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8 Photosynthesis:
Carbon Reactions
ciency of photosynthesis. This chapter will also describe The Carboxylation of Ribulose Bisphosphate Is
biochemical mechanisms for concentrating carbon dioxide Catalyzed by the Enzyme Rubisco
that allow plants to mitigate the impact of photorespira- CO2 enters the Calvin cycle by reacting with ribulose-1,5-
tion: CO2 pumps, C4 metabolism, and crassulacean acid bisphosphate to yield two molecules of 3-phosphoglycerate
metabolism (CAM). We will close the chapter with a con- (Figure 8.3 and Table 8.1), a reaction catalyzed by the chloro-
sideration of the synthesis of sucrose and starch. plast enzyme ribulose bisphosphate carboxylase/oxy-
genase, referred to as rubisco (see Web Topic 8.2). As indi-
THE CALVIN CYCLE
All photosynthetic eukaryotes, from the most primitive alga Start of cycle
to the most advanced angiosperm, reduce CO2 to carbohy- Ribulose-1,5-
CO2 + H2O
drate via the same basic mechanism: the photosynthetic car- bisphosphate
bon reduction cycle originally described for C3 species (the
Calvin cycle, or reductive pentose phosphate [RPP] cycle).
ADP Carboxylation
Other metabolic pathways associated with the photosyn-
thetic fixation of CO2, such as the C4 photosynthetic carbon
assimilation cycle and the photorespiratory carbon oxida-
tion cycle, are either auxiliary to or dependent on the basic
Regeneration
Calvin cycle. 3-phosphoglycerate
In this section we will examine how CO2 is fixed by the
Calvin cycle through the use of ATP and NADPH generated
by the light reactions (Figure 8.1), and how the Calvin cycle
is regulated.
ATP ATP
3 ADP CH2OP
Glyceraldehyde
Phosphoribulokinase 3-phosphate
3 ATP
CH2OH CH2OH CH2OPO32– Triose
phosphate
C O C O Pi H2O C O isomerase
HO C H HO C H HO C H Aldolase
O H
CH2OH
C
C O
H C OH Aldolase
H C OH Transketolase H C OH
H C OH CH2OP
CH2OP Erythrose
4-phosphate
Ribulose
5-phosphate
CH2OPO32– CH2OH
C O C O
CH2OH CH2OH
HO C H H2O Pi HO C H
C O Ribulose C O
5-phosphate H C OH H C OH
H C OH 3-epimerase HO C H
Sedoheptulose
H C OH 1,7-bisphosphatase H C OH
H C OH H C OH
H C OH H C OH
CH2OP CH2OP
CH2OP CH2OP
Ribulose Xylulose
5-phosphate 5-phosphate Sedoheptulose Sedoheptulose
1,7-bisphosphate 7-phosphate
O H
CH2OH C
C O Ribulose H C OH
5-phosphate
H C OH isomerase H C OH Transketolase
H C OH H C OH
CH2OP CH2OP
Ribulose Ribose
5-phosphate 5-phosphate
FIGURE 8.3 The Calvin cycle. The carboxylation of three molecules of ribulose-1,5-
bisphosphate leads to the net synthesis of one molecule of glyceraldehyde-3-phos-
phate and the regeneration of the three molecules of starting material. This process
starts and ends with three molecules of ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate, reflecting the
cyclic nature of the pathway.
148 Chapter 8
TABLE 8.1
Reactions of the Calvin cycle
Enzyme Reaction
1. Ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase 6 Ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate + 6 CO2 + 6 H2O →
12 (3-phosphoglycerate) + 12 H+
2. 3-Phosphoglycerate kinase 12 (3-Phosphoglycerate) + 12 ATP →
12 (1,3-bisphosphoglycerate) + 12 ADP
3. NADP:glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase 12 (1,3-Bisphosphoglycerate) + 12 NADPH + 12 H+ →
12 glyceraldehye-3-phosphate + 12 NADP+ + 12 Pi
4. Triose phosphate isomerase 5 Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate →
5 dihydroxyacetone-3-phosphate
5. Aldolase 3 Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate + 3 dihydroxyacetone-
3-phosphate → 3 fructose-1,6-bisphosphate
6. Fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase 3 Fructose-1,6-bisphosphate + 3 H2O → 3 fructose-
6-phosphate + 3 Pi
7. Transketolase 2 Fructose-6-phosphate + 2 glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate →
2 erythrose-4-phosphate + 2 xylulose-5-phosphate
8. Aldolase 2 Erythrose-4-phosphate + 2 dihydroxyacetone-3-phosphate →
2 sedoheptulose-1,7-bisphosphate
9. Sedoheptulose-1,7,bisphosphatase 2 Sedoheptulose-1,7-bisphosphate + 2 H2O → 2 sedoheptulose-
7-phosphate + 2 Pi
10. Transketolase 2 Sedoheptulose-7-phosphate + 2 glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate →
2 ribose-5-phosphate + 2 xylulose-5-phosphate
11a. Ribulose-5-phosphate epimerase 4 Xylulose-5-phosphate → 4 ribulose-5-phosphate
11b. Ribose-5-phosphate isomerase 2 Ribose-5-phosphate → 2 ribulose-5-phosphate
12. Ribulose-5-phosphate kinase 6 Ribulose-5-phosphate + 6 ATP → 6 ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate +
6 ADP + 6 H+
Net: 6 CO2 + 11 H2O + 12 NADPH + 18 ATP → Fructose-6-phosphate + 12 NADP+ + 6 H+ + 18 ADP + 17 Pi
cated by the full name, the enzyme also has an oxygenase Rubisco is very abundant, representing up to 40% of the
activity in which O2 competes with CO2 for the common total soluble protein of most leaves. The concentration of
substrate ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate (Lorimer 1983). As we rubisco active sites within the chloroplast stroma is calcu-
will discuss later, this property limits net CO2 fixation. lated to be about 4 mM, or about 500 times greater than the
As shown in Figure 8.4, CO2 is added to carbon 2 of ribu- concentration of its CO2 substrate (see Web Topic 8.3).
lose-1,5-bisphosphate, yielding an unstable, enzyme-bound
intermediate, which is hydrolyzed to yield two molecules of Triose Phosphates Are Formed in the Reduction
the stable product 3-phosphoglycerate (see Table 8.1, reac- Step of the Calvin Cycle
tion 1). The two molecules of 3-phosphoglycerate—labeled Next in the Calvin cycle (Figure 8.3 and Table 8.1), the 3-
“upper” and “lower” on the figure—are distinguished by phosphoglycerate formed in the carboxylation stage under-
the fact that the upper molecule contains the newly incor- goes two modifications:
porated carbon dioxide, designated here as *CO2. 1. It is first phosphorylated via 3-phosphoglycerate
Two properties of the carboxylase reaction are especially kinase to 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate through use of the
important: ATP generated in the light reactions (Table 8.1, reac-
1. The negative change in free energy (see Chapter 2 on tion 2).
the web site for a discussion of free energy) associated 2. Then it is reduced to glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate
with the carboxylation of ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate is through use of the NADPH generated by the light
large; thus the forward reaction is strongly favored. reactions (Table 8.1, reaction 3). The chloroplast
2. The affinity of rubisco for CO2 is sufficiently high to enzyme NADP:glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehy-
ensure rapid carboxylation at the low concentrations drogenase catalyzes this step. Note that the enzyme
of CO2 found in photosynthetic cells. is similar to that of glycolysis (which will be dis-
Photosynthesis: Carbon Reactions 149
cussed in Chapter 11), except that NADP rather than 6. This seven-carbon bisphosphate is then hydrolyzed
NAD is the coenzyme. An NADP-linked form of the by way of a specific phosphatase to give sedoheptu-
enzyme is synthesized during chloroplast develop- lose-7-phosphate (reaction 9).
ment (greening), and this form is preferentially used
7. Sedoheptulose-7-phosphate donates a two-carbon
in biosynthetic reactions.
unit to the fifth (and last) molecule of glyceralde-
hyde-3-phosphate via transketolase and produces
Operation of the Calvin Cycle Requires the ribose-5-phosphate (from C-3 to C-7 of sedoheptu-
Regeneration of Ribulose-1,5-Bisphosphate lose) and xylulose-5-phosphate (from C-2 of the sedo-
heptulose and the glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate)
The continued uptake of CO2 requires that the CO2 accep- (reaction 10).
tor, ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate, be constantly regenerated.
To prevent depletion of Calvin cycle intermediates, three 8. The two molecules of xylulose-5-phosphate are con-
molecules of ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate (15 carbons total) verted to two molecules of ribulose-5-phosphate sug-
are formed by reactions that reshuffle the carbons from the ars by a ribulose-5-phosphate epimerase (reaction
five molecules of triose phosphate (5 × 3 = 15 carbons). This 11a). The third molecule of ribulose-5-phosphate is
formed from ribose-5-phosphate by ribose-5-phos-
reshuffling consists of reactions 4 through 12 in Table 8.1
phate isomerase (reaction 11b).
(see also Figure 8.3):
1. One molecule of glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate is con- 9. Finally, ribulose-5-phosphate kinase catalyzes the phos-
verted via triose phosphate isomerase to dihydroxy- phorylation of ribulose-5-phosphate with ATP, thus
acetone-3-phosphate in an isomerization reaction regenerating the three needed molecules of the initial
(reaction 4). CO2 acceptor, ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate (reaction 12).
increase in the rate of photosynthesis during the induction molecules. Therefore the Calvin cycle consumes (12 × 217)
period is due in part to the activation of enzymes by light + (18 × 29) = 3126 kJ (750 kcal) in the form of NADPH and
(discussed later), and in part to an increase in the concen- ATP, resulting in a thermodynamic efficiency close to 90%.
tration of intermediates of the Calvin cycle. An examination of these calculations shows that the
bulk of the energy required for the conversion of CO2 to
Calvin Cycle Stoichiometry Shows That Only carbohydrate comes from NADPH. That is, 2 mol NADPH
One-Sixth of the Triose Phosphate Is Used × 52 kcal mol–1 = 104 kcal, but 3 mol ATP × 7 kcal mol–1 =
for Sucrose or Starch 21 kcal. Thus, 83% (104 of 125 kcal) of the energy stored
The synthesis of carbohydrates (starch, sucrose) provides comes from the reductant NADPH.
a sink ensuring an adequate flow of carbon atoms through The Calvin cycle does not occur in all autotrophic cells.
the Calvin cycle under conditions of continuous CO2 Some anaerobic bacteria use other pathways for auto-
uptake. An important feature of the cycle is its overall sto- trophic growth:
ichiometry. At the onset of illumination, most of the triose • The ferredoxin-mediated synthesis of organic acids
phosphates are drawn back into the cycle to facilitate the from acetyl– and succinyl– CoA derivatives via a
buildup of an adequate concentration of metabolites. When reversal of the citric acid cycle (the reductive car-
photosynthesis reaches a steady state, however, five-sixths boxylic acid cycle of green sulfur bacteria)
of the triose phosphate contributes to regeneration of the
ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate, and one-sixth is exported to the • The glyoxylate-producing cycle (the hydroxypropi-
cytosol for the synthesis of sucrose or other metabolites that onate pathway of green nonsulfur bacteria)
are converted to starch in the chloroplast. • The linear route (acetyl-CoA pathway) of acetogenic,
An input of energy, provided by ATP and NADPH, is methanogenic bacteria
required in order to keep the cycle functioning in the fixa-
tion of CO2. The calculation at the end of Table 8.1 shows Thus although the Calvin cycle is quantitatively the most
that in order to synthesize the equivalent of 1 molecule of important pathway of autotrophic CO2 fixation, others
hexose, 6 molecules of CO2 are fixed at the expense of 18 have been described.
ATP and 12 NADPH. In other words, the Calvin cycle con-
sumes two molecules of NADPH and three molecules of
ATP for every molecule of CO2 fixed into carbohydrate.
REGULATION OF THE CALVIN CYCLE
We can compute the maximal overall thermodynamic The high energy efficiency of the Calvin cycle indicates that
efficiency of photosynthesis if we know the energy content some form of regulation ensures that all intermediates in
of the light, the minimum quantum requirement (moles of the cycle are present at adequate concentrations and that
quanta absorbed per mole of CO2 fixed; see Chapter 7), and the cycle is turned off when it is not needed in the dark. In
the energy stored in a mole of carbohydrate (hexose). general, variation in the concentration or in the specific
Red light at 680 nm contains 175 kJ (42 kcal) per quan- activity of enzymes modulates catalytic rates, thereby
tum mole of photons. The minimum quantum requirement adjusting the level of metabolites in the cycle.
is usually calculated to be 8 photons per molecule of CO2 Changes in gene expression and protein biosynthesis
fixed, although the number obtained experimentally is 9 to regulate enzyme concentration. Posttranslational modifi-
10 (see Chapter 7). Therefore, the minimum light energy cation of proteins contributes to the regulation of enzyme
needed to reduce 6 moles of CO2 to a mole of hexose is activity. At the genetic level the amount of each enzyme
approximately 6 × 8 × 175 kJ = 8400 kJ (2016 kcal). How- present in the chloroplast stroma is regulated by mecha-
ever, a mole of a hexose such as fructose yields only 2804 nisms that control expression of the nuclear and chloroplast
kJ (673 kcal) when totally oxidized. genomes (Maier et al. 1995; Purton 1995).
Comparing 8400 and 2804 kJ, we see that the maximum Short-term regulation of the Calvin cycle is achieved by
overall thermodynamic efficiency of photosynthesis is several mechanisms that optimize the concentration of
about 33%. However, most of the unused light energy is intermediates. These mechanisms minimize reactions oper-
lost in the generation of ATP and NADPH by the light reac- ating in opposing directions, which would waste resources
tions (see Chapter 7) rather than during operation of the (Wolosiuk et al. 1993). Two general mechanisms can change
Calvin cycle. the kinetic properties of enzymes:
We can calculate the efficiency of the Calvin cycle more 1. The transformation of covalent bonds such as the
directly by computing the changes in free energy associated reduction of disulfides and the carbamylation of
with the hydrolysis of ATP and the oxidation of NADPH, amino groups, which generate a chemically modified
which are 29 and 217 kJ (7 and 52 kcal) per mole, respec- enzyme.
tively. We saw in the list summarizing the Calvin cycle reac-
tions that the synthesis of 1 molecule of fructose-6-phos- 2. The modification of noncovalent interactions, such as
phate from 6 molecules of CO2 uses 12 NADPH and 18 ATP the binding of metabolites or changes in the composi-
Photosynthesis: Carbon Reactions 151
4. Sedoheptulose-1,7-bisphosphatase SH HS S S
5. Ribulose-5-phosphate kinase
2 O2
(2.1)
2 POCH2 — CHOH — CO2– POCH2 — CHOH — CO2–
+
3-phosphoglycerate 3-phosphoglycerate
2 POCH2 — CO2–
2-phosphoglycolate
ADP
2 H2O
(2.10)
(2.2) HO2C — (CH2)2 — HO2C — (CH2)2 —
CH N H2 — CO2 CO — CO2 ATP
2 Pi Gluta mate a-ketoglutarate
2 HOCH2 — CO2– HOCH2 — HOCH — CO2–
Glycolate Glycerate
PEROXISOME
(2.5) (2.8)
a-ketoglutarate
Glycine Serine
2 Glycine Serine
H2O CO2
FIGURE 8.7 The main reactions of the photorespiratory 3-phosphoglycerate and incorporated into the Calvin cycle.
cycle. Operation of the C2 oxidative photosynthetic cycle Inorganic nitrogen (ammonia) released by the mitochon-
involves the cooperative interaction among three drion is captured by the chloroplast for the incorporation
organelles: chloroplasts, mitochondria, and peroxisomes. into amino acids by using appropiate skeletons (α-ketoglu-
Two molecules of glycolate (four carbons) transported from tarate). The heavy arrow in red marks the assimilation of
the chloroplast into the peroxisome are converted to ammonia into glutamate catalyzed by glutamine syn-
glycine, which in turn is exported to the mitochondrion thetase. In addition, the uptake of oxygen in the peroxi-
and transformed to serine (three carbons) with the concur- some supports a short oxygen cycle coupled to oxidative
rent release of carbon dioxide (one carbon). Serine is trans- reactions. The flow of carbon, nitrogen and oxygen are indi-
ported to the peroxisome and transformed to glycerate. The cated in black, red and blue, respectively. See Table 8.2 for a
latter flows to the chloroplast where it is phosphorylated to description of each numbered reaction.
154 Chapter 8
TABLE 8.2
Reactions of the C2 oxidative photosynthetic carbon cycle
Enzyme Reaction
1. Ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase 2 Ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate + 2 O2 → 2 phosphoglycolate +
(chloroplast) 2 3-phosphoglycerate + 4 H+
2. Phosphoglycolate phosphatase (chloroplast) 2 Phosphoglycolate + 2 H2O → 2 glycolate + 2 Pi
3. Glycolate oxidase (peroxisome) 2 Glycolate + 2 O2 → 2 glyoxylate + 2 H2O2
4. Catalase (peroxisome) 2 H2O2 → 2 H2O + O2
5. Glyoxylate:glutamate aminotransferase (peroxisome) 2 Glyoxylate + 2 glutamate → 2 glycine + 2 α-ketoglutarate
6. Glycine decarboxylase (mitochondrion) Glycine + NAD+ + H+ + H4-folate → NADH + CO2 + NH4+ +
methylene-H4-folate
7. Serine hydroxymethyltransferase (mitochondrion) Methylene-H4-folate + H2O + glycine → serine + H4-folate
8. Serine aminotransferase (peroxisome) Serine + α-ketoglutarate → hydroxypyruvate + glutamate
9. Hydroxypyruvate reductase (peroxisome) Hydroxypyruvate + NADH + H+ → glycerate + NAD+
10. Glycerate kinase (chloroplast) Glycerate + ATP → 3-phosphoglycerate + ADP + H+
Note: Upon the release of glycolate from the chloroplast (reactions 2 → 3), the interplay of this organelle with the peroxisome and the mitochon-
drion drives the following overall reaction:
2 Glycolate + glutamate + O2 → glycerate + α-ketoglutarate + NH4+ + CO2 + H2O
The 3-phosphoglycerate formed in the chloroplast (reaction 10) is converted to ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate via the reductive and regenerative
reactions of the Calvin cycle. The ammonia and α-ketoglutarate are converted to glutamate in the chloroplast by ferrodoxin-linked glutamate
synthase (GOGAT).
Pi stands for inorganic phosphate.
less of taxonomic origin. Even the rubisco from anaerobic, dependent oxidase: glycolate oxidase (Figure 8.7 and Table
autotrophic bacteria catalyzes the oxygenase reaction when 8.2, reaction 3). The vast amounts of hydrogen peroxide
exposed to oxygen. released in the peroxisome are destroyed by the action of
As alternative substrates for rubisco, CO2 and O2 com- catalase (Table 8.2, reaction 4) while the glyoxylate under-
pete for reaction with ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate because goes transamination (reaction 5). The amino donor for this
carboxylation and oxygenation occur within the same transamination is probably glutamate, and the product is
active site of the enzyme. Offered equal concentrations of the amino acid glycine.
CO2 and O2 in a test tube, angiosperm rubiscos fix CO2 Glycine leaves the peroxisome and enters the mito-
about 80 times faster than they oxygenate. However, an chondrion (see Figure 8.7). There the glycine decarboxylase
aqueous solution in equilibrium with air at 25°C has a multienzyme complex catalyzes the conversion of two mol-
CO2:O2 ratio of 0.0416 (see Web Topics 8.2 and 8.3). At ecules of glycine and one of NAD+ to one molecule each of
these concentrations, carboxylation in air outruns oxy- serine, NADH, NH4+ and CO2 (Table 8.2, reactions 6 and
genation by a scant three to one. 7). This multienzyme complex, present in large concentra-
The C2 oxidative photosynthetic carbon cycle acts as a tions in the matrix of plant mitochondria, comprises four
scavenger operation to recover fixed carbon lost during proteins, named H-protein (a lipoamide-containing
photorespiration by the oxygenase reaction of rubisco (Web polypeptide), P-protein (a 200 kDa, homodimer, pyridoxal
Topic 8.6). The 2-phosphoglycolate formed in the chloro- phosphate-containing protein), T-protein (a folate-de-
plast by oxygenation of ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate is pendent protein), and L-protein (a flavin adenine
rapidly hydrolyzed to glycolate by a specific chloroplast nucleotide–containing protein).
phosphatase (Figure 8.7 and Table 8.2, reaction 2). Subse- The ammonia formed in the oxidation of glycine dif-
quent metabolism of the glycolate involves the cooperation fuses rapidly from the matrix of mitochondria to chloro-
of two other organelles: peroxisomes and mitochondria plasts, where glutamine synthetase combines it with car-
(see Chapter 1) (Tolbert 1981). bon skeletons to form amino acids. The newly formed
Glycolate leaves the chloroplast via a specific trans- serine leaves the mitochondria and enters the peroxisome,
porter protein in the envelope membrane and diffuses to where it is converted first by transamination to hydrox-
the peroxisome. There it is oxidized to glyoxylate and ypyruvate (Table 8.2, reaction 8) and then by an NADH-
hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) by a flavin mononucleotide- dependent reduction to glycerate (reaction 9).
Photosynthesis: Carbon Reactions 155
A malate-oxaloacetate shuttle transfers NADH from the Carboxylation and Oxygenation Are Closely
cytoplasm into the peroxisome, thus maintaining an ade- Interlocked in the Intact Leaf
quate concentration of NADH for this reaction. Finally, Photosynthetic carbon metabolism in the intact leaf reflects
glycerate reenters the chloroplast, where it is phosphory- the integrated balance between two mutually opposing
lated to yield 3-phosphoglycerate (Table 8.2, reaction 10). and interlocking cycles (Figure 8.8). The Calvin cycle can
In photorespiration, various compounds are circulated operate independently, but the C2 oxidative photosynthetic
in concert through two cycles. In one of the cycles, carbon carbon cycle depends on the Calvin cycle for a supply of
exits the chloroplast in two molecules of glycolate and ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate. The balance between the two
returns in one molecule of glycerate. In the other cycle, cycles is determined by three factors: the kinetic properties
nitrogen exits the chloroplast in one molecule of glutamate of rubisco, the concentrations of the substrates CO2 and O2,
and returns in one molecule of ammonia (together with and temperature.
one molecule of α-ketoglutarate) (see Figure 8.7). As the temperature increases, the concentration of CO2
Thus overall, two molecules of phosphoglycolate (four in a solution in equilibrium with air decreases more than
carbon atoms), lost from the Calvin cycle by the oxygenation the concentration of O2 does (see Web Topic 8.3). Conse-
of RuBP, are converted into one molecule of 3-phospho- quently, the concentration ratio of CO2 to O2 decreases as
glycerate (three carbon atoms) and one CO2. In other words, the temperature rises. As a result of this property, pho-
75% of the carbon lost by the oxygenation of ribulose-1,5-bis- torespiration (oxygenation) increases relative to photosyn-
phosphate is recovered by the C2 oxidative photosynthetic thesis (carboxylation) as the temperature rises. This effect
carbon cycle and returned to the Calvin cycle (Lorimer 1981). is enhanced by the kinetic properties of rubisco, which also
On the other hand, the total organic nitrogen remains result in a relative increase in oxygenation at higher tem-
unchanged because the formation of inorganic nitrogen peratures (Ku and Edwards 1978). Overall, then, increas-
(NH4+) in the mitochondrion is balanced by the synthesis ing temperatures progressively tilt the balance away from
of glutamine in the chloroplast. Similarly, the use of NADH the Calvin cycle and toward the oxidative photosynthetic
in the peroxisome (by hydroxypyruvate reductase) is bal- carbon cycle (see Chapter 9).
anced by the reduction of NAD+ in the mitochondrion (by
glycine decarboxylase). The Biological Function of Photorespiration
Is Unknown
Competition between Carboxylation and Although the C2 oxidative photosynthetic carbon cycle
Oxygenation Decreases the Efficiency of recovers 75% of the carbon originally lost from the Calvin
Photosynthesis cycle as 2-phosphoglycolate, why does 2-phosphoglycolate
Because photorespiration is concurrent with photosyn- form at all? One possible explanation is that the formation
thesis, it is difficult to measure the rate of pho-
torespiration in intact cells. Two molecules of 2-
phosphoglycolate (four carbon atoms) are
needed to make one molecule of 3-phospho- 2-Phosphoglycolate
glycerate, with the release of one molecule of
CO2; so theoretically one-fourth of the carbon O2
O2
entering the C2 oxidative photosynthetic carbon
cycle is released as CO2. Ribulose
Measurements of CO2 release by sunflower 1,5-bisphosphate
leaves support this calculated value. This result
CO2 CO2
indicates that the actual rate of photosynthesis is (Net
approximately 120 to 125% of the measured rate. carbon (Net
gain) 3-Phosphoglycerate carbon
The ratio of carboxylation to oxygenation in air loss)
at 25°C is computed to be between 2.5 and 3.
Further calculations indicate that photorespira-
tion lowers the efficiency of photosynthetic car-
Electron transport C2 oxidative photosynthetic
bon fixation from 90% to approximately 50%. and the Calvin cycle carbon cycle
This decreased efficiency can be measured as
an increase in the quantum requirement for CO2 FIGURE 8.8 The flow of carbon in the leaf is determined by the balance
fixation under photorespiratory conditions (air between two mutually opposing cycles. Whereas the Calvin cycle is
capable of independent operation in the presence of adequate sub-
with high O2 and low CO2) as opposed to non-
strates generated by photosynthetic electron transport, the C2 oxidative
photorespiratory conditions (low O2 and high photosynthetic carbon cycle requires continued operation of the Calvin
CO2). cycle to regenerate its starting material, ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate.
156 Chapter 8
of 2-phosphoglycolate is a consequence of the chemistry of At the concentrations of CO2 found in aquatic environ-
the carboxylation reaction, which requires an intermediate ments, rubisco operates far below its maximal specific
that can react with both CO2 and O2. activity. Marine and freshwater organisms overcome this
Such a reaction would have had little consequence in drawback by accumulating inorganic carbon by the use of
early evolutionary times if the ratio of CO2 to O2 in air were CO2 and HCO3– pumps at the plasma membrane. ATP
higher than it is today. However, the low CO2:O2 ratios derived from the light reactions provides the energy nec-
prevalent in modern times are conducive to photorespira- essary for the active uptake of CO2 and HCO3–. Total inor-
tion, with no other function than the recovery of some of ganic carbon inside some cyanobacterial cells can reach
the carbon present in 2-phosphoglycolate. concentrations of 50 mM (Ogawa and Kaplan 1987). Recent
Another possible explanation is that photorespiration is work indicates that a single gene encoding a transcription
important, especially under conditions of high light inten- factor can regulate the expression of genes that encode the
sity and low intercellular CO2 concentration (e.g., when components of the CO2-concentrating mechanism in algae
stomata are closed because of water stress), to dissipate (Xiang et al. 2001).
excess ATP and reducing power from the light reactions, The proteins that function as CO2–HCO3– pumps are not
thus preventing damage to the photosynthetic apparatus. present in cells grown in high concentrations of CO2 but are
Arabidopsis mutants that are unable to photorespire grow induced upon exposure to low concentrations of CO2. The
normally under 2% CO2, but they die rapidly if transferred accumulated HCO3– is converted to CO2 by the enzyme car-
to normal air. There is evidence from work with transgenic bonic anhydrase, and the CO2 enters the Calvin cycle.
plants that photorespiration protects C3 plants from pho- The metabolic consequence of this CO2 enrichment is
tooxidation and photoinhibition (Kozaki and Takeba 1996). suppression of the oxygenation of ribulose bisphosphate
Further work is needed to improve our understanding of and hence also suppression of photorespiration. The ener-
the function of photorespiration. getic cost of this adaptation is the additional ATP needed
for concentrating the CO2.
CO2-CONCENTRATING MECHANISMS I:
ALGAL AND CYANOBACTERIAL PUMPS CO2-CONCENTRATING MECHANISMS II:
Many plants either do not photorespire at all, or they do so
THE C4 CARBON CYCLE
to only a limited extent. These plants have normal rubis- There are differences in leaf anatomy between plants that
cos, and their lack of photorespiration is a consequence of have a C4 carbon cycle (called C4 plants) and those that pho-
mechanisms that concentrate CO2 in the rubisco environ- tosynthesize solely via the Calvin photosynthetic cycle (C3
ment and thereby suppress the oxygenation reaction. plants). A cross section of a typical C3 leaf reveals one major
In this and the two following sections we will discuss cell type that has chloroplasts, the mesophyll. In contrast,
three mechanisms for concentrating CO2 at the site of car- a typical C4 leaf has two distinct chloroplast-containing cell
boxylation: types: mesophyll and bundle sheath (or Kranz, German for
1. C4 photosynthetic carbon fixation (C4) “wreath”) cells (Figure 8.9).
There is considerable anatomic variation in the arrange-
2. Crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM) ment of the bundle sheath cells with respect to the meso-
3. CO2 pumps at the plasma membrane phyll and vascular tissue. In all cases, however, operation
of the C4 cycle requires the cooperative effort of both cell
The first two of these CO2-concentrating mechanisms are types. No mesophyll cell of a C4 plant is more than two or
found in some angiosperms and involve “add-ons” to the three cells away from the nearest bundle sheath cell (see
Calvin cycle. Plants with C4 metabolism are often found in Figure 8.9A). In addition, an extensive network of plas-
hot environments; CAM plants are typical of desert envi- modesmata (see Figure 1.27) connects mesophyll and bun-
ronments. We will examine each of these two systems after dle sheath cells, thus providing a pathway for the flow of
we consider the third mechanism: a CO2 pump found in metabolites between the cell types.
aquatic plants that has been studied extensively in unicel-
lular cyanobacteria and algae. Malate and Aspartate Are Carboxylation Products
When algal and cyanobacterial cells are grown in air of the C4 Cycle
enriched with 5% CO2 and then transferred to a low-CO2 Early labeling of C4 acids was first observed in 14CO2 label-
medium, they display symptoms typical of photorespira- ing studies of sugarcane by H. P. Kortschack and colleagues
tion (O2 inhibition of photosynthesis at low concentration and of maize by Y. Karpilov and coworkers. When leaves
of CO2). But if the cells are grown in air containing 0.03% were exposed for a few seconds to 14CO2 in the light, 70 to
CO2, they rapidly develop the ability to concentrate inor- 80% of the label was found in the C4 acids malate and
ganic carbon (CO2 plus HCO3–) internally. Under these aspartate—a pattern very different from the one observed
low-CO2 conditions, the cells no longer photorespire. in leaves that photosynthesize solely via the Calvin cycle.
Photosynthesis: Carbon Reactions 157
(A) (B)
(C) (D)
(E)
TABLE 8.3
Reactions of the C4 photosynthetic carbon cycle
Enzyme Reaction
1. Phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) carboxylase Phosphoenolpyruvate + HCO3– → oxaloacetate + Pi
2. NADP:malate dehydrogenase Oxaloacetate + NADPH + H+ → malate + NADP+
3. Aspartate aminotransferase Oxaloacetate + glutamate → aspartate + α-ketoglutarate
4. NAD(P) malic enzyme Malate + NAD(P)+ → pyruvate + CO2 + NAD(P)H + H+
5. Phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase Oxaloacetate + ATP → phosphoenolpyruvate + CO2 + ADP
6. Alanine aminotransferase Pyruvate + glutamate ↔ alanine + α-ketoglutarate
7. Adenylate kinase AMP + ATP → 2 ADP
8. Pyruvate–orthophosphate dikinase Pyruvate + Pi + ATP → phosphoenolpyruvate + AMP + PPi
9. Pyrophosphatase PPi + H2O → 2 Pi
Note: Pi and PPi stand for inorganic phosphate and pyrophosphate, respectively.
Atmospheric CO2
H C OH C O C OPO32–
Malate PEP carboxylase Pyruvate-
CO2– dehydrogenase CO2– COO¯ phosphate
dikinase
Malate Oxaloacetate Phosphoenol-
pyruvate (PEP)
CH3
Malic enzyme
C O
COO¯
NADP+ NADPH + CO2 Pyruvate
FIGURE 8.11 The C4 photosynthetic pathway. The hydrolysis of two ATP drives the
cycle in the direction of the arrows, thus pumping CO2 from the atmosphere to the
Calvin cycle of the chloroplasts from bundle sheath cells.
4. Transport of the C3 acid (pyruvate or alanine) that is both monocotyledons and dicotyledons, and it is particu-
formed by the decarboxylation step back to the meso-
larly prominent in Gramineae (corn, millet, sorghum,
phyll cell and regeneration of the CO2 acceptor phos-
sugarcane), Chenopodiaceae (Atriplex), and Cyperaceae
phoenolpyruvate
(sedges). About 1% of all known species have C4 metabo-
One interesting feature of the cycle is that regeneration lism (Edwards and Walker 1983).
of the primary acceptor—phosphoenolpyruvate—con- There are three variations of the basic C4 pathway that
sumes two “high-energy” phosphate bonds: one in the occur in different species (see Web Topic 8.7). The varia-
reaction catalyzed by pyruvate–orthophosphate dikinase tions differ principally in the C4 acid (malate or aspartate)
(Table 8.3, reaction 8) and another in the conversion of PPi transported into the bundle sheath cells and in the manner
to 2Pi catalyzed by pyrophosphatase (reaction 9; see also of decarboxylation.
Figure 8.11).
Shuttling of metabolites between mesophyll and bundle The Concentration of CO2 in Bundle Sheath Cells
sheath cells is driven by diffusion gradients along numer- Has an Energy Cost
ous plasmodesmata, and transport within the cells is reg- The net effect of the C4 cycle is to convert a dilute solution
ulated by concentration gradients and the operation of spe- of CO2 in the mesophyll cells into a concentrated CO2 solu-
cialized translocators at the chloroplast envelope. The cycle tion in cells of the bundle sheath. Studies of a PEP car-
thus effectively shuttles CO2 from the atmosphere into the boxylase–deficient mutant of Amaranthus edulis clearly
bundle sheath cells. This transport process generates a showed that the lack of an effective mechanism for con-
much higher concentration of CO2 in the bundle sheath cells centrating CO2 in the bundle sheath markedly enhances
than would occur in equilibrium with the external atmos- photorespiration in a C4 plant (Dever et al. 1996).
phere. This elevated concentration of CO2 at the carboxyla- Thermodynamics tells us that work must be done to
tion site of rubisco results in suppression of the oxygenation establish and maintain the CO2 concentration gradient in
of ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate and hence of photorespiration. the bundle sheath (for a detailed discussion of theomody-
Discovered in the tropical grasses, sugarcane, and namics, see Chapter 2 on the web site). This principle also
maize, the C4 cycle is now known to occur in 16 families of applies to the operation of the C4 cycle. From a summation
160 Chapter 8
TABLE 8.4
Energetics of the C4 photosynthetic carbon cycle
Phosphoenolpyruvate + H2O + NADPH + CO2 (mesophyll) → malate + NADP+ + Pi (mesophyll)
Malate + NADP+ → pyruvate + NADPH + CO2 (bundle sheath)
Pyruvate + Pi+ ATP → phosphoenolpyruvate + AMP + PPi (mesophyll)
PPi + H2O → 2 Pi (mesophyll)
AMP + ATP → 2ADP
Net: CO2 (mesophyll) + ATP + 2 H2O → CO2 (bundle sheath) + 2ADP + 2 Pi
Cost of concentrating CO2 within the bundle sheath cell = 2 ATP per CO2
Note: As shown in reaction 1 of Table 8.3, the H2O and CO2 shown in the first line of this table actually react with phospho-
enolpyruvate as HCO3–.
Pi and PPi stand for inorganic phosphate and pyrophosphate, respectively.
of the reactions involved, we can calculate the energy cost lation and dephosphorylation, appear to be catalyzed by a
to the plant (Table 8.4). The calculation shows that the CO2- single regulatory protein.
concentrating process consumes two ATP equivalents (2
“high-energy” bonds) per CO2 molecule transported. Thus In Hot, Dry Climates, the C4 Cycle Reduces
the total energy requirement for fixing CO2 by the com- Photorespiration and Water Loss
bined C4 and Calvin cycles (calculated in Tables 8.4 and 8.1, Two features of the C4 cycle in C4 plants overcome the dele-
respectively) is five ATP plus two NADPH per CO2 fixed. terious effects of higher temperature on photosynthesis that
Because of this higher energy demand, C4 plants pho- were noted earlier. First, the affinity of PEP carboxylase for
tosynthesizing under nonphotorespiratory conditions (high its substrate, HCO3–, is sufficiently high that the enzyme is
CO2 and low O2) require more quanta of light per CO2 than saturated by HCO3– in equlibrium with air levels of CO2.
C3 leaves do. In normal air, the quantum requirement of C3 Furthermore, because the substrate is HCO3–, oxygen is not
plants changes with factors that affect the balance between a competitor in the reaction. This high activity of PEP car-
photosynthesis and photorespiration, such as temperature. boxylase enables C4 plants to reduce the stomatal aperture
By contrast, owing to the mechanisms built in to avoid and thereby conserve water while fixing CO2 at rates equal
photorespiration, the quantum requirement of C4 plants to or greater than those of C3 plants. The second beneficial
remains relatively constant under different environmental feature is the suppression of photorespiration resulting
conditions (see Figure 9.23). from the concentration of CO2 in bundle sheath cells
(Marocco et al. 1998).
Light Regulates the Activity of Key C4 Enzymes These features enable C4 plants to photosynthesize more
Light is essential for the operation of the C4 cycle because efficiently at high temperatures than C3 plants, and they are
it regulates several specific enzymes. For example, the probably the reason for the relative abundance of C4 plants
activities of PEP carboxylase, NADP:malate dehydroge- in drier, hotter climates. Depending on their natural envi-
nase, and pyruvate–orthophosphate dikinase (see Table 8.3) ronment, some plants show properties intermediate
are regulated in response to variations in photon flux den- between strictly C3 and C4 species.
sity by two different processes: reduction–oxidation of thiol
groups and phosphorylation–dephosphorylation.
NADP:malate dehydrogenase is regulated via the thiore-
CO2-CONCENTRATING MECHANISMS III:
doxin system of the chloroplast (see Figure 8.5). The enzyme
CRASSULACEAN ACID METABOLISM
is reduced (activated) upon illumination of leaves and is A third mechanism for concentrating CO2 at the site of
oxidized (inactivated) upon darkening. PEP carboxylase is rubisco is found in crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM).
activated by a light-dependent phosphorylation–dephos- Despite its name, CAM is not restricted to the family Cras-
phorylation mechanism yet to be characterized. sulaceae (Crassula, Kalanchoe, Sedum); it is found in numer-
The third regulatory member of the C4 pathway, pyru- ous angiosperm families. Cacti and euphorbias are CAM
vate–orthophosphate dikinase, is rapidly inactivated by an plants, as well as pineapple, vanilla, and agave.
unusual ADP-dependent phosphorylation of the enzyme The CAM mechanism enables plants to improve water
when the photon flux density drops (Burnell and Hatch use efficiency. Typically, a CAM plant loses 50 to 100 g of
1985). Activation is accomplished by phosphorolytic cleav- water for every gram of CO2 gained, compared with val-
age of this phosphate group. Both reactions, phosphory- ues of 250 to 300 g and 400 to 500 g for C4 and C3 plants,
Photosynthesis: Carbon Reactions 161
respectively (see Chapter 4). Thus, CAM plants have a nights and closing them during the hot, dry days. Closing
competitive advantage in dry environments. the stomata during the day minimizes water loss, but
The CAM mechanism is similar in many respects to the because H2O and CO2 share the same diffusion pathway,
C4 cycle. In C4 plants, formation of the C4 acids in the mes- CO2 must then be taken up at night.
ophyll is spatially separated from decarboxylation of the CO2 is incorporated via carboxylation of phospho-
C4 acids and from refixation of the resulting CO2 by the enolpyruvate to oxaloacetate, which is then reduced to
Calvin cycle in the bundle sheath. In CAM plants, forma- malate. The malate accumulates and is stored in the large
tion of the C4 acids is both temporally and spatially sepa- vacuoles that are a typical, but not obligatory, anatomic fea-
rated. At night, CO2 is captured by PEP carboxylase in the ture of the leaf cells of CAM plants (see Figure 8.12). The
cytosol, and the malate that forms from the oxaloacetate accumulation of substantial amounts of malic acid, equiv-
product is stored in the vacuole (Figure 8.12). During the alent to the amount of CO2 assimilated at night, has long
day, the stored malate is transported to the chloroplast and been recognized as a nocturnal acidification of the leaf
decarboxylated by NADP-malic enzyme, the released CO2 (Bonner and Bonner 1948).
is fixed by the Calvin cycle, and the NADPH is used for With the onset of day, the stomata close, preventing loss
converting the decarboxylated triose phosphate product to of water and further uptake of CO2. The leaf cells deacid-
starch. ify as the reserves of vacuolar malic acid are consumed.
Decarboxylation is usually achieved by the action of
The Stomata of CAM Plants Open at Night and NADP-malic enzyme on malate (Drincovich et al. 2001).
Close during the Day Because the stomata are closed, the internally released CO2
CAM plants such as cacti achieve their high water use effi- cannot escape from the leaf and instead is fixed and con-
ciency by opening their stomata during the cool, desert verted to carbohydrate by the Calvin cycle.
CO2 uptake and Atmospheric Open stoma permits Decarboxylation of stored Closed stoma
fixation: leaf CO2 entry of CO2 and malate and refixation of internal prevents H2O loss
acidification loss of H2O CO2: deacidification and CO2 uptake
Pi
HCO3–
PEP carboxylase
NADP+ malic
enzyme
CO2 Malate Malic acid
Phosphoenol- Oxaloacetate
pyruvate
NADH
NAD+ malic Pyruvate
dehydrogenase Calvin
NAD+
cycle
Triose
phosphate Malate Starch Vacuole
Chloroplast Vacuole
FIGURE 8.12 Crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM). Temporal separation of CO2 uptake
from photosynthetic reactions: CO2 uptake and fixation take place at night, and decar-
boxylation and refixation of the internally released CO2 occur during the day. The adap-
tive advantage of CAM is the reduction of water loss by transpiration, achieved by the
stomatal opening during the night.
162 Chapter 8
The elevated internal concentration of CO2 effectively the day, and stomata close during the night. C4 and CAM
suppresses the photorespiratory oxygenation of ribulose plants utilize PEP carboxylase to fix CO2, and they separate
bisphosphate and favors carboxylation. The C3 acid result- that enzyme from rubisco either spatially (C4 plants) or
ing from the decarboxylation is thought to be converted temporally (CAM plants).
first to triose phosphate and then to starch or sucrose, thus Some CAM plants show longer-term regulation and are
regenerating the source of the original carbon acceptor. able to adjust their pattern of CO2 uptake to environmental
conditions. Facultative CAM plants such as the ice plant
Phosphorylation Regulates the Activity of PEP (Mesembryanthemum crystallinum) carry on C3 metabolism
Carboxylase in C4 and CAM Plants under unstressed conditions, and they shift to CAM in
The CAM mechanism that we have outlined in this discus- response to heat, water, or salt stress. This form of regulation
sion requires separation of the initial carboxylation from the requires the expression of numerous CAM genes in response
subsequent decarboxylation, to avoid a futile cycle. In addi- to stress signals (Adams et al. 1998; Cushman 2001).
tion to the spatial and temporal separation exhibited by C4 In aquatic environments, cyanobacteria and green algae
and CAM plants, respectively, a futile cycle is avoided by have abundant water but find low CO2 concentrations in
the regulation of PEP carboxylase (Figure 8.13). In C4 plants their surroundings and actively concentrate inorganic CO2
the carboxylase is “switched on,” or active, during the day intracellularly. In diatoms, which abound in the phyto-
and in CAM plants during the night. In both C4 and CAM plankton, a CO2-concentrating mechanism operates simul-
plants, PEP carboxylase is inhibited by malate and activated taneously with a C4 pathway (Reinfelder et al. 2000).
by glucose-6-phosphate (see Web Essay 8.1 for a detailed Diatoms are a fine example of photosynthetic organisms
discussion of the regulation of PEP carboxylase). that have the capacity to use different CO2-concentrating
Phosphorylation of a single serine residue of the CAM mechanisms in response to environmental fluctuations.
enzyme diminishes the malate inhibition and enhances the
action of glucose-6-phosphate so that the enzyme becomes
catalytically more active (Chollet et al. 1996; Vidal and
SYNTHESIS OF STARCH AND SUCROSE
Chollet 1997) (see Figure 8.13). The phosphorylation is cat- In most species, sucrose is the principal form of carbohydrate
alyzed by a PEP carboxylase-kinase. The synthesis of this translocated throughout the plant by the phloem. Starch is an
kinase is stimulated by the efflux of Ca2+ from the vacuole insoluble stable carbohydrate reserve that is present in almost
to the cytosol and the resulting activation of a all plants. Both starch and sucrose are synthesized from the
Ca2+/calmodulin protein kinase (Giglioli-Guivarc’h et al. triose phosphate that is generated by the Calvin cycle (see
1996; Coursol et al. 2000; Nimmo 2000; Bakrim et al. 2001). Table 8.1) (Beck and Ziegler 1989). The pathways for the syn-
thesis of starch and sucrose are shown in Figure 8.14.
Some Plants Adjust Their Pattern of CO2 Uptake to
Environmental Conditions Starch Is Synthesized in the Chloroplast
Plants have many mechanisms that maximize water and Electron micrographs showing prominent starch deposits,
CO2 supply during development and reproduction. C3 as well as enzyme localization studies, leave no doubt that
plants regulate the stomatal aperture of their leaves during the chloroplast is the site of starch synthesis in leaves (Fig-
ure 8.15). Starch is synthesized from triose phosphate via
fructose-1,6-bisphosphate (Table 8.5 and Figure 8.14). The
glucose-1-phosphate intermediate is converted to ADP-glu-
ATP ADP
cose via ADP-glucose pyrophosphorylase (Figure 8.14 and
Kinase Table 8.5, reaction 5) in a reaction that requires ATP and
generates pyrophosphate (PPi, or H2P2O72–).
As in many biosynthetic reactions, the pyrophosphate
OH O P
PEP carboxylase PEP carboxylase is hydrolyzed via a specific inorganic pyrophosphatase to
Inactive day form Ser Active night form Ser two orthophosphate (Pi) molecules (Table 8.5, reaction 6),
thereby driving reaction 5 toward ADP-glucose synthesis.
Inhibited Phosphatase Insensitive Finally, the glucose moiety of ADP-glucose is transferred
by malate to malate to the nonreducing end (carbon 4) of the terminal glucose
of a growing starch chain (Table 8.5, reaction 7), thus com-
Pi H2O pleting the reaction sequence.
FIGURE 8.13 Diurnal regulation of CAM phosphoenolpyru- Sucrose Is Synthesized in the Cytosol
vate (PEP) carboxylase. Phosphorylation of the serine The site of sucrose synthesis has been studied by cell frac-
residue (Ser-OP) yields a form of the enzyme which is
active during the night and relatively insensitive to malate.
tionation, in which the organelles are isolated and sepa-
During the day, dephosphorylation of the serine (Ser-OH) rated from one another. Enzyme analyses have shown that
gives a form of the enzyme which is inhibited by malate. sucrose is synthesized in the cytosol from triose phosphates
CHLOROPLAST
Phospho-
glucomutase Hexose
Glucose-1- (5-4) Glucose-6- phosphate
ADP-glucose phosphate phosphate isomerase
ADP glucose (5-3)
Starch pyro- ATP
synthase PPi phosphorylase Fructose-6-phosphate
(5-7) (5-5)
Pyrophosphatase Pi
Starch Fructose-1, 6-
(5-6) Calvin cycle biphosphatase
H2O (5-2)
Pi
CYTOSOL Pi translocator
(6-1)
Sucrose
Triose phosphates
Pi Aldolase
Sucrose phosphate (6-3)
phosphatase Pi
(6-10)
Fructose-1,6-bisphosphate
Sucrose
phosphate
Fructose-1, 6-
Sucrose phosphate Pi bisphosphatase
synthase Pi
(6-4a)
(6-9) UDP-glucose
PPi
UTP Fructose-6-phosphate
UDP-glucose Glucose-6-
Glucose-1-
pyrophosphorylase phosphate Hexose phosphate
phosphate
(6-7) Phospho- isomerase
glucomutase (6-5)
(6-6)
FIGURE 8.14 The syntheses of starch and sucrose are compet- Pi in exchange for Pi, and sucrose is synthesized. When the
ing processes that occur in the chloroplast and the cytosol, cytosolic Pi concentration is low, triose phosphate is retained
respectively. When the cytosolic Pi concentration is high, within the chloroplast, and starch is synthesized. The num-
chloroplast triose phosphate is exported to the cytosol via the bers facing the arrows are keyed to Tables 8.5 and 8.6.
by a pathway similar to that of starch—that is, by way of tially irreversible, pulls the former in the direction of
fructose-1,6-bisphosphate and glucose-1-phosphate (Fig- sucrose synthesis.
ure 8.14 and Table 8.6, reactions 2–6). As in starch synthesis, the pyrophosphate formed in the
In sucrose synthesis, the glucose-1-phosphate is con- reaction catalyzed by UDP-glucose pyrophosphorylase
verted to UDP-glucose via a specific UDP-glucose (Table 8.6, reaction 7) is hydrolyzed, but not immediately
pyrophosphorylase (Table 8.6, reaction 7) that is analogous as in the chloroplasts. Because of the absence of an inor-
to the ADP-glucose pyrophosphorylase of chloroplasts. At ganic pyrophosphatase, the pyrophosphate can be used by
this stage, two consecutive reactions complete the synthe- other enzymes, in transphosphorylation reactions. One
sis of sucrose (Huber and Huber 1996). First, sucrose-6- example is fructose-6-phosphate phosphotransferase, an
phosphate synthase catalyzes the reaction of UDP-glucose enzyme that catalyzes a reaction like the one catalyzed by
with fructose-6-phosphate to yield sucrose-6-phosphate phosphofructokinase (Table 8.6, reaction 4a) except that
and UDP (Table 8.6, reaction 9). Second, the sucrose-6- pyrophosphate replaces ATP as the phosphoryl donor.
phosphate phosphatase (phosphohydrolase) cleaves the A comparison of the reactions in Tables 8.5 and 8.6 (as
phosphate from sucrose-6-phosphate, yielding sucrose illustrated in Figure 8.14) reveals that the conversion of
(Table 8.6, reaction 10). The latter reaction, which is essen- triose phosphates to glucose-1-phosphate in the pathways
164 Chapter 8
TABLE 8.5
Reactions of starch synthesis from triose phosphate in chloroplasts
1. Fructose-1,6,bisphosphate aldolase
Dihydroxyacetone-3-phosphate + glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate→ fructose-1,6-bisphosphate
H HO H O H
H CH2OH H
OH H
HO H HO OH
H OH
4. Phosphoglucomutase
Glucose-6-phosphate → glucose-1-phosphate
CH2OPO32– CH2OH
H O H H O H
H H
OH H OH H
HO OH HO OPO32–
H OH H HO
5. ADP-glucose pyrophosphorylase
Glucose-1-phosphate + ATP → ADP-glucose + PPi
CH2OH CH2OH
H O H H O H O O
H
OH H OH H
HO OPO32– HO O P O P O Adenosine
H HO H HO O– O–
6. Pyrophosphatase
7. Starch synthase
ADP-glucose + (1,4-α-D-glucosyl)n → ADP + (1,4-α-D-glucosyl)n+1
CH2OH CH2OH CH2OH CH2OH
H O H H O H H O H H O
O O
H H H
OH H OH H OH H OH H
HO O P O P O Adenosine OH O O O O
H HO O– O– H OH H OH H OH
Nonreducing end of a Elongated starch with
starch chain with n + 1 residues
n residues
Note: Reaction 6 is irreversible and “pulls” the preceding reaction to the right.
Pi and PPi stand for inorganic phosphate and pyrophosphate, respectively.
166 Chapter 8
TABLE 8.6
Reactions of sucrose synthesis from triose phosphate in the cytosol
1. Phosphate/triose phosphate translocator
Triose phosphate (chloroplast) + Pi (cytosol) → triose phosphate (cytosol) + Pi (chloroplast)
C O HO C H
CH2OPO32– C
O H
3. Fructose-1,6-bisphosphate aldolase
Dihydroxyacetone-3-phosphate + glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate → fructose-1,6-bisphosphate
4a. Fructose-1,6-phosphatase
Fructose-1,6-bisphosphate + H2O → fructose-6-phosphate + Pi
2–O POH2C 2–O POH2C
3 O OH 3 O OH
H HO H HO
H CH2OPO32– H CH2OH
HO H HO H
CH2OPO32– CH2OH
H O H H O H
H H
OH H OH H
HO OH HO OPO32–
H OH H HO
7. UDP-glucose pyrophosphorylase
Glucose-1-phosphate + UTP → UDP-glucose + PPi
CH2OH O O O CH2OH
H O H –O O
P O P O P O Uridine H H O O
H H
OH H OH H
HO OPO32– –O –O –O
HO O P O P O Uridine
H HO H OH O– O–
Photosynthesis: Carbon Reactions 167
2–O PO CH2
3 O O
10. Sucrose phosphate phosphatase H HO
Sucrose-6-phosphate + H2O → sucrose + Pi H CH2OH
HO H
CH2OH CH2OH
H O H H O H
H H
OH H OH H
HO HO
H OH H OH
Note: Reaction 1 takes place on the chloroplast inner envelope membrane. Reactions 2 through 10 take place in the cytosol. Reaction 8 is irre-
versible and “pulls” the preceding reaction to the right.
Pi and PPi stand for inorganic phosphate and pyrophosphate, respectively .
(A) (B)
Activated by:
Inhibited by:
Fructose-1,6-bisphosphate Fructose-6-
phosphate 2- Dihydroxyacetone
Activates kinase phosphate
Pi
3-phosphoglycerate
PP-Fructose- Inhibits
Fructose-1,6- Fructose-2, 6- Fructose-6-
6-phosphate
bisphosphatase bisphosphate phosphate
kinase
Pi
Sucrose synthesis
starch synthesis in the chloroplast by allosterically regulat- Bakrim, N., Brulfert, J., Vidal, J., and Chollet, R. (2001) Phospho-
enolpyruvate carboxylase kinase is controlled by a similar sig-
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8.2 Rubisco: A Model Enzyme for Studying Struc-
Coursol, S., Giglioli-Guivarc’h, N., Vidal, J., and Pierre J.-N. (2000)
ture and Function An increase in the phosphoinositide-specific phospholipase C
As the most abundant enzyme on Earth, rubisco activity precedes induction of C4 phosphoenolpyruvate car-
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8.5 Rubisco Activase
Drincovich, M. F., Casati, P., and Andreo, C. S. (2001) NADP-malic
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