Hydraulic

Engineering
Laboratory Manual
 Table of Contents
LIST OF EXPERIMENTS
1. TO DETERMINE MANNING’S ROUGHNESS COEFFICIENT ‘N’ AND CHEZY’S
COEFFICIENT ‘C’ IN A LABORATORY FLUME.

2. TO EXPERIMENTALLY INVESTIGATE THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SPECIFIC

ENERGY AND DEPTH OF FLOW.

3. TO STUDY THE FLOW CHARACTERISTICS OVER A HUMP/WEIR .

4. TO STUDY THE CHARACTERISTICS OF HYDRAULIC JUMP DEVELOPED IN THE

LABORATORY FLUME.

LIST OF DESIGNS

1. ESTIMATION OF POTENTIAL WATER RESOURCES AT A DAM SITE.

2. TO DEVELOP RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SURFACE AREA, ELEVATION AND

CAPACITY OF RESERVOIR.

3. TO ESTIMATE THE LIVE STORAGE CAPACITY OF A RESERVOIR FOR VARIOUS

OPERATIONAL SCENARIOS.

4. ESTIMATION THE HYDRO-POWER POTENTIAL FOR A GIVEN WATER-POWER

DEVELOPMENT SCHEME.

5. ESTIMATION OF BED LOAD, TOTAL SEDIMENT LOAD AND LIFE OF RESERVOIR.

6. COMPUTATION OF GRADUALLY VARIED FLOW PROFILE (BACK WATER CURVE) BY

STANDARD STEP METHOD.
EXPERIMENT # 1
TO DETERMINE MANNING’S ROUGHNESS COEFFICIENT ‘ N’ AND CHEZY’S
COEFFICIENT ‘C’ IN A LABORATORY FLUME.

Objectives:
 Physical measurement of n & c.
 To steady the variation of n & c as a function of velocity of flow in the flume.
 To investigate the relationship between n & c.
Apparatus:
 (S-6) glass sided tilting Flume Apparatus
 Hook gauge/ point gauge

Flume Assembly Hook Gauge

Flume Apparatus

Related Theory

Flume:
Laboratory Open channel supported above the ground/ elevated open channel

Uniform flow:
Flow parameters like depth of flow, velocity, acceleration, channel bed slope, channel
cross-section remains constant as a function of distance/space between two sections of a
channel flow.

Steady Flow:
Flow parameters like depth of flow, velocity, acceleration, channel bed slope, channel
cross-section remains constant as a function of time at a particular section of a channel.
Flood wave is a best example of unsteady flow.
Manning’ formula (1889): 2 1
1
Q = AR 3 S 2
n
S = slope of energy line (for a uniform flow conditions, it is equal to slope of water surface
and channel bed slope)

n = Manning’s roughness coefficient, also called as resistance to flow, different for

different ,materials, tables are available for n value, difficult to determine for channels,
concept of composite roughness for natural channels may have to be considered, it can
greatly affect the computational results

Chezy’s formula (1775):

Q = AC RS
Relationship between ‘n’ & ‘c’:
1/6

C = R /n
Procedure:

1. Set a particular slope of the flume

2. Start the pump; allow the flow in the flume to be stabilized.
3. Determine the flow rate in the flume
4. Take three readings of depth of flow in flume at different points and average it for a
particular flow rate in the flume.
5. Change the flow rate through the flume.
6. Again allow the flow in the flume to be stabilized.
7. Again take three readings of depth of flow in flume at different points and average
it.
8. Repeat the whole procedure (at least 6 readings) for different discharges in the
flume

Comments:
Observations and Calculations:

Flume width = mm

Sr. # Channel Flow rate Avg Depth Area of Manning’s Chezy’s

bed slope Q (m3/sec) of flow flow A n C
(S) y (m2)
(m)

Graphs:

1. Manning’s n ~ Velocity of flow

2. Chezy’s C ~ Velocity of flow
3. Manning’s n ~ Chezy’s C
EXPERIMENT # 2
TO EXPERIMENTALLY INVESTIGATE THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SPECIFIC
ENERGY AND DEPTH OF FLOW.

Objectives:
 To study the variations in specific energy as a function of depth of flow for a given
discharge in the laboratory flume/ to plot E-Y diagram for a given discharge in the
channel.

Apparatus:
 (S-6) glass sided tilting Flume Apparatus
 Point gauge

Related Theory

Specific Energy:

The specific energy (E) is the total energy per unit weight measured relative to the channel
bed, and it is given by the sum of the depth and velocity head (assuming small bed slope
and a kinetic energy correction factor of 1):

v2
E = y
2g
Hence, the specific energy is constant along the channel having uniform flow conditions,
but it varies for non uniform flow conditions.

Specific Energy Diagram:

It is a plot between specific energy as a function of depth of flow.

Basic Terminology:

Critical flow:

It is the flow that occurs when the specific energy is minimal for a given discharge.

It can be seen in Fig. that a point will be reached where the specific energy is minimum
and only a single depth occurs. At this point, the flow is termed as critical flow.

Super Critical flow:

The flow for which the depth is less than critical is (velocity is greater than critical) is
termed as supercritical flow.

Sub Critical flow:

 Flow with low velocity and larger depth. (Froude No. < 1)

Critical Depth:

The depth of flow of water at which the specific energy is a minimum is called critical
depth.

Critical Velocity:

The velocity of flow at the critical depth is known as critical velocity.

Alternate Depths:

For any value of the specific energy other than critical one, there are two depths, one
greater than the critical depth and other smaller than the critical depth. These two
depths for a given specific energy are called alternate depths.

Procedure:

1. Start the pump to maintain a constant discharge in open channel apparatus.

2. Allow the flow in the flume to be stabilized.
3. Take three readings of depth of flow in the flume at different points and average it.
4. Change the slope of the flume by automatic system attached to the apparatus.
5. Again allow the flow in the flume to be stabilized.
6. Again take three readings of depth of flow in flume at different points and average
it.
7. Repeat the whole procedure by changing the slope of the flume.
8. Develop a specific energy curve from observed data & calculations.

Comments:
Observations and Calculations:
Flume width = mm

Sr. # Channel Flow rate Critical Avg Depth Area of Velocity of Velocity
bed slope Q depth of of flow flow flow Head
So flow y A v v2/2g
(m3/sec) (m) (m) (m2) (m/sec) (m)

Graph:

 Plot Depth of flow ~ specific energy (E-y Diagram)

EXPERIMENT # 3

TO STUDY THE FLOW CHARACTERISTICS OVER A HUMP/WEIR.

Objective:
To study the variations in the flow with the introduction of different types of
humps in the flume.

Apparatus:
 (S-6) glass sided tilting Flume Apparatus
 Hook gauge/ point gauge
 Broad crested Weirs
o Round corner
o Sharp corner

Sharp corner
Round corner

Related Theory

Hump:
It is a streamline Construction provided at the bed of channel.

V2
Y1 Y2 Y3

V1 Z

Hump

Weir:
A weir is a streamlined wall or structure commonly used to raise the water level of a
river or stream to divert the required amount of water into an irrigation canal. Weirs can be
gated (barrage) or ungated.
 Flow over a raised Hump:

Critical hump height:

It is the minimum height that causes critical depth (critical flow) over the hump.

Effect of hump height on depth of flow:

(Y1- Yc)
Y1 Yc
Yo Y1 Y2 Y3 Y1 Yc Y3
Z Zc Y3

Z < Zc Z = Zc Z > Zc

Y1 = Y o Y1 = Y o Y1 > Y o

Y1-Yo = Afflux
Procedure:
 Fix the slope of the flume.
 Introduce round corner weir at a certain location.
 Set a particular discharge in the flume.
 Note the depth of flow at U/S, D/S and over the weir at certain points (More than
one).
 Repeat the same for various discharges.
 Calculate the value of yc, y1, y2 & y3 and make their comparison.
 Repeat the same procedure for sharp corner weir.

Comments
 Observations and Calculations:

Weir Type Width "B" Height "Z"

mm mm
Round Cornered
Sharp Crested

Depth of flow at Depth of Flow over Depth of Flow at

Wei Discharg U/S the hump D/S
Yc Zc Condition of Flow
Sr r e Y1 Y2 Y3
(mm (mm
.# Typ Q (mm) (mm) (mm)
3 ) )
e (m /sec) Av Av Av Over
1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 U/S D/S
g g g Hump

o Draw the surface water profiles for all the readings

EXPERIMENT # 4
TO STUDY THE CHARACTERISTICS OF HYDRAULIC JUMP DEVELOPED IN THE
LABORATORY FLUME.

Objective:

 To achieve physically, the development of hydraulic jump in the laboratory flume

 To measure the physical dimensions of HJ
 To Plot HJ for various Fn
 To calculate Energy Losses through the HJ

Apparatus:
 (S-6) glass sided tilting Flume Apparatus
 Hook gauge/ point gauge

Related Theory

Hydraulic Jump

The hydraulic jump was first investigated experimentally by Bidone, an Italian, in 1818.

Hydraulic jump or standing wave is a local non-uniform flow phenomenon, resulting from
the change in slope from Super critical to Sub critical and in such a case the water must
pass through the critical depth line and according to theory, dy/dx = infinite or the water
surface profile should be vertical. However, this can’t happen physically and results in the
discontinuity in the water surface characterized by a very steep upward slope of the profile
accompanied by the turbulence and eddies.

These eddies cause energy loss and depth after the jump is in accordance with the point “C”
on the E-y diagram. The depths y1 and y2 which are the depths before and after the jump
are called “Conjugate depths” or “Sequent depths”

OR

The hydraulic jump is a rapidly varied flow phenomenon in which flow in a channel
changes abruptly from supercritical flow at a relatively shallow depth (less than y c) to
subcritical flow at a greater depth (greater than yc). The depth before the jump is called the
initial depth, while the depth after the jump is known as the sequent depth. The situation is
illustrated in Figure 4.1.

Figure 4.1 Water Surface Profile for Hydraulic Jump: A-A' = initial section and B-B' =
sequent section (FHWA, 1961)

The hydraulic jump may be employed as a device for the dissipation of excess energy, as
where a steep drain enters a larger drain at a junction. In stormwater projects, the hydraulic
jump may be used to consume excess energy and avoid scour of earthen channels. Thus,
the analysis of hydraulic jumps usually has three objectives. First, the location of the jump
is important because of the potential of unexpected surcharges or channel scour. This can
be determined by searching for pipe/channel elements where the flow is supercritical
upstream and subcritical downstream. Once this is determined, it is important to compute
the two depths, y1 and y2, which are the initial and sequent depths, respectively. Third, the
energy loss Hi dissipated by the jump is often an important design consideration. The
pertinent depth equation for a rectangular section is:

--------------------------------------------(4.1)

In which F1 is the Froude number at the upstream section. The energy lost in the jump, Hj,
is obtained by subtracting the specific energy at section 2 in Figure 4.1 from that at section
1.

--------------------------------------------(4.2)

Uses of Hydraulic jump:

The major use of the hydraulic jump is to destroy the energy of the water where it is not
needed or it may damage the structure. Generally hydraulic jump is made to occur
downstream of the spillways, weirs and canal falls.

Another use of hydraulic jump is, when certain chemical are to be mixed for water
treatment purpose, hydraulic jump provides an efficient mixing.

Practical applications of hydraulic jump:

Practical applications of hydraulic jump are many, it is used

1. To dissipate energy of water flowing over dams, weirs, and other hydraulic
structures and thus prevent scouring downstream of the structures.

2. To recover head or raise the water level on the downstream side of the measuring
flume and thus maintain high water level in the channel for irrigation or other water
distribution purpose.

3. To increase the weight on an apron and thus reduce uplift pressure under a masonry
structures by raising the water depth on the apron.

4. To indicate special flow conditions, such as the existence of super critical flow or
the presence of the control section, so that a gauging station may be located.

5. To mix chemicals used for the purification of water.

Depth of hydraulic jump:

d2 = d1/2(-1 + √1+8(q²/gy3))

Or

d2 = d1/2(-1 + √1+8F1²)

Expression for the loss of energy due to hydraulic jump

hL = (d2-d1)³/4d1d2

Length of hydraulic jump

It is generally 5-7 times depth of jump for barrages

Location of hydraulic jump

It is important to be able to determine just where along the length of the channel the
hydraulic jump will form. This cannot be done with a great deal of precision. The solution
can also be achieved by calculating conjugate depth “y” of various depths y2. Graphically
plotting these various curves greatly aids the solution process.

Hydraulic jump occurs in a supercritical flow when the depth changes abruptly to its
sequent depth. Theoretically speaking, jump will occur in a horizontal rectangular channel
if the initial and sequent depths approaching to Froude’s # satisfying equation for sequent
depth.

This theoretical condition is generally used to locate the position of a jump. For closer
location of the jump however, length of the jump should be considered. The following will
illustrate the location of a hydraulic jump in three typical cases.

Case A: Jump below a regulating sluice in a miled channel or jump formed on the glacis of
a weir (yn> d2).

Case B: Jump in a channel having a break in the bottom slope those changes from steep to
mild or jump formed at the toe of the weir (yn= d2).

Case C: Jump forms behind the overflow barrier or on the d/s side of the toe (yn< d2).

In barrages the most suitable and desire able location is at toe. But practically it is difficult
to achieve. So it is kept slightly above toe on sloping surface. By doing this jump will be
weaker but safer for structure. Hydraulic jump at d/s of toe is highly undesirable. Because it
will be dangerous for barrage due to scouring of toe. And it is also un-economical.

Types of hydraulic jump

Hydraulic jumps are of several distinct types. According to the U.S. Bureau of
Reclamation, these types can conveniently be classified according to the Froude’s # of the
incoming flow, as follows:

For F = 1 to 1.7, the water surface shows undulations, and the jump is called as undular
jump.
For F = 1.7 to 2.5, a series of small rollers develop on the surface of the jump, but the
downstream water surface remains smooth. The velocity throughout is fairly uniform and
the energy loss is low, this jump is called as weak jump.

For F = 2.5 to 4.5, there is an oscillating jet entering the jump bottom to the surface and
back again with no periodicity. Each oscillation produces a large wave of irregular period,
which, very commonly in canals, can travel for miles doing unlimited damage to earth
banks and ripraps. This jump may be called as oscillating jump.

For F = 4.5 to 9.0, the downstream extremity of the surface roller and the point at which
the high velocity jet tends to leave the flow occur at practically the same vertical section.
The action and position of this jump are least sensitive to variation in tail water depth. The
jump is well balanced and performance is at its best. The energy dissipation ranges from 45
to 70%. This jump may be called as steady jump.

For F = 9.0 and larger, the high velocity jet grabs intermittent slugs of water rolling down
the front surface of the jump, generating waves downstream and a rough surface can
prevail. The jump action is rough but effective since the energy dissipation may reach 85%.
This jump may be called as strong jump.

Procedure:

 Fix the bed slope of glass flume

 Set a particular discharge in the flume.

 Develop the hydraulic jump by holding back the tail water.

 Measure the depths of water. i.e yo, y1, y2 and corresponding horizontal distances x0,
x1, x2.

 Repeat the procedure with varying discharges.

 Draw the Hydraulics jumps on a graph sheet

Comment
Observations and Calculations:
Flume width = mm

Approac Type of Energy

Discharg Depth of flow/ Horizontal distance h hydraulic loss in
q (m) Froude’s jump HJ
Sr e 2
(m /sec number (m)
.# Q
3 ) FR1
(m /sec)
y0 x0 y1 x1 y2 x2
1

6
DESIGN # 1
ESTIMATION OF POTENTIAL WATER RESOURCES AT A DAM SITE

Water Resources:

Sources of water that is useful or potentially useful to humans. Uses of water include
agricultural, hydropower, industrial, household, recreational and environmental activities.
Environmental water usage includes artificial wetlands, artificial lakes intended to create wildlife
habitat, fish ladders around dams.

97% of water on the Earth is salt water, leaving only 3% as fresh water of which slightly over
two thirds is frozen in glaciers and polar ice caps. The remaining unfrozen fresh water is mainly
found as groundwater, with only a small fraction present above ground or in the air.

Water resources estimation is one of the most important considerations in selection of site for a
dam. It involves the estimation of rainfall runoff, snowmelt runoff, stream gauging etc.

Water resources are mainly divided into:

I. Surface water resources (rivers, streams, reservoirs, oceans etc)

II. Frozen water (glaciers)
III. Ground water

Sources of water on a watershed:

1. Precipitation (mainly rainfall)
2. Snow melt
Rainfall:

Rain is liquid precipitation having diameter > 0.5 mm and intensity > 2.5 mm/hr. It is the
condensation of atmospheric water vapor into drops heavy enough size to fall, often making it to
the surface. Rain is the primary source of fresh water for most areas of the world.

Snow melts:

Snowmelt is surface runoff produced from melting of snow. Predicting snowmelt runoff from a
drainage basin may be a part of designing water control projects. Rapid snowmelt can cause
flooding. If the snowmelt is then frozen, creates very dangerous conditions and accidents can
occur, introducing the need for salt to melt the ice. It is a major water source for many
watersheds of the world e.g.

 About 80% of the flows in Indus River in summers are due to snowmelt.
 For bhasha diamir reservoir, snowmelt is the main source of water.

Temperature is the main factor which affects snowmelt runoff.

Catchment area/ basin area/ drainage basin/ watershed:

A catchment/drainage basin is an extent of land

where water from rain or snow melt drains
downhill into a body of water, such as a river,
lake, reservoir, estuary, wetland, sea or ocean.
The drainage basin includes both the streams
and rivers that convey the water as well as the
land surfaces from which water drains into
those channels.

A catchment is separated from its neighboring

areas by a ridge called as drainage divide or
divide.

The areal extent of the catchment is obtained by tracing the ridge on the topographic map and
its area is measured using Planimeter as shown in figure 1.

Figure 1

Physical characteristics of watershed affecting runoff:

 Drainage Area

The drainage area is one most important watershed characteristic for hydrologic design. It
reflects the volume of water that can be generated from rainfall. It is common in hydrologic
 design to assume a constant depth of rainfall occurring uniformly over the watershed. Under this
assumption, the volume of water available for runoff would be the product of rainfall depth and
the drainage area. Thus the drainage area is required as input to models ranging from simple
linear prediction equations to complex computer models.

 Watershed Length

The length (L) of a watershed is the second watershed characteristic of interest. The length of a
watershed is important in hydrologic computations. Watershed length is usually defined as the
distance measured along the main channel from the watershed outlet to the basin divide. The
length is usually used in computing a time parameter, which is a measure of the travel time of
water through a watershed.

 Watershed Slope

Slope is an important factor in the momentum of the runoff which affects flood magnitudes.
Both watershed slope and channel slope may be of interest. Watershed slope reflects the rate of
change of elevation with respect to distance along the principal flow path.

 Watershed Shape

Basin shape is not usually used directly in hydrologic design methods. Watersheds have an
infinite variety of shapes, and the shape supposedly reflects the way that runoff will “bunch up”
at the outlet. A circular watershed would result in runoff from various parts of the watershed
reaching the outlet at the same time. An elliptical watershed having the outlet at one end of the
major axis and having the same area as the circular watershed would cause the runoff to be
spread out over time, thus producing a smaller flood peak than that of the circular watershed.

 Land Cover

It is the extent of vegetation cover over the watershed. It affects the runoff processes occurring
over a watershed.

 Landuse

It is the use of watershed land for various purposes like industrial use, housing societies, roads,
commercial buildings and agricultural use etc. Landuse change has a major impact on the
magnitude of flows and floods for a river.

Hydrological processes occurring over a watershed:

I. Precipitation

All types of moistures reaching the earth surface from the atmosphere. Measurement of
precipitation includes the measurement of:

 Amount of precipitation
 Duration of rainfall
  Intensity of ppt
 Areal extent of ppt

Methods of measurement:

 Rain gauges/ ground measurement (non recording & recording)

o US national weather RG (non recording)
o Float type RG
o Tipping bucket type RG
o Weighing type RG
 Using radars
 Satellite estimates

Averaging precipitation over a watershed area

It is the precipitation assumed to be uniform over the entire watershed area. It is an important
parameter to estimate the volume generated from a watershed. It can be determined using the
following methods:

o Arithmetic mean method

o Thiessen polygon method
o Isohyetal method

II. Evaporation

It is the rate of liquid water transformation to vapours into the atmosphere from open water, bare
soils and vegetation. Following are the factors which affect evaporation.

 Temperature
 Wind velocity
 Humidity
 Size of evaporation surface

Estimation of Evaporation

 Using evaporimeters data ( surface pans, floating pans)

EL = Kp Ep

Where, Kp = pan coeff

Ep = Pan evaporation

EL = lake evaporation (mm/day)

 Empirical Equations
 o Meyer’s formula
o Rohwer’s formula
 Analytical methods
o Water budget method
o Energy balance method
o Mass transfer method

III. Transpiration

Transpiration is the evaporation of water from the aerial parts of plants, especially leaves but
also from stems, flowers and roots.

Evapotranspiration (ETo ) is the combination of evaporation from soil surface & transpiration
from plants.

Measurement of ETo

 Direct/field methods: Using lysimeters and field plot methods etc.

 Empirical equations: it can be estimated using blaney criddle method, penman method,
radiation method and penman montieth equation etc.

IV. Infiltration:

It is the process of penetrating the water into the soil surface. It is a very complex process that
can be described only approximately with mathematical equations. Following are the factors
which influence the infiltration rate:
o Condition of soil surface and its vegetative cover
o The properties of the soil: porosity and hydraulic conductivity
o The current moisture content of the soil.

Equations to Model Infiltration

 Horton`s Equation
 Philip`s Equation
 Green Amp Equation
Measurement of Infiltration
Infiltration can be measured by using Infiltrometers
o Flooding Type Infiltrometer
o Rainfall Simulator

V. Surface runoff (Rainfall runoff, snowmelt runoff or combination of both)

 Surface runoff is the water flow which occurs when soil is infiltrated to full capacity and excess
water, from rain, snowmelt, or other sources flows over the land. This is a major component of
the hydrologic cycle. Surface runoff can be generated either by rainfall or by the melting of snow
or glaciers or combination of both.

Methods of estimation (for rainfall runoff only):

 Rainfall-runoff correlation

Plotting Runoff versus precipitation over a catchment area and obtaining best fitted line.

 Empirical equation
o Inglis and DeSouza formula ( R = 0.85P – 30.5)
o Khosla’s formula ( Rm = Pm – Lm , Rm , Pm and Lm = Monthly runoff, ppt and losses)

VI. Sub Surface runoff

Subsurface flow is the flow of water beneath ground surface and is a part of the water cycle.
When the precipitation falls on hills and mountains, some of the water flows over the surface,
forming streams and rivers and some water soaks through the soil (a process called infiltration),
and flows underground, causing subsurface runoff.

VII. Groundwater Flow

Groundwater is the liquid water flowing through shallow aquifers. It is the water located beneath
the ground surface in soil pore spaces.

A unit of rock or an unconsolidated deposit is called an aquifer when it can yield a usable
quantity of water. The depth at which soil pore spaces or fractures and voids in rock become
completely saturated with water is called the water table.

VIII. Stream flow

Stream flow, or channel runoff, is the flow of water in streams, rivers, and other channels, and is
a major element of the water cycle. It is one component of the runoff of water from the land to
water bodies. The discharge of water flowing in a channel is measured using various methods
such as:

Direct methods:
 o Area-velocity method
o Chemical method/dilution technique
o Electromagnetic method
o Ultrasonic method

Indirect methods:

o Hydraulic structures
o Slope area method

Stage is measured using staff gauge, wire gauge, and automatic stage recorders

Velocity is measures using current meters

Watershed modeling:

Set of mathematical expressions that simulate the behavior of a watershed /catchment water
cycle resulting from rainfall input. It can be modeled in the form of a Lumped model or a
distributed model. In Lumped model the whole of watershed is considered as a single point in
space whereas in case of a distributed model whole of watershed is divided into no of small
element.

Rainfall-runoff models

o The SHE Model: The Systeme Hydrologique Europeen (SHE) model is most widely
known distributed hydrological model.
o HEC-HMS: It is a Lumped Model which simulates the precipitation-runoff processes of
interconnected watershed systems.

Snowmelt-runoff simulation model

o SRM: The Snowmelt-Runoff Model (SRM) is designed to simulate and forecast daily
stream flow in mountain basins where snowmelt is a major runoff factor.
o U.B.C. WATERSHED MODEL: Developed in university of British Columbia, combined
snowmelt and rainfall runoff model

Presentation of stream flow data

Hydrographs
A hydrograph is a record of the stage and or discharge of a river as a function of time
chronologically.

Uses of hydrograph:

o Peak flood magnitude

o Time to peak

Rating curve

It is a Relationship between stage and discharge. Simultaneous measurements of stage and

discharge provide a calibration graph known as stage-discharge relations or rating curve.

Uses of rating curve:

o Very useful for a hydropower scheme (variation of head).

o The essence of the rating curve is that when the curve is established for a particular
stream, subsequent determinations of discharges are merely obtained by dipping a
measuring stick to measure the stage; discharge is then read from the rating curve. The
rating curve should be checked from time to time for accurate measurements.

Flow duration curve:

It is a plot of the stream flows in ascending or descending order and its frequency of occurrence
as a percentage of time covered by the record.

Assignment work:

 Salient features of existing and proposed dams in Pakistan

 The average monthly precipitation, snowmelt runoff, average runoff losses due to infiltration
and evapotranspiration over a watershed and river stage are given in the table, develop:
o Stage hydrograph and discharge hydrograph for the stream flow
o Rating curve
o Flow duration curve

Snowmel River
Avg ppt *Losse
Sr. # Month days t runoff Stage
(cm) s (cm)
(cm) (m)
1 Jan 31 10 0 3 3.2
2 Feb. 28 12 0 5 3.5
3 Mar 31 13 10 6 3.9
4 Apr 30 22 19 6 4.2
5 May 31 18 28 7 4.5
6 Jun 30 26 39 12 4.8
7 Jul 31 48 48 18 5.7
8 Aug 31 55 52 23 6.3
9 Sep 30 35 16 14 5.2
10 Oct 31 29 9 9 4.1
11 Nov 30 10 0 6 3.4
12 Dec 31 8 0 4 3.1

Take the Watershed area = Roll# x 400 (KM2)

DESIGN # 2
TO DEVELOP RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SURFACE AREA, ELEVATION AND CAPACITY
OF RESERVOIR
Reservoir

It is an area developed by water body due to construction of dam. It is created when a

barrier/dam is constructed across a river or stream and part of catchment runoff is stored on the
upstream side of the dam.

Classification of Reservoirs

Storage Reservoirs
Storage reservoirs are also called conservation reservoirs because they are used to conserve
water. Storage reservoirs are constructed to store the water in the rainy season and to release it
later when the river flow is low for irrigation.

Flood Control Reservoirs

A flood control reservoir is constructed for the purpose of flood control. It protects the areas
lying on its downstream side from the damages due to flood.

Distribution Reservoirs
A distribution reservoir is a small storage reservoir to tide over the peak demand of water for
municipal water supply or irrigation. The distribution reservoir is helpful in permitting the pumps
to work at a uniform rate. It stores water during the period of lean demand and supplies the same
during the period of high demand.

Multipurpose Reservoirs
They are constructed to serve for more than single purpose like storage of water, flood control,
water supply and recreational purposes etc.

Balancing Reservoirs
A balancing reservoir is a small reservoir constructed d/s of the main reservoir for holding water
released from the main reservoir. This water is then pumped back to the main reservoirs and used
during lean flow period. This type of reservoir is constructed in the water scarce areas.
Storage Capacity of Reservoirs

Whatever may be the use of a reservoir, its most important function is to store water during
floods and to release it later. The storage capacity of a reservoir is, therefore, its most important
characteristics.

The available storage capacity of a reservoir depends upon the topography of the site and the
height of dam. To determine the available storage capacity of a reservoir up to a certain level of
water, engineering surveys are usually conducted. The storage capacity and the water spread area
at different elevations can be determined from the contour map.

Area-Elevation Curve:

From the contour plan, the water spread area of the reservoir at any elevation is determined by
measuring the area enclosed by the corresponding contour. Generally, a Planimeter is used for
measuring the area. An elevation-area curve is then plotted between the surface area as abscissa
and the elevation as ordinate.

Elevation-Capacity Curve:

The storage capacity of the reservoir at any elevation is determined from the water spread area at
various elevations. An elevation-storage volume curve is plotted between the storage volume as
abscissa and the elevation as ordinate.

Area-Capacity Curve:

A graph showing the relation between the surface area of the water in a reservoir and the
corresponding volume stored in the reservoir.
Uses of elevation-surface area-capacity curve

o To determine the waters spread area at a particular elevation.

o To find out how much volume will be stored in the reservoir up to a given elevation

Assignment work:

Following data related to the longitudinal section and cross-section of a river at a dam site.
Develop:

o Elevation-capacity curve
H4 o Elevation-surface area curve 1:600
o Surface area-capacity curve
H3
1:500

H2
1:250

H1 1:100

R/10 R/6 R/4 R/2

(km) (km) (km) (km)
L-section of reservoir
H3+ H4 1:20

H2
1:10

H1 1:5

80 m

X-section

DESIGN # 3
TO ESTIMATE THE LIVE STORAGE CAPACITY OF A RESERVOIR FOR VARIOUS
OPERATIONAL SCENARIOS

Reservoir

It is an area impounded by water due to the storage of part of catchment runoff by constructing a
barrier/dam across a river/stream.

Level & storages of reservoir

Full reservoir level (FRL)

The full reservoir level (FRL) is the highest water level to which the water surface will rise
during normal operating conditions.

Maximum water level (MWL)

The maximum water level is the maximum level to which the water surface will rise when the
design flood passes over the spillway.

Minimum pool level

The minimum pool level is the lowest level up to which the water is withdrawn from the
reservoir under ordinary conditions.

Dead storage

The volume of water held below the minimum pool level is called the dead storage. It is provided
to cater for the sediment deposition by the impounding sediment laid in water. Normally it is
equivalent to volume of sediment expected to be deposited in the reservoir during the design life
reservoir.

Live/useful storage

The volume of water stored between the full reservoir level (FRL) and the minimum pool level is
called the useful storage. It assures the supply of water for specific period to meet the demand.

Flood/Surcharge storage

It is storage contained between maximum reservoir level and full reservoir levels. It varies with
spillway capacity of dam for given design flood.

Bank storage

It is developed in the voids of soil cover in the reservoir area and becomes available as seepage
of water when water levels drops down. It increases the reservoir capacity.

Valley storage

The volume of water held by the natural river channel in its valley up to the top of its banks
before the construction of a reservoir is called the valley storage. The valley storage depends
upon the cross section of the river.

Yield from a reservoir

Yield is the volume of water which can be withdrawn from a reservoir in a specified period of
time.

Safe yield (Firm yield)

Safe yield is the maximum quantity of water which can be supplied uninterruptedly from a
reservoir in a specified period of time during a critical dry year.

Secondary yield

It is the quantity of water which is available during the period of high flow in the rivers when the
yield is more than the safe yield.

Average yield

The average yield is the arithmetic average of the firm yield and the secondary yield over a long
period of time.

Design yield

The design yield is the yield adopted in the design of a reservoir. The design yield is usually fixed
after considering the urgency of the water needs and the amount of risk involved.

Uniform drawoff

It is the Amount of water that is required to be withdrawn from the reservoir uniformly during
the prescribed time period.

In Pakistan it is done on 10 daily bases by IRSA.

It depends on the d/s uses /requirements of water. e.g.

1. Irrigation

2. Hydro power requirements

3. Water supply requirements.

Sedimentation in Tarbela reservoir

Initial   (1974)
Reservoir Capacity  Year 2005 MAF  Reduction % 
MAF 
Gross Storage  14.344  10.295  28.23 
Live Storage  11.948  8.695  27.22 
Dead Storage  2.395  1.598  33.30 

Sedimentation in Mangla reservoir

 Original
Reservoir Capacity  Year 2005 (MAF)  Reduction % 
(MAF) 

Gross Storage  7.259  5.768  20.54 

Live Storage  6.593  5.605  14.98 

Dead Storage  0.666  0.163  75.56 

How to estimate the live storage capacity of a reservoir?

The storage capacity of a reservoir is decided based on the available water and demand. Capacity
of a reservoir is smaller of surplus and deficit.

Surplus

Deficit

UDO
Deficit
Discharge

Time

Explanation

For example if deficit is 30 MCM & surplus is 60 MCM. According to definition we will keep
capacity as 30 MCM. Reasons are that we need just 30 MCM extra. If we keep reservoir capacity
equal to 60 MCM then the extra 30 MCM are useless, and it will cause sedimentation, and
construction cost will increased.

And if there is a reverse case i.e. deficit is 60 MCM and surplus is 30 MCM. Then obviously we
will decide capacity of reservoir as 30 MCM. Reason for this decision is that although we need
60 MCM, but we have not enough water available to store. The maximum water available is 30
MCM, so designing a reservoir at more than this capacity is of no use.

Mass curve

It is a Plot between the cumulative inflows and demand (outflows) versus time.

Mass inflow curve

Graph plotted between the net reservoir inflows, exclusive of upstream abstractions, as ordinate
versus time as abscissa.

Demand curve
It is a plot between cumulative outflows (demand) versus time.

Importance:

 Information about the available water at any time in the reservoir.

 Surplus and deficit to decide about emptying and filling program.

Mass inflow curve

Demand flow
curve

Discharge
(BCM)

Time

Emptying and filling program for a reservoir:

Emptying and filling program for a reservoir is decided on the basis of surplus and deficit.
During the surplus period i.e. available water is in excess of requirements, reservoir is filled to
fulfill the water deficiency during the dry months.

Filling

Emptying
Emptying
Assignment work:

The following set of data relates to a natural stream at a dam site, the values are averaged over
the past 30 years record.

For the given Reservoir operation scenarios:

 Estimate the live storage capacity of reservoir

 Plot mass curve (Mass inflow curve & demand curve)
 Propose suitable emptying and filling program

The reservoir operation scenarios are:

a) When a constant maximum supply is to be ensured from the reservoir considering the
losses due to evaporation.
b) When the specified discharges are to be released from the reservoir.
Section A B C
D

N R/15 R/25 R/35

R/45

M R/25 R/40 R/50

R/60

Avg
Discharge *Outflows
Month evaporation
(m3/sec) (m3/sec)
losses (m3/sec)

Jan 75 0.75+M 85+N

Feb 95 1.25+M 105+N

 Mar 120 2.15+M 130+N

Apr 156 3.10+M 160+N

May 265 4.20+M 200+N

Jun 360 5.5+M 250+N

Jul 455 7.5+M 300+N

Aug 590 8.6+M 380+N

Sep 415 7.0+M 325+N

Oct 245 5.0+M 260+N

Nov 125 2.5+M 140+N

Dec 85 1.25+M 95+N

* For 2nd scenario

DESIGN # 4
TO ESTIMATE THE HYDRO-POWER POTENTIAL FOR A GIVEN WATER-POWER
DEVELOPMENT SCHEME

Sources of energy:
Power is the basic necessity for the development of a country. These are the resources energy
being utilized to produce electricity in the world.

 Fossil Fuel (oil, gas, and coal etc)

 Wind

 Water in Rivers

 Waves and Tides in Ocean

 Solar Energy

 Atomic/Nuclear Energy

Power generation pattern of the world

Power generation pattern of the Pakistan

Water-power & its benefits

Hydropower is extracted from the natural potential of usable water resources. If the water is
available in the river, then for the production of energy reservoirs are made so as to make
availability of water throughout the year.

P= γQH
 Where

P= Hydropower

Q = River discharge

H= Available head

Benefits

 Most economical source of electricity.

 Renewable source of energy, constantly recycled and perennially available.
 Has the capacity to fulfill base and peak-load demands.
 Non-polluting and environmental friendly.
 Lead to the development of remote areas.
 Helps in management and regulation of water resources.
 Has long span of life.
 Quick to start and stop.

Layout of a typical water-power development scheme & its types

Components (Storage type hydropower development scheme)

 Dam and Reservoir

 Spillway
 Intake structure with trashrack.
 Headrace channel / tunnel
 Forebay channel
 Surge tank
 Penstock
  Power plant/ power complex
 Tailrace channel / tunnel

Types of water-power development schemes

 Run-of-River Plant (Local Development)

 Diversion Canal Plant

 Storage Plant

 Pump Storage Plant

Primary & secondary powers

 Primary/ firm / continuous power is the minimum power which can b generated from a
hydropower plant for 100 % of time. It is the power corresponding to the minimum stream
flow with a due consideration of the pondage.
 Secondary power is the power in excess of the firm power.

Flow & power duration curves

 Flow Duration Curve is a plot of the stream flow in ascending or descending order and its
frequency of occurrence as a percentage of time covered by the record.
 Power Duration Curve is a plot of the power generated in ascending or descending order
and its frequency of occurrence as a percentage of time covered by the record.
If the available head and efficiency of the power plant are known, the flow duration curve
may be converted into power duration curve.
Assignment work:

The following set of data relates to a natural stream at a dam site, the values are averaged
over the past 50 years record.

For the given scenarios:

 Estimate the firm and secondary power.

 Plot flow duration curve, power duration curve.
 Estimate total annual KWhs generated from the power plant, annual revenue
generated if the cost per unit is 2.5 Rs. / kWH. Also propose the no. of turbines to
be installed if capacity of one turbine is 25 m3/sec.

The given scenarios are:

a) When no storage facilities are available.

b) When the specified discharges are to be released from the reservoir for hydropower
generation.

Section A B C
D

N R/10 R/20 R/30

R/40

M R/25 R/40 R/50

R/60

Month Inflows Avg Net Head *Outflows

 evaporation Available
(m3/sec) (m3/sec)
losses (m3/sec) (m)

Jan 65 1.15+M 75+N 95+N

Feb 90 2.25+M 81+N 113+N

Mar 130 2.75+M 89+N 132+N

Apr 176 2.95+M 95+N 166+N

May 255 3.70+M 106+N 207+N

Jun 385 5.50+M 115+N 259+N

Jul 462 6.95+M 130+N 310+N

Aug 575 7.55+M 150+N 376+N

Sep 405 7.95+M 124+N 316+N

Oct 230 4.65+M 112+N 266+N

Nov 110 1.85+M 90+N 135+N

Dec 76 1.25+M 82+N 86+N

* For 2nd scenario

DESIGN # 5
TO ESTIMATE BED LOAD, TOTAL SEDIMENT LOAD AND LIFE OF
RESERVOIR

Sediment:

It is any particulate matter that can be transported by fluid flow and which eventually is
deposited as a layer of solid particles on the bed or bottom of a body of water or other
liquid.

It is a fragmental material which originates from the weathering of rocks and is transported,
suspended in or deposited by water.

Sediment Transport/ sediment load / sediment discharge:

It is the amount (wt/vol) of sediment passing through a particular section of river a stream
per unit time.

Q s = Q x Cm

Qs = Sediment discharge, Cm = Sediment concentration, Q = stream discharge

Sediment Yield:

It is the total sediment load out flowing from a drainage area / watershed at a particular
reference point in a specified period of time.

Bed Load:

It is that part of total sediment load that moves in the form of rolling, jumping and sliding
along the bed layer ( it is a sediment layer several grain size thickness immediately above
channel bed).

Generally 15-25 % of suspended load.

Suspended Load:

It is that part of total load which moves in suspension for an appreciable length of time,
supported by upward component of turbulent currents.

Bed material Load:

Bed material is the sediment mixture of which the stream bed is composed off. Bed
material load is that part of total sediment load which is composed of sediment sizes which
 are found in stream bed and in sand bed rivers. It is equal to the sediment transport capacity
of flow.

Wash Load / fine material load:

It is that part of total sediment load which is composed off particles finer than those
represented in the stream bed. In sand bed channels, particles with sizes finer than
0.062mm (silt & clay) are considered as wash load.

Total sediment Load:

It is the sum of:

Bed Load + Suspended Load or

Bed material load + wash load

Example Problem:

Average 4 weekly discharge data of a river at a gauging station is given as:

Time 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40 44 48 52
(weeks)
110 166 334 428 354 105
Discharge 330 435 604 752 793 509 428
(cumecs) 5 4 2 0 5 2

X-sect.
134 145 137
Area of 200 256 340 432 583 829 565 452 320 250
flow 8 0 0
(m2)
Depth 0.9 1.24 1.56 1.85 2.66 3.85 6.20 6.89 6.21 2.49 2.12 1.34 0.95
(m)

D50 = 0.05 mm
D90 = 0.075 mm
Bed slope = 1:1500
Specific weight of water = 1 m ton/m3
Specific gravity of particles = 2.65
Take bed load as 25 % of suspended load.

a. Estimate the bed load using Meyer-Peter & Muller’s Approach (MPM) and Total
annual sediment load assuming that the bed load is 25% of Suspended sediment
load.
b. Estimate the total annual sediment load using Acker and white’s Approach.
 c. Estimate the reservoir capacity if the flow is to be regulated at a uniform rate and
using the results obtained in (a) & (b) estimate the Half life of reservoir.

Part (a): MPM Approach

Steps for calculation:

Given Data:
Specific weight of water = 1 m ton/m3
Specific weight of particles = 2.65 x 1 = 2.65 m ton / m3

Density = sp wt / g = 1 / 9.81 = 0.102 meteric ton sec2/m4

R = A / P = (bxd) / b+2d (b is very large)

Therefore R = D & V = Q/A , b = A / D , q = Q / b

I. Calculate Kr as

II. Calculate Sr as

III. Calculate qb using MPM formula in mton/sec/m.

IV. Calculate qs based on assumption i.e. qs = 4 qb
V. Total Sediment Load = qt= qb+qs (mton/s/m)
VI. Total Sediment Load in kg/sec = qt(mton/s/m) x 1000 x B
VII. Total Annual Sediment in kg = Σqt(kg/sec) x 365 x 24 x 3600
 Calculations in tabular form using MPM formula:

Time Q Are D B V Sr qb qs qt = qb+qs qt

(weeks (cumecs a =R (m) (m/sec (mton/sec/m (mton/sec/m (mton/sec/m) (kg/sec)
) ) (m2) (m = ) ) )
) A/D
Sum all
values =
Σqt

Part (b): Ackers & White’s Approach

Steps for calculation:

I. Calculate dgr Dimensionless Sediment grain size) as:

II. Calculate m, A, n and C as:

If 1<dgr ≤60

, , and

If dgr>60

III. Calculate Fgr (Dimensionless Sediment Mobility Number)

 Where is shear velocity calculated as and = 10

IV. Calculate Ggr (Dimensionless Sediment Transport rate)

V. Calculate X (Sediment Concentration by weight of fluid flux)

Calculations in tabular form using Ackers & White’s formula:

Time Q Area Dept B V =Q/A q=Vx U* Fgr Ggr X qt=q.X.γ qt

(weeks) h D (mton/sec/m) (kg/sec)

VI. Total Sediment Load in kg/sec = qt(mton/s/m) x 1000 x B

VII. Total Annual Sediment in kg = Σqt(kg/sec) x 365 x 24 x 3600

Part (c): Reservoir Capacity & Half Life of Reservoir

Steps for calculation:

I. Calculate live storage capacity of reservoir as:

Time Q Inflow UDO Surplus Deficit

(weeks) (cumecs) yield (MCM) (MCM) (MCM)
(MCM)

Inflow yield = Q x 28 x 24 x 3600 / 106 (MCM)

UDO = Σ4 weekly yield / 13
Capacity = Smaller of Surplus & Deficit A (MCM)
Half reservoir capacity = A / 2 = B (MCM)

II. Capacity inflow ratio = B / Σ4 weekly yield

III. Sediment Trapped Efficiency = C % (from Brune’s curve)
IV. Sediments trapped in reservoir per year = (C/100) x total sediment yield per
year=D (kg)/year
V. Volume of sediments (without pores) trapped per year = mass / Density (1-
porosity)
= D / 2.65 x 1000 (1-0.3) (means 70% are solid particles) = E (MCM)/year

Half life of reservoir = Half reservoir capacity / E = F (years)

Assignment Work:
 Part 1:

 List the approaches used to estimate Bed load and Total sediment load.
 Applications of Sediment Transport study in Hydraulics and irrigation Engineering.

Part 2:

Average 4 weekly discharge data of a river at a gauging station is given as:

Time 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40 44 48 52
(weeks)
118 156 293 404 315 162
Discharge 400 525 678 820 845 563 425
(cumecs) 0 9 6 0 6 3

105 138 113

Area 290 344 395 445 559 698 720 475 395 305
(m2) 6 8 0

Depth 1.75 2.16 2.46 2.70 3.50 4.65 7.05 7.98 7.15 4.89 3.15 2.39 1.96
(m)

D50 (mm) = R / 250 (sec A & B) & R/1500 (Sec C & D)

D90 (mm) = R / 110 (sec A & B) & R/1150 (Sec C & D)
Bed slope = 1 :( Rx1050)
Kinematic viscosity = 1 x 10-6 m2/sec
Specific weight of water = 1 m ton/m3
Specific gravity of particles = 2.65
Take bed load as 20 % of suspended load.

i) Estimate the annual sediment load using Meyer-Peter & Muller’s Approach.
ii) Estimate the annual sediment load using Ackers and white’s Approach.
iii) Estimate the reservoir capacity if the flow is to be regulated at a uniform
rate and using the results obtained in (i) & (ii) estimate the Half life of
reservoir. Also comment on the results obtained using both the approaches.
DESIGN # 6
COMPUTATION OF GRADUALLY VARIED FLOW PROFILE (BACK WATER CURVE)
BY STANDARD STEP METHOD

Gradually varied flow

It is the type in which depth of flow, velocity of flow changes, channel cross-section etc
varies gradually over a long length of the channel.

Governing Equation for Gradually varied flow

dy / dx = (So - Sf) / 1-Fr2

dH / dx = Sf (slope of energy line)

dZ / dx = So (slope of channel bed)

Gradually varied flow profiles

Following are the possible water surface profiles which can be developed in a gradually
varies flow:

1. M profiles (M1, M2, M3)

2. S profiles (S1, S2, S3)
3. C profiles (C1, C3)
4. H profiles (H2, H3)
5. A profiles (A2, A3)

Computation of Gradually varied flow profiles

It is the solution of dynamic equation for gradually varied flow.