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E-mail: kurany_hameda@h-eng.helwan.edu.eg
Abstract: A novel optimised 4 × 4 microstrip patch antenna array operating in the 28−38 GHz frequency range for fifth
generation mobile networks is presented. The proposed structure is fed by the corporate feed network printed on the same side
of the substrate. To improve the array radiation characteristics, a defected ground plane structure (DGS), which acts as coupled
c-shaped in the ground plane, is used. The dimensions of the antenna array structure are optimised using a new hybrid
approach involving the enhanced central force optimisation (ECFO) and Nelder–Mead (NM) algorithms. To illustrate the
convergence capability of the ECFO-NM algorithm, the results are compared with those obtained using stand-alone ECFO and
particle swarm optimisation algorithms. The results show the effect of DGS on the antenna performance characteristics, i.e. the
radiation efficiency and return loss are improved, on average, by ∼17.14 and 69.2%, respectively. Furthermore, the realised
antenna gain was increased by 2.44 dBi with a negligible effect on the half-power beamwidth. The optimised antenna array
yielded a broadband impedance bandwidth higher than 32% for a reflection coefficient lower than −12 dB and a total realised
gain of up to 18.65 dBi, which makes it suitable for imaging applications and millimetre-wave wireless communications.
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operating frequency, the bandwidth, and the required application Therefore, in [27], the DS size is adaptively reduced around the
[15–17]. In [15], the c-shaped slot was used in the partial ground probe's location with the best fitness after every kth step, in which
plane for its notch filtering characteristics at the 5–6 GHz the DS's boundary coordinates are halved in a coordinate-by-
frequency range. Various couplings of the c-shaped slot etched in coordinate basis.
ground plane structures were studied in [16] for the design of Recently, an effective technique for adaptively ‘compressing’
cross-coupled resonator filters. In addition, different external the DS named dynamic threshold optimisation (DTO) was
coupling mechanisms using a c-shaped slot in the ground plane presented in [28]. This approach was based on compressing the DS
were investigated in [17]. from below in the direction of the dependent variable using a series
In the last few decades, many optimisation techniques have of successively increasing ‘thresholds’, instead of shrinking the DS
been performed successfully in the field of antenna design, such as as in [24, 27]. Bounding the DS from below removes local
genetic algorithm [18, 19], particle swarm optimisation (PSO) [20– maxima, and as the threshold, or ‘floor’, is increased, more and
22], bacterial swarm optimisation (BSO) [23], and central force more local maxima are eliminated. In [28], DTO was applied to
optimisation (CFO) [24]. In [15], different optimisation techniques Schwefel's problem in 2 and 30 dimensions using CFO. The
such as PSO, BSO, and CFO were considered in order to design an DTO/CFO algorithm returned a best overall fitness with an error of
E-shaped patch antenna for Bluetooth/notched UWB applications. 2.688×10−5%. In DTO, the threshold value (T) is subsequently
To improve the convergence capability of these optimisation updated by applying the following auxiliary function:
techniques, many hybrid algorithms have been proposed to
synthesise both algorithms’ strengths [25–27]. The main idea is to g x = f x − Tk − 1 ⋅ U f x − Tk − 1 + Tk − 1 (1)
integrate the ability of exploitation of a global optimisation
algorithm with the ability of exploration of another algorithm. In where U[ . ] is the unit step function. Thus, for f x ≥ T,
[25, 26], a simple Nelder–Mead (NM) algorithm, which is a local g x = f x , whereas for f x < T, g x = T. DTO was
optimisation technique, was used along with a global BSO implemented with a P number of passes with a progressively
algorithm in order to explore the search space for the design of a increasing threshold until a user-specified termination criterion was
bow-tie antenna for 2.45 GHz and a hexa-band planar inverted F- met. On each successive pass, DTO changes the topology of the
antenna, respectively. In [27], a hybrid approach involving CFO decision space being searched as follows:
and NM algorithms for accurately determining the resonant
frequency and performing the feed-point calculation of rectangular Cthk
microstrip antenna elements with various dimensions and various T k = Fmin + Fbest − Fmin (2)
P
substrate thicknesses is presented. Recently, a novel deterministic
framework of CFO, called dynamic threshold optimisation (DTO) where k = 1, …, P (no threshold applied for k = 0), and Fbest and
was proposed in [28] to be an effective technique for adaptively
changing the topology of the decision space in a multidimensional Fmin are the best and worst overall fitnesses returned after pass k,
search and optimisation problem. respectively. The coefficient Cth was set to 0.98 [28]. In this paper,
In this study, a novel broadband millimetre-wave microstrip CFO exponents α = β = 2, the reposition factor Frep was set to 0.5,
patch antenna array is proposed to resonate from 28 to 38 GHz for and the gravitational constant Go = 1 [24, 27–29].
a matched input impedance (Zin) of 50 Ω. The array antenna Once the global optima are found using the ECFO algorithm,
dimensions were optimised using a new hybrid approach involving the NM local optimisation technique [30] is performed to increase
enhanced CFO (ECFO) based on the DTO approach and the NM exploitation ability. The NM method thus falls in the general class
algorithm. Our results will be compared with those obtained using of direct search methods. It is based on the comparison of the
stand-alone ECFO and a well-known PSO algorithm to show the function values at the (D + 1) vertices for D-dimensional decision
convergence capability of the proposed technique. In addition, an variables. The simplex method has essentially four possible steps
appropriate defected ground plane structure is introduced to during each iteration: reflection, contraction in one dimension,
enhance the resonant frequencies and bandwidth of the antenna contraction around the low vertex, and expansion. Four scalar
array. The proposed design was analysed completely using CST parameters must be specified to define a complete NM method:
Microwave Studio and linked with the ECFO-NM algorithm, coefficients of reflection (ρ), expansion (χ), contraction (γ), and
coded in MATLAB, to optimise the antenna dimensions. Finally, shrinkage (σ). The nearly universally selected values used in the
our results are compared with those obtained using the finite- standard NM algorithm are ρ = 1, χ = 2, γ = 0.5, and σ = 0.5 [30].
difference time-domain (FDTD) program written in MATLAB and The main steps of the ECFO-NM algorithm are summarised in the
with the measured results to verify the validity of the numerical flowchart shown in Fig. 1.
simulations.
The remaining of this paper is organised as follows. Section 2 3 Antenna array geometry and configuration
provides a brief literature overview of the proposed hybrid ECFO-
NM algorithm. In Section 3, the description of proposed antenna Fig. 2 shows a schematic of the structure of the proposed 4 × 4
array configuration is explained. In Section 4, the simulated and microstrip patch array antenna, in which each single element
measured results are presented and discussed. Lastly, Section 5 consists of three radial stub-like patches with a tapering towards
contains the general conclusions of this paper. the outer end. This geometry was designed and constructed on a
50 × 50 mm2 Rogers® Duroid™ RT5880 with a 0.508 mm
substrate thickness, relative permittivity ɛr = 2.2, and loss tangent
2 Hybrid ECFO-NM algorithm
tanδ = 0.0009. In the proposed design, the spacing between every
The goal of any optimisation technique is to formulate an efficient two elements is 0.75λ in both the x and y directions. Other array
method to navigate through a large parameter space in order to find antenna parameters will be optimised within the assigned decision
the best set of values. One of the approaches to improve the spaces, as summarised in Table 1. The inset impedance of the
performance of global optimisation techniques is to limit the antenna was chosen to be 50 Ω for constructing a corporate feed
parameter's decision space (DS) range. In [24], their developed network; this corporate feed network is utilised for power division
improved CFO algorithm includes an adaptive strategy that between antenna elements. In this paper, a microstrip transmission
periodically shrinks the DS around the probe with the best fitness line feed was chosen for integrating with millimetre-wave circuits
by making the independent variable's domain shrink from the [31].
‘sides’ to improve convergence rate. The study is based on Fig. 2b shows the bottom view of the proposed antenna array,
determining where along the diagonal of the orthogonal plane the illustrating the structure of the defected ground plane. The DGS
probe array should be placed (γbest) by selecting the best value of includes 12 unit cells that are arranged in a special manner mainly
parameter γ, which starts from 0 and can go up to 1 in increments below the main feeding line. These are used for reducing the
of 0.1. This means excessive runs should be performed first for mutual coupling between antenna array elements in addition to
each optimised problem to determine its corresponding γbest. reducing the losses caused by surface waves and unwanted
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Fig. 1 Flowchart showing the main steps of the hybrid ECFO-NM algorithm
responses. Each unit cell contains two opposed c-shaped slot 38 GHz
configurations, which concentrate the magnetic and electric fields Objective function = max ∑ [G( f ) + S11( f ) ] (3)
near the short-circuit ends and the opposite side, respectively. Both f = 28 GHz
positive and negative coupling coefficients can be realised easily.
This helps to reduce the mutual coupling between antenna array The antenna array dimensions were first optimised using the PSO
elements in the top side of antenna, increases the overall system and stand-alone ECFO algorithms with an evaluation number of
performance, results in higher gain and high efficiency, and makes 20,000. We found that slightly better results were obtained using
the structure more compact. The DGS dimensions have been the stand-alone ECFO algorithm when compared with the PSO
parametrically optimised for the frequency range of 28–37 GHz. algorithm in terms of return loss and realised gain, as depicted in
Table 2 contains the dimensions of one element of the DGS, in Fig. 3. Then, the hybrid ECFO-NM algorithm was used with a total
which the inter-element spacing among DGS elements is set to evaluation number of 10,750 (10,000 evaluations using the ECFO
1.32 mm. algorithm and the remaining 750 using the NM algorithm). We
The microstrip patch antenna array was analysed completely found that better results were obtained, since the average gain and
using CST Microwave Studio. Then, CST Microwave Studio was return loss across the entire assigned band were improved by 26.54
linked with the ECFO-NM algorithm, which was coded in and 37.88%, respectively, compared with stand-alone ECFO.
MATLAB, to optimise the dimensions of the proposed antenna Fig. 4 shows a comparison between the normalised objective
array. Interchanging information between CST Microwave Studio values of the PSO, ECFO, and hybrid ECFO-NM algorithms
and MATLAB is fully described in [32]. In order to validate the plotted against iterations number. It should be noted that the
numerical results obtained from the CST Simulator, the proposed ECFO-NM algorithm outperformed the stand-alone ECFO and
antenna array was simulated using the FDTD method written in classical PSO algorithms by 8.62 and 34.84%, respectively, in
MATLAB and the results were compared with the measurements. addition to requiring 46.25% less iterations. The comparison of the
simulations shows that the ECFO-NM optimisation technique has
the ability to enhance the global search capability of the original
4 Simulated and measured results ECFO method and effectively improves its convergence capability.
To design a broadband microstrip patch antenna array operating in The ECFO-NM method enhanced the search capability by 24.34%
the frequency range of 28–38 GHz, the applied objective function compared with the ECFO method, which stopped improvement
should focus on maximising antenna gain (G) and minimising after iteration 202, and also by 52.67% compared with the PSO
return loss (S11) as follows: method which stopped improvement at iteration 128.
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Fig. 3 Comparison of return loss and antenna gain of the proposed 4 × 4
patch array antenna using PSO, ECFO, and hybrid ECFO-NM algorithms
(a) Return loss, (b) Antenna gain
Table 1 Decision space for each parameter of the proposed array antenna and the corresponding optimised value using PSO,
stand-alone ECFO, and the hybrid ECFO-NM algorithms
Variable, mm Decision space Initial value Optimised values
From To PSO Stand-alone ECFO Hybrid ECFO-NM
a 1 1.5 1.25 1.15 1.08 1.21
a1 2 8 4 4.82 5.26 3.838
a2 8 10 8.5 9.3 8.87 9.616
a3 0.25 1 0.25 0.34 0.56 0.5
a4 0.15 0.25 0.2 0.23 0.205 0.205
a5 1.5 2 1.5 1.53 1.85 1.746
a6 18 25 20 22.74 21.65 20.841
a7 0.25 0.75 0.5 0.358 0.674 0.498
a8 0.15 0.25 0.2 0.195 0.201 0.215
b 0.5 1 0.75 0.693 0.738 0.789
b1 2 3 2.5 2.46 2.63 2.497
b2 0.1 0.2 0.15 0.174 0.179 0.185
b3 1.5 2.5 2 2.16 1.739 1.825
b4 5.5 7.5 6.5 6.38 6.184 5.966
b5 0.25 0.75 0.5 0.379 0.418 0.498
b6 0.15 0.25 0.2 0.175 0.201 0.215
b7 2 5 3.5 3.02 2.96 2.44
b8 16 20 18 17.35 19.64 16.935
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current is a travelling-wave current in the medium and high omnidirectional radiation characteristic in the H-plane and a low
frequency bands, while it is standing wave current in the low SLL in the E-plane. Thus, the plane perpendicular to the current
frequency band. As a consequence, and determined from empirical direction has relatively low radiation levels, while the SLL in the
analysis, when the travelling-wave current has an electrical length E-plane is relatively high. As a result of this, the radiation patterns
longer than the wavelength, the angle between the maximum begin to split up.
radiation direction and the current direction is relatively small Operating in the low-frequency region (at 28 GHz) can
(<90°). When the standing wave current has an electrical length guarantee the omnidirectional radiation characteristic of the
shorter than the wavelength, the maximum radiation direction is proposed antenna and the radiation patterns not splitting up.
perpendicular to the current direction. At the same time, it has However, when operating in the high frequency region (at 38
GHz), the splitting phenomenon occurs in the radiation patterns.
Simulation results in far-field radiation patterns have also proved
this. Therefore, if a wide radiation pattern across a large bandwidth
is required, miniaturisation is necessary. This fact further implies
that the proposed array should have stable radiation attributes and
impedance characteristics over a wide frequency band. Fig. 6
shows the calculated E-plane and H-plane co-polarisation and X-
pol radiation patterns for the suggested patch array antenna at
various frequencies (28, 33, and 38 GHz). As anticipated, the
figure clearly depicts that the patch array has a directional radiation
pattern in the horizontal H-plane, whilst the E-plane has broadside
and approximately symmetric radiation patterns.
A photograph of the fabricated patch array antenna optimised
Fig. 4 Comparison of the normalised objective value for PSO, ECFO, and
using the ECFO-NM algorithm is shown in Fig. 7. The
hybrid ECFO-NM algorithm versus iterations number
measurements of S11 and the array antenna gain are presented in
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Fig. 8 Comparison of the measured and simulated values of S11 and
antenna gain of the proposed 4 × 4 patch array antenna with and without
DGS
(a) Return loss, (b) Antenna gain
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Table 3 Performance comparison of the suggested patch array antenna with and without DGS at 28 and 38 GHz
Patch antenna array
Without DGS With DGS
28 GHz 38 GHz 28 GHz 38 GHz
radiation efficiency, % 86.4 86.1 93 93.5
total efficiency, % 83 84.9 92.2 93.4
gain, dBi 15.9 16.2 17.94 17.61
S11, dB −13.2 −12.6 −17.77 −17.55
E-plane HPBW 30° 31.2° 30.1° 31°
SLL, dB −9.8 −10.2 −13 −12.3
X-pol level, dB 48.3 50.4 59.2 61.8
H-plane HPBW 11.9° 12° 12.8° 12.1°
SLL, dB −11.15 −10.6 −11.5 −10.9
X-pol level, dB 49.8 50.3 68.3 66.7
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