time instant. The hour angle, H, is the azimuth angle ofthe sun’s rays
caused by the earth’s rotation, and H can be computed from
𝐴𝑆𝑇−720𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑠
𝐻= ……………………………………………………………………… (2.6)
4𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑠/𝑑𝑒𝑔
The hour angle as defined here is negative in the morning and positive in the afternoon(H =
0◦ at noon).

The solar altitude angle (β1) is apparent angular height of sun in skyif you are facing it. The
zenith angle (θz) and its complement the altitude angle (β1)are given by
cos(𝜃𝑧) = sin(𝛽1) = cos(𝐿) cos(𝛿) cos(𝐻) + sin(𝐿) sin(𝛿),……………………….…….. (2.7)
Figure 2.8: Important solar angles.

Where,L is latitude (positive in either hemisphere) [0◦ to +90◦];
Δ is the declination angle (negative for Southern Hemisphere) [−23.45◦ to +23.45◦];
H isthe hour angle. The noon altitude is βN = 90◦ − L + δ.
Sun rises and sets when its altitude is 0◦, not necessarily when its hour angleis ±90◦. The
hour angle at sunset or sunrise, HS, can be found from using Eq. (2.8) whenβ1 = 0
Cos (HS) = − tan (L) tan (δ),………………………………………………………………….…… (2.8)
Where HS is negative for sunrise and positive for sunset. The apparent sunrise(apparent
sunset) occurs earlier than value computed above since atmosphericrefraction bends the
sunlight. In addition, since sun is about 0.5◦ wideas viewed from earth, whether one
considers first appearance sunlight assunrise also plays a role. Absolute values of cosine (HS)
greater than unity can occur inarctic zones when sun neither rises nor sets. The length of a
day is twice theabsolute value of HS.The solar azimuth, α1, is angle away from south in the
Northern Hemisphere(referenced to north in the Southern Hemisphere)
sin(𝛽1 ) sin(𝐿)−sin(δ)
cos(𝛼1 ) = …………………………………………………………….. (2.9)
cos(𝛽1 )cos(𝐿)
Where α1 is positive toward west and negative towardeast, and therefore, sign of α1 should
match that of the hour angle.If δ >0, the sun can be north of east-west line in the Northern
Hemisphere.The time at which the sun is due east and west can be determined from
tan(δ)
𝑡 𝐸 = 4 𝑚𝑖𝑛/ deg {180𝑜 ≠ arccos[tan(𝐿)] } …………………………………………. (2.10)
𝑊
Where these times are given in minutes from midnight AST.Using above equations, the
apparent route of sun through the sky canbe graphically represented by a sun path chart as

shown in Fig. 2.9 The elevationof sun is plotted against azimuth for various times during a
year. This type of chart is typically used for shading studies. By plotting elevation versus
azimuth of various obstructions like buildings, trees, and mountainson the same chart, the
days and times of potential shading can be identified.
Figure 2.9: Elevation and azimuth angles of the sun at various dates and times during the
Year for 33.40N latitude.
2.4 APPLICATIONS OF SOLAR ENERGY

Absorptions of solar energy can be done by directly using concentrators like spherical lenses
or parabolic concentrators and then converting it to thermal energy for desired usage. The hot
water generated may be used in industries and for domestic purposes. Conversion of solar
energy to electrical energy is done by using photovoltaic cells for thermoelectric
generators.Solar energy can be converted to biomass and then into transportable fuels.The
applications which are enjoying most of the success in day-to-day life in solar energy are as
follows.
Solar energy can be collected and used in two ways, directly and indirectly in a variety of
thermal applications like heating water, heating air, dry distillation and cooking. The heated
fluid can in turn be used for applications like power generation or refrigeration.The second
way in which solar energy can be used directly is throughphotovoltaic effect in which it is
converted into electrical energy.

Following are the few applications of solar energy:

2.4.1 Solar water heater:
Solar water heater can be extension of flat plate collector. Basically a solar water heater
comprises of flat-plate collector system, waste storage tank heated through thermosyphon
action. This water heater can supply hot for household purposes and can provide hot water
for industrial application. Various countries have achieved success in making solar water
heaters. Like other countries, India also uses water heaters of 140 liters to 600 liters capacity
are manufactured commercially.
2.4.2 Solar driers:
A traditional and wide spread use of solar energy is for drying particularly agricultural
products and obtaining salt from sea water. The customary technique is to spread the material
to be dried in a thin layer on the ground to expose it to solar radiation and wind. The
techniques through cheap often result in products of inferior quality technology is employed
these natural solar drying processes can be made more efficient with much better quality
products and with little wastage and contamination. The dry paddy or seeds driers are used in
large quantities in a batch or in continuous mode. Air temperature differences up to 30°C can
be obtained on clear days at an overall collector area. For good quality, the flow rates and
bed packing densities must be optimized for different things to be dried.
2.4.3 Solar stills:
Solar water heater can also be utilized for making distilled water from brackish and sea
water. The constructed of solar still is very simple. It consists of a shallow tray, bottom of
which is blackened or covered with blackened polythene. Blackish water to be desalinated
is put in tray, and roughly 2 inches deep water evaporates on receiving solar energy. The
condensed water drains off on single slope or inverted “V” type. The orientation is usually
with longer side along north south axis. In India, the solar distillation is used in village of
Awania near Bhavnagar for supplying drinking water from sea water.
2.4.4 Solar cookers:
This application appears to be simple in its technology and significant in its advantages and it
can be successfully and extensively used. Efforts to design and introduce solar cookers have
been carried out for many years. The cooker with a plane fixed collector and the cooker with

spherical or parabolic mirrors of average precision have been account the condition of use
and aiming at a cooker of reasonable working life (5-10 years) and adequate versatility
researches have tended to favor a cooker with parabolic mirror of polished aluminum. Mass
production with surface area varying between 1 and 3 square meters with a diameter between
1-2 meters and a power ranging between 700 watts to 2 KW does not present any
insurmountable technological problem.
2.4.5 Solar pumps:
The solar heated water is circulated by thermosyphon action and operates a close cycle using
butane as the working fluid, the condenser being provided by the pumped water. The engine
cycle is a reverse refrigeration cycle, in a sense that the evaporated butane actuates a piston
and thus delivers energy. Low pressure vapor is condensed and is injected into a hot side,
exchanged via a re-injection pump. A hydraulic pump coupled to engine lifts the water.
Attempts are being made to improve the efficiency.
2.4.6 Solar refrigeration:
The absorber type refrigeration, which works on kerosene, has been adopted to work at lower
temperature obtainable with flat plate collectors. The ammonia-sodium thyosinate system has
recently been found to cause the least problems. Solar energy is used to evaporate the
refrigerant vapor from a rich mixture of aqua ammonia in a generator. The vapor is
condensed in an absorbing liquid and then later released in the evaporator through a nozzle,
evaporating it takes heat from the surrounding space or liquid to give refrigeration effect. The
low pressure refrigerant goes back to the absorber to complete the cycle. Even through
Coefficient of performance is very low freezing temperature can be easily obtained.
2.4.7 Solar furnaces:
There have been few attempts to concentrate solar energy in a limited volume so that very
high temperature can be attained. Solar furnaces at Mount Lousis fabricated under the
guidance of Prof. Thromble are well known. The furnace at Mount Lousis produces a
temperature of 3000°C the larger solar furnace is in USA. This furnace can produce a
temperature of 5000°C sufficient to melt steel.
The various advantages of solar furnaces are,
1. Production of very high temperature.
2. Cleaner atmosphere.

2.5 Solar radiation

Solar energy is the electromagnetic energy or radiation emitted by sun. Solar energy arrives
at earth’s atmosphere, part of this radiation is reflected back to space, part is absorbed by
atmosphere and re-emitted and part is state side by atmospheric particle as a result only
about, two thirds of the suns energy reaches the surface of the earth.
Figure2.10: Components of solar radiation.

The sun radiates energy uniformly in all direction in the form of electromagnetic waves.
When absorbed by a body, it increases its temperature. It is a clean, inexhaustible, abundantly
and universally available renewable energy. Solar energy has greatest potential of all the
sources of renewable energy and if only a small amount of this form of energy could be used,
it will be one of the most important supplies of energy, especially when other sources in the
country have depleted.
2.6 Solar radiation outside the earth atmosphere

The characteristics of sun’s energy available outside earth’s atmosphere are first considered.
Sun is a large sphere of hot gases where heat being generated by various kinds offusion
reactions.Although sun is very large, it has subtended angleof only 32 minutes at earth
surface, this is because it is also at very large distance thus beam radiation received from sun
at earth is almost parallel, brightness of sun varies from its centre to its edge.However for
engineering calculations, it is customary to assume that brightness alloverthe solar disk is
uniform as viewed from earth, the radiation coming from sun appearsto be essentially
equivalent to that coming from a black surface at 5763 K.

2.6.1 Solar radiation at the earth surface:

Solar radiation is received at earth surface after being subjected to mechanisms of
attenuation, reflection and scattering at earth atmosphere. Radiation received without
changing in direction of sun rays is called beam radiation, while that received after its
direction as been changed by scattering and reflection is called diffused radiation. The sum
of beam and diffuse radiation flux is referred to as total radiation or global radiation.
Although extensive studies have been made on the various mechanisms which reduce the
quantity of radiation being received at the earth surface is in general not possible to predict to
a reasonable degree of accuracy the amount which might be expected on ground. Thus a
designer of solar process equipment has to take resources to one of the following options.
A. Make measurements over a period of time at location where solar equipment
is to be installed.
B. Use measurements available for other locations whose climate is known to be
reasonable similar to the location under consideration.
C. Use of empirical predictive equations which link the values of solar radiation
with other metrological parameters whose values are known for a location
under consideration. Examples of such parameters are the no of hours of
sunshine received every day the precipitation that could cover etc.
2.7 Measurement of solar radiation:

Solar radiation can be measured by the following instruments
I. Pyro heliometer: it is an instrument which measures beam radiation in contact to a
pyranometer, a black sensor disk is located at the base of a tube whose axis is aligned with
the direction of the rears rays. Thus diffuse radiation is essentially blacked from the sensor
surface.
II. Pyranometer: a pyranometer is an instrument which measures the either global or
diffuse radiation over a hemispherical field of view. Basically the pyranometer consists of a
black surface which heats up when exposed to the solar radiation.
2.8 Solar Irradiance:

Solar irradiance is the amount of solar energy incident on a surface per unit time, per unit
area. The irradiance is typically expressed in KW/m2. Solar insolation is the integration of the

irradiance with respect to time, and may be quantified in KWh or KWh/m2.The direct normal
irradiance at the earth’s surface is given by
𝑝 𝐵
(− . )
𝐼𝐷𝑁 = 𝐴 ∗ 𝑒 𝑝0 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝛽1) ………………………………………………………… (2.11)
Where A is the apparent extraterrestrial solar intensity, B is the atmospheric extinction
coefficient (mainly due to changes in atmospheric moisture), and p/p0is the pressure at the
location of interest relative to a standard atmosphere, given by
𝑝
= exp(−0.0001184𝑧) … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . . … (2.12)
𝑝0
However, for concentrating solar power, only the direct component is of importance since
mirrored surfaces are positioned to re-direct and concentrate direct beam sunlight; and at
mean sun-earth distance, the sun subtends an angle of 32 min. Intensity of direct beam, as
compared to the diffuse component, can be seen in Fig. 2.11.For a collector tilted 33.40(at
latitude) in Phoenix, Arizona where the direct beam constitutes 83% of 7.1KWh/m2/day of
energy received that day. Further illustrated in graph is the increased energy collection made
possible by tracking the sunlight, which in this case increases the total irradiance to10.6
KWh/m2/day.
Figure 2.11: Solar irradiance for a summer day for a collector tilted at 33.40compared to
a panel utilizing dual axis tracking.
For the tilted panel, early in the morning and late in the evening, the total irradiance is from
the diffuse-scattered component, but during the remainder of the daytime, the direct
component provides the majority of the insulation.

CHAPTER 3
Condensation and Evaporation in solar devices
Condensation occurs when warm, moist air meets a cold surface such as a window, mirror or
wall and causes water droplets to form. The risk of condensation depends upon how moist
the air is and how cold the surfaces of the rooms are (vapor condenses if the ambient room
temperature falls to, or below, its “dew point”).
3.1Types of condensation
There are four types of condensation and worst period for such problems is September to
May.
1. Surface condensation. This is the most familiar type of condensation, taking the form of
water on window panes, cold wall surfaces and tiles.
2. Interstitial condensation. This is condensation forming between walls or within building
structure.
3. Reverse condensation. This is also called “summer condensation”. If rains drenches a
wall and strong sunlight then dries it, the heat can actually force water vapor into the wall.
When it then meets an insulated surface, it forms condensation at that barrier.
4. Radiation condensation. This is sometimes called “clear night condensation“. If there is
a sudden temperature drop at night, it can cause condensation on underside of roof coverings,
for example: often this drips onto insulation quilting and causes a distinctive mottled effect
upon the quilting. How you ventilate and heat your home will affect the level of
condensation. This means that it is your own lifestyle that causes and can reduce
condensation and its nasty effects. A particularly potent form of problem condensate is
termed “interstitial condensation” which forms droplets within a material that can tend to
decay/rot/corrode from the inside out and so is difficult to detect and can mask very serious
problems.
What does condensation do?
Condensation can cause unsightly mould that can damage clothing, furniture, wallpaper and
you. This mould can dry, sending spores into air that can cause wide spread heath/breathing
problems for some people but especially very young and elderly.

How to avoid condensation

These four steps will help you reduce the condensation in your home. They amount to a
request for you to change the way you live in the building and to be aware that your actions
cause the problem:-
3.2Evaporation
Water can exist in the natural environment in three different forms or states solid (ice), liquid
and gas. The process by which water changes from a liquid to a gas is known as evaporation.
We are all familiar with liquid water as we drink, bath and irrigate with it daily. The gaseous
form of water, known as water vapor, is less familiar since it exists as an invisible gas.
However, we all have a feel for water vapor during the late summer months when it is called
by the more common name of humidity. To the irrigation manager, the most important points
about evaporation are,
1) It is the process by which most of the liquid water we apply as irrigation leaves
vegetation and
2) That evaporation requires energy.
Two common household items the clothes dryer and the evaporative cooler clearly show the
energy requirement of evaporation. In the case of the dryer, a gas burner or an electric
heating element provides the heat energy required to evaporate water from the wet clothes.
The evaporative cooler works in a somewhat opposite manner. Energy stored in the hot, dry,
outside air is consumed by the evaporation process as the air passes through the wet pads.
This energy consumption reduces the temperature of the air and allows us to use evaporative
cooling as a means of air conditioning.
Energy is also required for evaporation to proceed from vegetation. Meteorological

conditions impact the amount of energy available in the natural world and therefore play a
key role in regulating evaporation from vegetation. A more detailed discussion of the impact
of meteorological conditions on evaporation is provided in the next section of this report.
Energy considerations
Incoming solar radiation is the principle source of energy for evaporation. Although
calculation of net radiation for land and water surfaces is similar, there is one major

difference. For land surfaces, the net solar radiation (incoming solar radiation minus reflected
solar radiation) is converted to sensible and latent heat at the soil or plant surfaces. In
contrast, net solar radiation is not all absorbed at the water surface. Part of net solar radiation
may penetrate to great depths in clear water. The depth of penetration varies with wave
length. In pure water, about 70% of the solar radiation adsorption occurs in the top 5 m. Solar
radiation adsorbed below the water surface is stored as energy and is not immediately
available for evaporation or for sensible heat. Stored energy typically results in a lag of
evaporation relative to net solar radiation, and there usually is less total annual evaporation
than when there is no significant energy storage. As the solar intensity begins to decrease
after about mid July, the stored energy gradually becomes available for evaporation and
sensible heat loss. For shallow water bodies, the amount of energy stored during the rising
and falling solar cycle may not be large, but usually is large enough to affect daily
evaporation rates.
3.3 Measuring principle
The principle of the evaporation pan is the following:
1. The pan is installed in the field
2. The pan is filled with a known quantity of water (the surface area of the pan is known
and the water depth is measured)
3. The water is allowed to evaporate during a certain period of time (usually 24 hours).
For example, each morning at 7 o’clock a measurement is taken. The rainfall, if any,
is measured simultaneously
4. After 24 hours, the remaining quantity of water (i.e. water depth) is measured
5. The amount of evaporation per time unit (the difference between the two measured
water depths) is calculated this is the pan evaporation: E pan (in mm/24 hours)
6. The E pan is multiplied by a pan coefficient, K pan, to obtain the ETo.
Formula: ETO = K pan × E pan……………………………………………………. (3.1)
ETo: reference crop evapotranspiration
K pan: pan coefficient
E pan: pan evaporation

If the water depth in pan drops too much (due to lack of rain), water is added and the water
depth is measuredbefore and after the water is added. If the water level rises too much (due to
rain) water is taken out of pan and water depths before and after is measured.
Determination of K pan
When using the evaporation pan to estimate the ETo, in fact, a comparison is made between
the evaporation from the water surface in the pan and the evapotranspiration of the standard
grass. Of course the water in the pan and the grass do not react in exactly the same way to the
climate. Therefore a special coefficient is used (K pan) to relate one to the other. The pan
coefficient, K pan, depends on:
1 the type of pan used
2 the pan environment: if the pan is placed in a fallow or cropped area
3 the climate: the humidity and wind speed
Factors affecting evaporation

1. Pool surface area
2. The temperature of the water and air
3. Humidity
4. Wind
1. The bigger the pool, the more surface area, therefore, a greater evaporation volume.
2. The highest evaporation rates occur when the differences between water and air
temperatures are the greatest. This may not be in the middle of a hot day when the pool is in
use. At this point the water and air temperatures may be quite close. Later at night the pool
water may remain warm, but the air temperature has fallen substantially - that means a
greater temperature
Difference between the air and water - and greater evaporation
3. The drier the air is, the greater the evaporation rate. In very humid conditions less
evaporation occurs.
4. The final and very significant factor for home pools is wind. A breeze of just a gentle 11
kilometers per hour can more than double the evaporation rate by removing the insulating
layer of warm, moist air directly above the pool surface.

CHAPTER 4
LITERATURE REVIEW
Fedali Saida, et.al [1], presents the thermal analysis of passive solar still. Mathematical
equations for water, absorber, glass and insulator temperatures yield and efficiency of single
slope basin have been derived. The analysis is based on basic energy balance for the solar
still. A computer model has been developed to predict the performance of the solar still. The
operation governing equations of a solar still are solved by a Runge-Kutta numerical method.
The numerical calculations indicated that the wind speed has an influence on the glass cover
temperature. It was noted that in sunshine duration, temperature of various components of the
distiller follows the evolution of solar radiation.
Xiaohua Liu, et.al [2], represented, thermal and economic performance on solar desalination
system with evacuated tube collectors and low temperature multi-effect distillation.
Mathematical and economic models are established based on mass and energy conservation,
which conclude evacuated tube collector model, heat storage tank model, flash tank model,
multi-effect distillation model and electrical heating and cooling model. Taking actual
operation into account, the influence of the heating steam temperature of the first effect and
the effect number of multi-effect distillation system on system performance is analyzed. The
cost constitution of solar desalination system with evacuated tube collectors is shown, and
the proportion of the cost of evacuated tube collector is the largest. The water cost is given
out to appreciate the economic performance of the solar desalination system. Under the
calculation conditions of this paper, the following conclusions can be drawn:
1. With the increasing of heating steam temperature of the first effect, the area of
evaporator and fresh water cost reduce the volume of storage tank increases, but fresh
water production and fresh water production per unit of collector area all change
slightly.
2. With the increasing of the number of effects, the volume of storage tank changes
slightly, but the area of evaporator and fresh water production increase, fresh water
cost reduces greatly.

Rajesh Tripathi, et.al [3], presented the thermal analysis of passive and active solar
distillation system by using the concept of solar fraction inside the solar still with the help of
AUTOCAD 2000 for given solar azimuth and altitude angle and latitude, longitude of the
place. Experiments have been conducted for 24 h (9 am to 8 am) for New Delhi climatic
conditions (latitude 28035' N, longitude 77012' E) during the months of November and
December for different water depths in the basin (0.05, 0.1 and 0.15 m) for passive as well as
active solar distillation system. Analytical expressions for water and glass cover temperatures
and yield have been derived in terms of design and climatic parameters. The following
conclusions were drawn: The degree of agreement between theoretical and experimental
results is more for active mode as compared to passive mode of operation. Solar fraction
plays a very significant role in thermal modeling of solar still for active as well as passive
mode of operation. Relative humidity should be measured inside the solar still, particularly,
for higher depths of water in the basin. Temperature dependent internal heat transfer
coefficients should be considered for thermal modeling of solar stills.
Anil Kr. Tiwari, et.al [4], did experimental analysis on a setup having latitude 28.35'N for
annual as well as seasonal performance. Different water depths in a single slope passive solar
still of cover inclined at 300 for the months of June 2004 to may 2005, with six clear days per
month is taken. The dominance of evaporative fraction within 32–370C has been noticed
depending on the water depth under consideration. On the basis of studies the following
conclusions were drawn:
M.K. Ghosal, et.al [5], concerned with seasonal analysis of solar desalination system
combined with a greenhouse. Analytical expressions for water temperature, greenhouse room
air temperature, glass cover temperature, flowing water mass over the glass cover, hourly
yield of fresh water and thermal efficiency have been derived in terms of design and climatic
parameters for a typical day of summer and winter period. Temperature rise of flowing water
mass with respect to distance and time in solar still unit has also been incorporated in the
mathematical modeling. Based on the above results, the following conclusions had been
drawnthe rate of increase in the yield of fresh water becomes steady after the length (L) of
south roof is 2.5 m. The yield and the fall in greenhouse maximum room air temperature
(ΔTr,max,) decrease with increase of flow rate.

Hikmet Ş. et.al [6], conducted an experiment on inclined solar water distillation (ISWD)
system, which generates distilled water (i.e., condensate) and hot water at the same time, was
modeled and simulated. In the parametric studies, the effects of feed water mass flow rate
and solar intensity on the system parameters were investigated. Finally, the system was
simulated using actual deviations of solar intensity and environment temperature during a
typical summer day in North Cyprus. The system can generate 3.5–5.4 kg (per m2 absorber
plate area) distilled water during a day (i.e., 7 am till 7 pm). The temperature of the produced
hot water reached as high as 60OC, and the average water temperature was about 40OC,
which is good enough for domestic use, depending on the type of feed water. The simulation
results are in good agreement with the experimental results.
Gajendra Singh, et. al [7], devolved a double slope hybrid (PVT) active solar still which
was designed, fabricated and experimentally tested under field conditions for different
configurations. Parallel forced mode configuration of the solar still will produce higher yield
than the other configurations and obtained as 7.54 kg/day with energy efficiency of 17.4%.
The hourly exergy efficiency is also found to be highest for the same configuration and
reached as high as 2.3%. The comparative yield obtained is about 1.4 times higher than that
obtained for hybrid (PVT) single slope solar still. Annual yield is expected to be 1939 kg.
The estimated energy payback time is found to be 30 years and is about 30% less than the
hybrid (PVT) single slope solar still. The total cost of the fabricated still is about 14% less
than hybrid (PVT) single slope solar still.

CHAPTER 5
BACKGROUND INFORAMTION
Solar distillers are often ignored and overlooked as a method of producing of clean water.
Many superior techniques have been developed to maximize production of potable water;
however these techniques are more prevalent and practical in developed countries. For
example, it is not practical to build a multimillion dollar desalination plant in an
underdeveloped region that cannot afford the cost.
The origins of the solar distiller can be traced back to 1551 when Arab alchemists used
simple solar stills to keep mine workers hydrated during the work day. Designs similar to
these ancient distillers still exist today. However, adaptations to that simple design now
incorporate changing factors, such as sun position, geographical location, and weather
conditions. A simple, single-basin design which incorporates the previously mentioned
design features proves to be reliable, cost effective, and efficient.
5.1 Water distillation
The process of water distillation involves heating water to the point of vaporization, at which
point the water will undergo a phase change from liquid to vapor. The water vapor then
condenses onto a cooler surface where it can be collected. Any contaminants contained in the
original feed water (such as salt, silt, and heavy metals) will remain in the distiller basin. The
collected water vapor is now free of all prior contaminants and is fit for consumption.
.
Figure5.1: Distillation illustration.

5.2 Basic concept of solar powered water distillation

A solar powered distillation device will contain three basic components: a basin in which the
contaminated water is contained, a surface above said feed water for the water vapor to
condense onto (i.e. a glass pane), and a catch basin for the distilled water to drain into.
During operation of the distiller, solar energy is collected by the feed water. When enough
energy is absorbed by the water, the water undergoes a phase change. The water vapors then
rises and comes into contact with the cooler transparent, inclined surface. Here the vapor
once again goes through a phase change from vapor back to liquid. The water then condenses
and runs off the transparent inclined surface into a collection bin. The distillation process rids
the contaminated water of any impurities and most commonly found chemical contaminants
within the environment
5.3 Solar distillation
Solar distillation (SD) technology is one of the solutions for purifying the brackish (more
saline than fresh) and underground water. It is a highly promising and an environment
friendly technology. It produces distilled water which can be used as potable water for
drinking and other purposes. The performance of solar distillation depends upon the design
of solar still, operating and climatic conditions.
Distillation is one of the mankind’s earliest forms of water treatment, and it is still a popular
treatment solution throughout the world today. In ancient times, the Greeks used this process
in their ships to convert sea water to drinking water and also to treat water in other area that
are fouled by natural and unnatural contaminants. Solar distillation is based on flat plate
collector technology and is used to convert salty brackish or seawater into potable water. The
device used for this purpose is also known as a solar still. In solar distillation technology
water is being evaporated by solar energy and is being condensed naturally, thus getting
potable water. A number of solar still designs have been developed and are currently used in
India. However, the most simple and popular design is known as the basin type solar still. It
has are rectangular or square basin made of aluminum/fiber reinforced plastic concrete. The
basin is blackened. The top is covered with a transparent material like glass with proper
sealing to allow solar energy to enter the basin and channels at the lower ends of the sloping
roof to collect pure water. When the sun rays pass through thetop transparent cover, they are
absorbed by the water and the blackened basin. Asthe water heats up, it changes into water

vapor, which rises and condenses on the inside surface of the transparent cover into the
channels, which are collected in a container. The silt or dirt remains in the bottom of the
blackened basin.
a b
Figure5.2a: Collector cum storage solar water heater.
Figure 5.2 b: Schematic diagram of a basin type solar still.
This technology is suitable for supplying drinking water in coastal areas and to large pockets
of different parts where water is not suitable for drinking purposes. The distilled water from
solar stills can also be used for feeding batteries. Also in rural schools of any developing
country, solar stills can find applications for supplying distilled water to school laboratories
as well as demonstrate the utility of solar energy to the students. Modular solar stills, which
can deliver 2–4 liters of distilled water every day for each square meter area, could be ideally
used in large numbers for providing potable water in remote areas for battery charging, for
small health centers, etc. Since these stills work on the principle of vapor pressure difference
between the atmosphere and on the surface of water, they deliver more output in dry
climates.
The operation and maintenance of the basin type solar still is simple. For efficient use, it is to
be ensured that water to be distilled is present in the basin in the required quantity whenever
in use. For removing salt and dirt, solar stills need to be cleaned every week by flushing the
basin with water; the glazing should be cleaned at least once each day by sprinkling water or
wiping it with a soft duster to improve transmitivity of solar insolation in the basin.

5.3.1Principles of solar water distillation
The basic principles of solar water distillation are simple, yet effective, as distillation
replicates the way nature makes rain. The sun's energy heats water to the point of
evaporation. As the water evaporates, water vapor rises, condensing on the glass surface for
collection. This process removes impurities, such as salts and heavy metals, and eliminates
microbiological organisms. The end result is water cleaner than the purest rainwater.
Figure5.3: Simple solar water distillation process
5.3.2Benefits of distillation:
Finally we decided to go by distillation method owing to following benefits:-
1. It produces water of high quality.
2. Maintenance is almost negligible.
3. Any type of water can be purified into potable water by means of this process.
4. The system will not involve any moving parts and will not require electricity to operate.
5. Wastage of water will be minimum.

5.3.3Needs and specifications of water purification:-

Our project centers on converting roughly 99.6% of water that is, in its natural form,
undrinkable, into clean and usable water. After researching and investigation, we outlined
our needs to be the following:
1. Efficiently produce minimum 2gallons of portable water per day.
2. Able to purify water from virtually any source included the ocean.
3. Relatively inexpensive to remain accessible to wide range of audiences.
4. Easy to use interface.
5. Intuitive setup and operation.
6. Provide clean useful drinking water without the need for an external energy source.
7. Reasonably compact and portable.
5.3.4 CLASSIFICATION OF DISTILLATION SYSTEMS
Solar
distillation
Passive Active
distillation distillation
Conventional New design Double condensing Nocturnal high temperature

solar still solar still chamber solar still Distillation distillation
Vertical solar Distillation with

Single slope Single glazed
still collector panel
Auxiliary
Multi effect
Double slope Double glazed heating
solar still
distillation
Inclined absorber
solar still
Inverted absorber solar

still
Figure 5.4: Flowchart showing classification of distillation systems

5.4 ADVANTAGES:
1. Has a maximum yield of distilled water
2. Easy to build and repair (minimize amount of maintenance needed)
3. Reliable and Easy to clean.
4. Produces minimal waste at end of life
5. Can withstand harsh weather conditions and degradation by heat and UV.
6. Easy to use (don’t need to disassemble to put the dirty water in and get the fresh
water out)
7. Be constructed with locally available materials, and natural building materials.
8. Be light weight for ease of handling and transportation.
9. Have an effective life of 10 to 20 Years.
10. No requirement of any external power sources.
11. Should also serve as a rainfall catchment surface.
12. Be able to withstand prevailing winds.
13. Inexpensive.
14. Should be cost low.
5.5 Problems and justification:
1. Dust on the transparent cover
2. Algae and scaling on the inner black surface
3. If it is flushed daily this may help
Dry out ruins the still because the white salt dries to the black surface, the glass heats up and
gets brittle, as well as the glass surface changes so that the condensate forms as droplets
instead of a film, which decreases performance.

CHAPTER 6
MATERIALS AND METHODOLOGY
6.1 Construction of Solar Still:
The base of the solar still is made of G.I. sheet of dimension (35’ x 15’ x 15 cm). This box is
embedded into another box of wood shown in figure 6.1. Here length L= 50 cm, Breath B=
100cm, Height H= 58 cm. and at opposite side = 25 cm, Angle, θ = 1350. This also contains
same box of thermo coal inside it between the G.I box and wooden box.
Figure6.1: Proposed model of solar distillation system

The thermo coal is having 20 cm thickness. The channel is fixed such that water slipping on
the surface of the glass will fall in this channel under the effect of gravity. A frame of fiber
stick is fixed with wooden box so that glass can rest on it. This completes construction of
model. The holes for inlet of water, outlet of brackish water and outlet of pure water is made
as per the convenience. We have made the outlet of brackish water at right bottom of model
(seeing from front of the model), outlet of pure water at the end of the channel and inlet at the
right wall above the outlet.
6.2 Parts of the solar still
The major parts of a solar still are given below.
1. Basin
2. Black Liner

3. Transparent Cover
4. Condensate Channel
5. Sealant
6. Insulation
7. Supply and DeliverySystem
1 Transparent Cover
Transparent cover should have high transmittance for solar radiation, opaque to thermal
radiation, resistance toabrasion, long life, low cost, high wet ability for water, lightweight,
easy to handle and apply, and universal availability.This cover transfer solar radiation in to
the still and also helps to condensate the vapor. The Materials used fortransparent cover are
glass or treated plastic.
2 Liners
A black liner is used in the basin of the solar still to absorb more solar radiation. The liner
should be durable,water tight, easily cleanable, low cost, and should be able to withstand
temperature around 1000C. The materials usedfor making liner are asphalt matt, black butyl
rubber, black polyethylene etc.
3 Sealant
A sealant is used in the solar still to prevent the vapor leakages through the sides of the
transparent cover.The sealant material should remain resilient at very low temperatures, low
cost, durable and easily applicable. Materialsused as sealant are putty, tars, tapes silicon etc.
4 Basin Trays
The salt/brackish water is initially stored in the basin tray of the solar still. The materials
used for basinsshould have long life, high resistance to corrosion and low cost. The
commonly used materials are wood, galvanizediron, steel, aluminum, asbestos cement,
masonry bricks, concrete, etc.
5 Condensate Channel
The vapors generated inside the solar still is condensed on inner surface of transparent cover
and thewater droplets move downwards through the transparent cover. This fresh water is
collected through the condensatechannel fitted inside the solar still. The materials used for
the condensate channel are Aluminum, galvanized iron,concrete, plastic materials, etc.

6 Insulation
The solar stills are thermally insulated to prevent the heat loss through the side walls and the
basin. Vaporleakage is prevented by the sealant. All the energy received from the sun should
be kept inside the still to vaporize water. The side walls and basin bottom are insulated by a
low thermal conductivity material. The materials commonlyused are saw dust, thermocouple,
glass wool etc. The better insulation will improve the performance of the still.
7 Water Supply Systems
Brackish or salt water should be supplied into the still continuously. In case of nocturnal
production stills,water is fed once in a day. In case of wick type systems, the feed rate of
water should be kept equal to theevaporation rate of water from the still. Generally the water
supply system includes an overhead tank, pipes to carrywater into the still and regulatory
valves.
6.3 Details of Different Parts of the System

1 Still Basin:
It is the part of the system in which the water to be distilled is kept. It is therefore essential
that it must absorb solar energy. Hence it is necessary that the material have high absorptivity
or very less reflectivity and very less transitivity. These are the criteria’s for selecting the
basin materials.
Kinds of the basin materials that can be used are as follows: 1. Leather sheet, 2. Ge silicon, 3.
Mild steel plate, 4. RPF (reinforced plastic) 5. G.I. (galvanized iron).
We have used blackened galvanized iron sheet (K= thermal conductivity= 300W/mOC)
(0.3mm thick).(SIZE: 35’ X 15’ X 15 cm BOX OF G.I.).
Figure 6.2: solar still.

2 Side Walls:
It generally provides rigidness to the still. But technically it provides thermal resistance to the
heat transfer that takes place from the system to the surrounding. So it must be made from the
material that is having low value of thermal conductivity and should be rigid enough to
sustain its own weight and the weight of the top cover. Different kinds of materials that can
be used are:
1) Wood,
2) Concrete,
3) Thermo coal,
4) RPF (reinforced plastic).
For better insulation we have used composite wall of thermo coal (inside) and wood
(outside). (Size: wood (k=thermal conductivity=0.6W/mOC)-8mm thick, thermo coal
(thermal conductivity=0.02W/mOC) 20 mm thick).
Figure6.3: Model of solar water distillation plant

3 Top Cover:
The passage from where irradiation occurs on the surface of the basin is top cover. Also it is
the surface where condensate collects. So the features of the top cover are:
1) Transparent to solar radiation,
2) Non absorbent and Non-adsorbent of water,
3) Clean and smooth surface.
The Materials Can Be Used Are:
1) Glass,

2) Polythene.
We have used glass (4mm) thick as top cover having rubber tube as frame border. (Size:
1000 x 600 cm).
Figure6.4: Front view of model.

4 Channel:
The condensate that is formed slides over the inclined top cover and falls in the passage, this
passage which fetches out the pure water is called channel. The materials that can be used
are:
1) P.V.C,
2) G.I,
3) RPF.
We have used P.V.C channel (size: 90cm X 1”).
5 Inlet valve:
The device which controls the flow of saline water into the still, we are using water level
regulating flow control valve in our model, which regulates the flow of water as soon as the
water level in the still drops, hence maintaining the constant water level in the still.
6 Outlet valve:
An simple tap or valve which can be manually turned OFF/ON, which is placed at left
bottom lower surface of model, it is turned off during normal working condition and it is
turned on for regular maintenance of model for cleaning of residual water as shown in the
figure.

Figure6.5: Outlet valve.

The experiment was carried out at R&D center of RLJIT (13.290N, 77.540E), from morning
9:00am to 4:00pm, on clear sunny and partially sunny days with water as a working fluid.
The temperature of condensate water and inside chamber is noted down hourly. Although
condensate flow is measured but not included in experimental data as it is very less flow rate.

CHAPTER 7
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
Experimental data for distillation of water
Day 1(8/05/15) (average ambient temperature 32OC)
Table7.1: Variation of temperature with time
Time Inside temperature Water temperature
9:00AM 37 32
10:00AM 39 36
11:00AM 45 41
12:00 Noon 50 44
1:00PM 55 51
2:00PM 57 53
3:00PM 55 50
4:00PM 51 47
70
60
Temparature 0C
50
40
30
inside temperature
20
water temperature
10
Time (hours)
Figure 7.1: chart of variation of temperature with time.
From table 7.1 and figure 7.1 it is clear that the inside temperature of basin increases
gradually up to 3:00pm and start decreasing at evening time. This concludes that the rate of
condensation will be more in the noon time and decreases in the evening time as temperature
of basin decreases.

Day 2 (11/05/15) (average ambient temperature 30OC)
Table 7.2: Variation of temperature with time

TIME Inside temperature water temperature
9:00AM 38 34
10:00AM 41 38
11:00AM 44 42
12:00 Noon 48 44
1:00PM 53 50
2:00PM 58 54
3:00PM 56 48
4:00PM 52 47
70
60
50
Temparature 0C
40
30
inside temperature
20 water temperature
10
Time (hours)
Figure 7.2:chart of variation of temperature with time.
From table 7.2 and figure 7.2 we can see that the inside temperature of basin increases
gradually up to 3:00pm and start decreasing at evening time. These conclude that the rate of
of basin decreases.

Day 3 (13/05/15)(average ambient temperature 33OC)

TIME Inside temperature water temperature
9:00AM 36 32
10:00AM 41 38
11:00AM 47 43
12:00 Noon 59 48
1:00PM 60 57
2:00PM 58 55
3:00PM 55 49
4:00PM 52 45
70
60
50
Temperature OC
40
30
inside temperature
20 water temperature
10
Time (hours)

of basin decreases.


9:00AM 37 33
10:00AM 41 37
11:00AM 46 42
12:00 Noon 53 44
1:00PM 56 47
2:00PM 58 53
3:00PM 55 49
4:00PM 52 46
70
60
Temparature 0C
50
40
30
inside temperature
20
water temperature
10
0
Time (hours)

gradually up to 3:00pm and start decreasing at evening time. These conclude that the rate of
of basin decreases.


9:00AM 36 33
10:00AM 39 37
11:00AM 42 41
12:00 Noon 48 46
1:00PM 51 49
2:00PM 56 54
3:00PM 54 50
4:00PM 51 48
60
50
Temparature 0C
40
30 inside temparature
20
10
0
water temparature
Time (hours)

of basin decreases.

Experimental data for distillation of distillated water


Time Inside temperature Outside temperature
9:00AM 32 29
10:00AM 35 30
11:00AM 37 31
12:00noon 39 30
1:00PM 43 30
2:00PM 44 31
3:00PM 40 29
4:00PM 36 29
50
45
40
Temperature 0c
35
30
25
20
Inside temperatre
15
10 Outside temperature
5
0
Time (hours)

of basin decreases.


9:00AM 31 28
10:00AM 33 28
11:00AM 37 30
12:00Noon 39 30
1:00PM 42 32
:00PM 45 30
3:00PM 42 29
4:00PM 38 28
50
45
40
Temperature Oc
35
30
25
20
Inside temperatre
15
10 Out side temperature
5
0
Time (hours)

of basin decreases.


9:00AM 32 29
10:00AM 34 29
11:00AM 35 31
12:00Noon 37 32
1:00PM 40 32
2:00PM 44 32
3:00PM 42 31
4:00PM 37 30
50
45
40
Temperature Oc
35
30 Inside temperature
25
20
15
5
0
Time (hours)

of basin decreases.


9:00AM 31 28
10:00AM 33 29
11:00AM 34 30
12:00Noon 36 31
1:00PM 40 32
2:00PM 45 33
3:00PM 43 31
4:00PM 38 29
50
45
40
Temperature Oc
35
30
25
20
Inside temperature
15
5
0
Time (hours)
Figure 7.9:Chart of variation of temperature with time.

of basin decreases.

CONCLUSIONSAND FUTURE SCOPE
In present work of evaporation and condensation process is done for different fluids to
improve the rate of condensation under outdoor conditions this system can condense water
effectively when compared to other fluid, this is because of better thermal properties of water
The use of solar distillation system reduces purification problems since it takes place without
external energy source.
FUTURE SCOPE
There were several improvements that could be implemented to improve the design and
performance but was not possible to do so during the course of the project due to time
restrictions. These suggestions are recommended for any future work to be conducted on the
solar still for desalination purposes:
1. Different oils with better thermodynamic properties can be used to optimize for a
specific application
2. The CFD analysis of the multiphase water evaporation process can be done by
simulating a buoyant flow due to radiation falling on the condensing cover rather than
heat supplied from the bottom. This could be done by applying radiation on the
condensing cover.

REFERENCES
[1].Fedali Saida, Bougriou Cherif, Thermal Modeling of Passive Solar StillEFEE’10thInternational
Symposium on Environment Friendly Energies in Electrical Applications 2-4 November 2010
Ghardaïa, Algeria
[2].Xiaohua Liu, Wenbo Chen, Ming Gu, Shengqiang Shen, Guojian Cao, Thermal and economic
analyses of solar desalination system with evacuated tube collectors, Solar Energy 93 (2013) 144–
150
[3].Rajesh Tripathi, G.N. Tiwari, Thermal modeling of passive and active solar stills for different
depths of water by using the concept of solar fraction, Solar Energy 80 (2006) 956–967.
[4].Anil Kr. Tiwari, G.N. Tiwari, Thermal modeling based on solar fraction and experimental study
of the annual and seasonal performance of a single slope passive solar still: The effect of water
depths, Desalination 207 (2007) 184–204.
[5]. M.K. Ghosal, GN. Tiwari, N.S.L. Srivastava, Thermal modeling of a controlled environment
greenhouse cum solar distillation for composite and warm humid climates of India, Desalination 15 1
(2002) 293-308
[6]. Hikmet S. Aybar, Mathematical modeling of an inclined solar water distillation system,
Desalination, 190 (2006) 63–70.
[7]. Gajendra Singh , Shiv Kumar, G.N. Tiwari, Design, fabrication and performance evaluation of a
hybrid photovoltaic thermal (PVT) double slope active solar still, Desalination 277 (2011) 399–406
[8] Somalia. CIA: The World Fact book. 2007. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-
factbook/print/so.html
[9] Water, Environment, and Sanitation. UNICEF.http://www.unicef.org/somalia/wes.html
[10] Sustainable Water in Support of Rehab and Stability in Southern Somalia. USAID From The
American People. http://eastafrica.usaid.gov/en/activity.1035.aspx
[11] Al-Hayek, Imad. Badran, Omar O. The Effect ofusing different designs ofsolar stills onwater
distillation, Desalination, Volume 169. 2004. Pages 121-127.
[12] Tiwari, Anil Kr. Tiwari, G. N Thermal modeling based on solar fraction and experimental study
of the annual and seasonal performance of a single slope passive solar Still: the effect of water
depths. Desalination, Volume 207. 2007. Pages 184-204.
[13] Fath, H.E.S. El-Samanoudy M. Fahmy, K. Hassabou, A. Thermal-economic analysis and
comparison between pyramid-shaped and singleslope solar still configurations. Desalination,
Volume 159. 2003. Pages 69-79.

[14] Badran, O.O. Experimental study of the enhancement parameters on a single slope solar still
productivity. Desalination, Volume 209. 2007. Pages 136-143.
[15] Eby-Martin, Sharon, Solar water purification for the border: solar distillation. New Mexico
State University.El Paso Solar Energy Association. (http://www.epsea.org/pdf/borderpact.pdf)
[16] Aybar, Hikmet S. Mathematical modeling of an inclined solar water distillation
system”.Desalination, Volume 190. 2006. Pages 63-70.
[17] Solar Distillation. The Schumacher centre for technology
&development.http://practicalaction.org/docs/technical_information_service/solar_distillation.pdf
[18] Solar water distiller. http://www.thefarm.org/charities/i4at/surv/sstill.htm
[19] Solar water plant – (Still & Pump). Salter, Stephen J. http://www3.telus.net/farallon/
[20] The world’s climate. World book encyclopedia and learning resources
http://www.worldbook.com/wb/Students?content_spotlight/climates/about_climates

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Introduction To Renewable Energy Resources: Department of Mechanical Engineering, RLJIT

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Solar water distillation 2014-15

Introduction to renewable energy resources

Department of Mechanical Engineering, RLJIT Page 1

Figure 1.1 Direct conversion of solar to electricity

Department of Mechanical Engineering, RLJIT Page 2

Department of Mechanical Engineering, RLJIT Page 3

2.2 SOLAR COLLECTORS

2.2.1 Solar pond

Figure 2.1Solar pond

Department of Mechanical Engineering, RLJIT Page 4

2.2.2 Photovoltaic converter

Department of Mechanical Engineering, RLJIT Page 5

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Figure 2.2 Low Temperature collector

Department of Mechanical Engineering, RLJIT Page 7

Figure 2.3 medium temperature collector

Department of Mechanical Engineering, RLJIT Page 8

2.2.5 High temperature solar collectors

Figure 2.4 High temperature collector systems

Department of Mechanical Engineering, RLJIT Page 9

Table 2.1 heat capacities of several common materials.

Figure.2.5 (a) Molecules of gas Figure 2.5 (b) Solid dispersion

Department of Mechanical Engineering, RLJIT Page 10

Solar energy storage:

Department of Mechanical Engineering, RLJIT Page 11

Where ISC= Solar constant.

Figure 2.6: Extraterrestrial and photovoltaic reference solar spectra.

Figure 2.7 Solar radiation spectrum

Department of Mechanical Engineering, RLJIT Page 12

Department of Mechanical Engineering, RLJIT Page 13

Figure 2.8: Important solar angles.

Department of Mechanical Engineering, RLJIT Page 14

2.4 APPLICATIONS OF SOLAR ENERGY

Department of Mechanical Engineering, RLJIT Page 15

Following are the few applications of solar energy:

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2.5 Solar radiation

Figure2.10: Components of solar radiation.

2.6 Solar radiation outside the earth atmosphere

Department of Mechanical Engineering, RLJIT Page 18

2.6.1 Solar radiation at the earth surface:

2.7 Measurement of solar radiation:

2.8 Solar Irradiance:

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How to avoid condensation

Energy is also required for evaporation to proceed from vegetation. Meteorological

Department of Mechanical Engineering, RLJIT Page 22

Department of Mechanical Engineering, RLJIT Page 23

Factors affecting evaporation

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Department of Mechanical Engineering, RLJIT Page 27

Department of Mechanical Engineering, RLJIT Page 28

5.2 Basic concept of solar powered water distillation

Department of Mechanical Engineering, RLJIT Page 29

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5.3.1Principles of solar water distillation

Figure5.3: Simple solar water distillation process

Department of Mechanical Engineering, RLJIT Page 31