Tectonophysics 513 (2011) 88–95

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Tectonophysics
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A simple continental rift classification

Olivier Merle
Clermont Université, Université Blaise Pascal, Laboratoire Magmas et Volcans, BP 10448, F-63000 Clermont-Ferrand, France
CNRS, UMR 6524, LMV, F-63038 Clermont-Ferrand, France
IRD, R 163, LMV, F-63038 Clermont-Ferrand, France

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: A continental rift is conventionally described as a thinning process of the lithosphere ultimately leading to
Received 30 April 2011 the rupture of the continent and the formation of a mid-oceanic ridge. Rifting is the initial and fundamental
Received in revised form 6 October 2011 process by which the separation of two continents into two tectonic plates takes place. Previous classifica-
Accepted 8 October 2011
tions, particularly the one into “active” and “passive” rifting, are briefly presented, together with their limita-
Available online 14 October 2011
tions. The new classification presented here links continental rifts to the major plate tectonics structures
Keywords:
which are at the origin of their formation. Thus, four types of rift can be defined: the subduction-related
Continental rift rift, the plume-related rift, the mountain-related rift and the transform-related rift. A number of examples
Tectonics representative of these four types of rift are then presented. This classification is shown to lie at the heart
Active rift of our understanding of the major plate tectonic processes at work on Earth.
Passive rift © 2011 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Extension
Tectonic plate

1. Introduction continental crust preserves its original thickness. Following uplift

Rift formation has long been the focus of attention for researchers and
numerous studies have been carried out in order to understand the cause
and the mode of lithospheric extension (e.g. Brun, 1999; Corti et al., 2003;
Dewey and Hancock, 1987; Illies, 1981; Keen, 1985; Khain, 1992; Morgan
and Baker, 1983; Neugebauer, 1983; Neumann and Ramberg, 1978; Pal-
mason, 1982; Ruppel, 1995; Ziegler, 1992).
A continental rift is conventionally described as a thinning process
of the lithosphere ultimately leading to the rupture of the continent
and the formation of a mid-oceanic ridge and sea-floor spreading.
The rifting process, however, does not always continue to completion
and many rifts become inactive before the point at which new ocean-
ic crust is formed.
The process of lithospheric thinning deserves special attention.
Basically, the thinning of the lithosphere may result from one of
two distinct mechanisms. Firstly, thinning may result from horizontal
extension of the continental lithosphere, in which far-field stresses
generated within, or at the boundaries of, the lithosphere create the
extensional field. In this case, both the crust and the lithospheric
mantle are simultaneously stretched right from the start of the rifting
process. Secondly, thinning may result from a heat source acting on
the base of the lithosphere, due the ascent of a mantle plume to the
base of the lithosphere. In the earliest stages of this deformation,
the lithospheric mantle is thinned by thermal erosion but the
E-mail address: merle@opgc.univ-bpclermont.fr.
and volcanism, the crust is thinned by extension in the final stage of
deformation.
The great diversity of extensional modes illustrates their dependence
upon numerous physical parameters. The following are generally consid-
ered to exert a strong control on the deformation of the lithosphere: the
rate of extension (e.g. England, 1983; Kuznir and Park, 1987; Perez-
Gussinye et al., 2006), the geothermal gradient (e.g. Buck, 1991), the rhe-
ological profile of the lithosphere (e.g. Huismans and Beaumont, 2011;
Martinod and Davy, 1992; Richard and Froidevaux, 1986), the thickness
ratio between the crust and the lithospheric mantle (e.g. Hopper and
Buck, 1996), any ancient discontinuities and lithospheric heterogene-
ities (e.g. Petit and Deverchère, 2006) and the magmatic intrusions
(e.g. Parsons and Thompson, 1993; White and McKenzie, 1989).
These parameters combine variously to form rifts as diverse as (1) nar-
row rifts (e.g. the East African Rift or the Cenozoic European Rift) versus
rifts whose width is greater than the lithospheric thickness (e.g. The
Basin and Range province or the Aegean extensional area) (e.g. Brun,
1999; Buck, 1991); (2) asymmetric versus symmetric extension on a
crustal or lithospheric scale (e.g. Keen et al., 1987; Morgan and Baker,
1983; Wernicke, 1981) or (3) magmatic rifts versus exceptionally
non-magmatic rifts (Perez-Gussinye and Reston, 2001).
Since all these rift types, whether narrow or wide, or exhibiting
asymmetric or symmetric extension, may be formed in different tec-
tonic environments, these characteristics cannot be used to classify
rifts with respect to the tectonic stresses at the origin of the deforma-
tion. In other words, different tectonic environment may create rifts
that display great geometric or kinematic similarities.

0040-1951/$ – see front matter © 2011 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.tecto.2011.10.004
 O. Merle / Tectonophysics 513 (2011) 88–95
Thus, any geometric or kinematic classification is incomplete since
it does not take into account local mechanical parameters, which
generate specific extensional modes that interfere with the tectonic
cause of the rifting process.
However, one of the goals of geology is to determine the root
causes of the tectonic structures, and to propose a coherent evolution
of these structures in relation to plate tectonics. A rift classification
that is both based on plate tectonics and is easy to apply would be
very useful in the understanding of first order geological data includ-
ing that from tectonics, geophysics, petrology, geochemistry or
stratigraphy.
The aim of this article is to propose a simple classification by
which all of the world's rifts can be easily classified. As it covers all
large-scale plate tectonic structures, this classification does not ex-
clude any, and defines them all without ambiguity. Post-orogenic ex-
tension, which results from tensional stresses within orogenically
overthickened crust and is associated with the collapse of an orogen,
is not considered as a rifting process but rather as a return to the nor-
mal crustal condition. Therefore, this type of extension is not taken
into account in the classification.
2. “Active” and “passive” rifting
This classification is a dynamic one as it is based upon the forces
that initiate rifting. Burke and Dewey (1973) were the first to imagine
that a rift may result from the ascent of a mantle plume to the base of
the lithosphere. This process was termed “active rifting” by Sengör
and Burke (1978), and subsequently mantle-activated rifting by
Condie (1982). Inherent in this classification is the fact that the
mantle upwelling is an active process in the deformation. However,
the term “active” rift can be misleading since there is another sense
of the term in which active and inactive rifts are distinguished based
on whether extension is ongoing or not (Park, 1988).
“Active” rifting is the opposite of “passive” rifting (Sengör and Burke,
1978); in the latter the extension of the lithosphere results from region-
al stresses located within, or at the boundaries of, the lithosphere. It em-
phasizes that the mantle upwelling is a passive mechanism resulting
from thinning of the lithosphere by extension. “Passive” rifting has
been termed lithosphere-activated by Condie (1982).
This classification has proved very useful since “active” and “pas-
sive” rifts, due to their very different causes, follow definable and con-
trasting tectonic evolutions (Fig. 1). “Active” rifting is characterized
Uplift and
Volcanism
Crust
Crust
Lithospheric Thermal erosion
mantle
Mantle
Plume
Asthenosphere
A B
Fig. 1. The early stage of the tectonic evolution for “active” (A) and “passive” rifting (B). “Active” rifting displays lithospheric uplift and volcanism resulting from thermal erosion at
the base of the lithosphere, whereas “passive” rifting displays graben formation and sedimentation without volcanism as a result of horizontal extension of the lithosphere.
89
by crustal doming and abundant vulcanicity (i.e. flood basalt) during
the early stage, with graben formation and sedimentation occurring
at a later stage. Conversely, “passive” rifting exhibits graben forma-
tion and lacustrine or even marine sedimentation in the first stage,
followed by volcanism at a later stage. This distinct tectonic evolution
gives simple criteria by which to identify “active” or “passive” rifts
from field studies.
Despite its usefulness, this classification is limited. Firstly, “active
rifting” has been shown to be rare on Earth and only the East African
Rift is acknowledged to fall into this category, although some authors
suggest that this process has played a major role in the opening of the
Atlantic Ocean (e.g. Morgan, 1983; Wilson and Guiraud, 1992).
Secondly, this classification is far from being clear-cut. Numerous
rifts display a tectonic evolution that combines “passive” and “active”
mechanisms (Michon and Merle, 2001; Ruppel, 1995; Wilson, 1993;
Ziegler and Cloetingh, 2004), making it difficult to place them unam-
biguously into one of these two categories.
During “passive” rifting, stretching of the lithosphere may trigger
a destabilization of the underlying asthenosphere and generate a
small-scale convective upwelling whose effect mimics that of “active”
rifting (Huismans et al., 2001). According to some authors (Channel
and Mareschal, 1989; Merle and Michon, 2001), this “active” compo-
nent in “passive” rifting may also result from the formation of a man-
tle lithospheric root following continental collision. This root forces
the asthenosphere away from itself, generating upward movement
of the asthenosphere toward the base of the adjacent lithosphere. In
other words, “active” upwelling of the asthenosphere is common in
many “passive” rifts and is not linked to an underlying mantle plume.
Conversely, for mechanical reasons, some authors think that “ac-
tive” rifting is not able to produce complete rupture of the lithosphere
(i.e. to the point of oceanic crust formation) and that a component of
“passive” rifting is needed (e.g. Mulugeta, 1985). This component
may be provided by deviatoric stresses resulting from lateral gradi-
ents of gravitational potential energy due to the doming created by
the underlying mantle plume (Stamps et al., 2010). Such combina-
tions of “active” and “passive” components therefore make it difficult
to distinguish the appropriate model when studying a natural case.
In addition, the difference in tectonic evolution between “active”
and “passive” rifting disappears during the final stage of deformation
when the asthenosphere reaches shallow levels of the plate and trig-
gers abundant partial melting and magmatic intrusions (e.g. Corti
et al., 2003; Morley, 1994).
Graben and
Sedimentation No volcanism
Crust
Extension
Lithospheric
mantle
Asthenosphere
90 O. Merle / Tectonophysics 513 (2011) 88–95
3. Sengör's classification
This classification, restated by Sengör and Natal'in (2001), was
first proposed by Sengör (1995). It is a hierarchical classification
that combines dynamic, kinematic and geometric information.
Firstly, all rifts are separated into two major categories (rank 1)
based on their dynamics (i.e. “active” and “passive” rifts). These
two major categories are then subdivided into four kinematic types
of rift families (rank 2) based on plate boundary characteristics,
namely divergent plate boundaries, convergent plate boundaries,
conservative plate boundaries, and plate interior. Further kinematic
subcategories are defined based on these four types of rifts families
(rank 3). Geometric characteristics are then added to the kinematic
subcategories.
For example, the “active” rift category (rank 1: dynamic) splits
into two families (rank 2: kinematic): Intraplate rift and divergent-
plate boundary rift. This second generation is subdivided into Rift
with previous doming and rift without previous doming (rank 3: kine-
matic) to which four geometric characteristics are added: Solitary
rift, rift stars, rift chains, rift nets. This is the simplest example of the
classification as a fourth kinematical rank is introduced for certain
types of “passive” rift. The classification is illustrated in table form,
and resembles a family tree with 20 category boxes (Fig. 2 in Sengör
and Natal'in, 2001).
This classification gives much more information about the differ-
ent types of rifts than the “active/passive” classification, especially
about the tectonic environment associated with the rifting process.
However, the fact that the initial categories (dynamic, kinematic
and geometric) do not overlap makes the classification complicated
and sprawling, and overall difficult to handle. It is also questionable
whether the abundance of kinematic subcategories adds anything to
the clarity of the final classification.
Certain limitations of this classification become apparent when
using it. For example, In the European Cenozoic Rift, the grabens of
this Oligocene rift system do not all fall into the same category. The
Limagne graben is considered to be a pack-ice type rift (rank 4),
the Rhine graben as an impactogen (rank 4) and the Bresse graben
as a pull-apart rift (rank 3) (Sengör and Natal'in, 2001). Moreover,
the Rhine and Limagne grabens belong to the sub-categories of
convergent-plate boundary rifts (rank 2) and continental collision-
related rifts (rank 3) whereas the Bresse graben belongs to the
sub-category of conservative-plate boundary rifts (rank 2). The fact
that a group of grabens, which clearly all formed at the same
time and during the same tectonic episode of regional extension,
are allocated to different categories in the classification scheme,
shows that the unifying conditions which prevailed during their
formation on the larger scale of the European Plate are being
masked by the complexity of the classification.
In other words, while the purely dynamic classification (“active”
and “passive” rifts) does not account for the great variety of dynamic
processes that take place during rift formation, Sengör's classification,
through being too complicated, artificially separates grabens that
formed at the same time and during the same tectonic events.
4. A new simple classification
There are six active tectonic environments represented on the
Earth's surface, as defined by the kinematics of tectonic plate bound-
aries: continental rifts, oceanic ridges, subduction zones, hot spots,
mountain chains and transform zones. All of these tectonic environ-
ments correspond to lateral boundaries of tectonic plates, with the
exception of the hot spot which results from mantle plume activity
at the base of a plate. From a tectonic point of view, the Earth's surface
is inactive away from these specific tectonic environments.
Continental rifts and mid-oceanic ridges are genetically linked
since the ultimate evolution of a rift in the continental lithosphere,
is the formation of an oceanic ridge. In our classification, the mid-
oceanic ridge is a central point toward which all rifts converge, re-
gardless of the tectonic setting that initiates them.
If we now consider the causes of rifting, it is significant that the
four other active tectonic environments, namely subduction zones,
mountain chains, mantle plumes and transform faults, can all be re-
sponsible for the formation of a continental rift. No other cause for
the formation of a continental rift has ever been demonstrated on
Earth. In the classification, these four tectonic environments are the
four points of departure for any process of rifting, in the same way
as the oceanic ridge is viewed as being the point of arrival.
These kinematic considerations inferred from plate tectonics can
be represented on a diagram where each type of rift appears
(Fig. 2). According to this, four types of rift can be defined, each
resulting from one of the four tectonic environments at the origin of
their formation. These four types of rift are: the subduction-related
rift, the plume-related rift, the mountain-related rift and the
transform-related rift (Fig. 1). All rifts found on Earth can be classified
according to this diagram.
This classification opens interesting perspectives. It shows that
rifts formed in a similar tectonic environment can follow different
structural evolutions, and it allows us to understand why. In essence,
this classification lies at the heart of our understanding of the major
plate tectonic processes at work on Earth. In the following sections,
we provide some natural examples to illustrate and reinforce this
view.
5. Subduction-related rifts
The classic relationship between subduction and rifts is the forma-
tion of back-arc basins, which result from the roll-back of the subduct-
ing slab. This situation generally occurs in response to the aging of the
subduction zone, to a slow down of the convergence rate, or to a tempo-
rary plate divergence (e.g. Honza, 1993; Tamaki and Honza, 1991;
Uyeda and McCabe, 1983).
Several examples of this mechanism have been described on
Earth, and some of them have evolved to the point of oceanic crust
formation, for example the Sea of Japan (e.g. Jolivet et al., 1994), the
Black Sea (e.g. Nikishin et al., 2001) or the Agero-provencal basin
(e.g. Seranne, 1999). The structural evolution of back-arc basins is
that of “passive” rifting.
Subduction-related rifts may also exhibit extensional terrains
which are different to those of classic back-arc basins, for example
the Basin and Range Province in the USA. Here, the primary cause of
the continental extension is the subduction of the Farralon and Pacific
plates under the North-American continent. The Eo–Oligocene mag-
matism bears a subduction zone signature and thus the Basin and
Range Province is classified as a subduction-related rift. However, it
was not until the East Pacific Rise descended beneath the North
American plate that extension within the continent began (Verall,
1989), since this event deeply modified the kinematic and thermo-
mechanical state of the overlying continent. Moreover, the detach-
ment of the Farallon slab, which sank into the mantle (Jones et al.,
1992; Keith, 1986), generated “active” upwelling of the astheno-
sphere. Thus, the Basin and Range Province exhibits many character-
istics of “active” rifting during its main Mio–Pliocene stage. As a
result, the US Cordillera collapsed and there was rapid extension
over a very wide zone (1500 × 1500 km) leading to the formation of
metamorphic cores complexes, together with abundant vulcanicity
(Coney, 1987; Wernicke, 1981; Wernicke et al., 1987). Simultaneous-
ly, the Pacific/North-American plate boundary was evolving into a
conservative plate boundary.
The Wudalianchi volcanic field, located to the west of the Sea of
Japon, in China, provides another example of rifting resulting from
subduction-related extension. More precisely, the extension in this
volcanic province is a result of the accumulation and thickening of a
 O. Merle / Tectonophysics 513 (2011) 88–95
Mantle Plume
Subduction
Zone Subduction-related
Rift
Mountain Chain
Fig. 2. Continental rift classification according to the four tectonic environments at the origin of their formation (see text for explanation).
stagnant portion of the Pacific plate as it subducts beneath the Eurasian
plate. This creates “active” upwelling of the asthenosphere, which in
turn triggers volcanism, uplift and crustal extension (Zhao et al.,
2009; Zou et al., 2008). Although the deformation mimics that of “ac-
tive” rifting, it does not result from the activity of a mantle plume but
instead from the specific evolution of the subduction zone locally,
thus putting it into the group of subduction-related rifts.
These two natural examples of subduction-related rifts (i.e. The
Basin and Range Province and the Wudalianchi volcanic field) reveal
that this type of rift may follow very contrasting structural evolution
based on the tectonic history of the individual subduction zone. It is
noteworthy that, depending on their structural evolution, subduction-
related rifts can be classified as “active” or “passive” rifts, or even
cross from one to the other over time.
6. Mountain-related rifts
During continental collision the overstacking process generates
horizontal stresses that can produce major deformation in the fore-
land over distances that reach far away from the actual suture zone.
This is beautifully illustrated by the lateral extrusion of eastern Asia
resulting from the India/Asia collision (e.g. Cobbold and Davy, 1988;
Molnar and Tapponnier, 1975; Tapponnier et al., 1982). For lateral ex-
trusion to occur, plate boundary conditions play a major role and the
deformation in the foreland is associated with strike-slip faults and
crustal block rotations over thousands of kilometers. According to nu-
merical modeling, extensional deformation in the foreland may also
result from the formation of the deep lithospheric root below the col-
lision zone (Channel and Mareschal, 1989; Fleitout, 1984; Fleitout
and Froidevaux, 1982).
These deformations can cause rifts that are the direct consequence
of mountain range formation (i.e. mountain-related rifts). Again,
kinematical and mechanical characteristics of the extension triggered
by far-field stresses can be understood only by studying multiple local
physical parameters such as the heterogeneities in the lithosphere,
ancient crustal discontinuities, local thermal conditions, etc.
91
Mantle-related
Rift
Transform
Mid Transform-related Fault
Oceanic Rift
Ridge
Moutain-related
Rift
Two examples of mountain-related rifts can be cited. Deformation
in the foreland of the Himalaya mountain chain has occurred within a
triangular area bounded to the west by the Tien Shan–Baikal wrench
zone, which is over 4000 km long (Cobbold and Davy, 1988). The
northern tip of this wrench zone is the Lake Baikal rift. Although the
location and the evolution of the Baikal rift has been influenced by
many local factors, the rifting process mainly results from the eastward
escape of the Amuria–North China plate during the general tectonic
evolution of Asia (e.g. Petit and Deverchère, 2006; Zonenshain and
Savostin, 1981). Since far-field stresses due to the India/Asia collision
are the primary cause of the lateral escape, this collision is also respon-
sible for the initiation of the Baikal Rift (Deverchère, 1999; Petit and
Deverchère, 2006).
The European Cenozoic Rift System (ECRIS) is one of the most
studied rifts in the world. Its tectonic and magmatic evolution is
very complex and many competing models have been proposed to
explain its formation (e.g. Bergerat, 1987; Bois, 1993; Bourgeois
et al., 2007; Chorowicz and Deffontaines, 1993; Dèzes et al., 2004;
Merle and Michon, 2001; Neugebauer, 1978; Sengör, 1976; Sobolev
et al., 1996; Stampfli et al., 1998; Tapponnier, 1977; Ziegler, 1994).
Although the model of a mantle plume – or several “baby” mantle
plumes – beneath Western Europe were once popular to explain
Tertiary volcanism (Granet et al., 1995; Hoernle et al., 1995; Wilson
and Downes, 1991), most models, especially the most recent ones,
clearly show the role of alpine compression in the formation of the
grabens (e.g. Bourgeois et al., 2007; Dèzes et al., 2004; Merle and
Michon, 2001).
As with other models of rifts in the world, the presence of both an
“active” and “passive” component during the formation of the ECRIS
indicates that the traditional “active/passive” classification is inade-
quate and cannot be used as a basis for understanding the primary
cause of the rift formation. It is outside the scope of this paper to pre-
sent the different tectonic models proposed for the ECRIS. However, it
is important to note that, in all the models for the ECRIS formation,
the role of the Alps is highlighted, placing it indisputably in the cate-
gory of mountain-related rifts.
92 O. Merle / Tectonophysics 513 (2011) 88–95

7. Plume-related rifts to the North American plate (e.g. Crowell, 1979; Hill and Dibblee,
1953; Powell and Weldon, 1992). These deformations were amplified
As noted above, rifts resulting from the ascent of a mantle plume to the south-east to bring about the opening of the Gulf of California,
to the base of the lithosphere are rare on Earth. This observation is which lies along the same strike-slip plate boundary.
not necessarily true for the past, for example during the opening of As an example of a combination of basic mechanisms at work in
the Atlantic Ocean where the role of mantle plumes (i.e. Iceland, transform-related rifts, the Ngaoundere and Abu Gabra rifts in Africa
The Acores, Tristan da Cunha, St Helena) is a subject of debate (e.g. are Precambrian structures which were reactivated as transform faults
McHone, 2000; Morgan, 1983; Wilson and Guiraud, 1992). during the opening of the Atlantic. The tectonic system is that of pull-
On Earth, the only potential example of a plume-related rift is the apart basins which formed along a dextral fault (i.e. The Ngaoundere
East African Rift (e.g. Davies, 1998; Ebinger et al., 1989; Griffiths and rift) that terminates in a horsetail associated with purely extensional
Campbell, 1990; Pik et al., 2006). If we consider the tectonic evolution basins (i.e. The Abu Gabra Rift) (Browne and Fairhead, 1983).
of this rift, the two stages of “active” rifting may be identified. For in-
stance, for the Main Ethiopian Rift, the first tectono-magmatic event 9. Discussion
was a voluminous episode of flood basalts and the formation of the
Ethiopian and Somalian Plateaus (i.e. uplift) at about 30 Ma. The It would be interesting to determine a specific tectonic evolution
phase of rifting itself started later, during the Mio–Pliocene, with for each of the four types of rift as defined by the new classification.
the activation of large border faults, the formation of the Ethiopian From this perspective, the classification into “active” and “passive”
Rift Valley and a diffuse magmatic event (see review of these two rift is still very useful because it defines two contrasting tectonic
events in Corti, 2009).
Since the study of global seismic tomography by Ritsema et al.
Crust Oceanic
(1999), the hypothesis of a super-plume rooted at the core/mantle
Passive Lithosphere
boundary below South-Africa has been favored. According to the inter- Rifting
pretation of tomographic data, this broad thermal upwelling would Lithospheric
have propagated in a N–NE direction beneath East Africa and would Mantle
be responsible for the formation of the Somalian and Ethiopian Plateaus
(e.g. Conrad and Gurnis, 2003; Ebinger and Sleep, 1998; Gurnis et al.,
2000; Lithgow-Bertelloni and Silver, 1998). Due to the uncertainties of Subduction
the method, the way the super-plume rose within the mantle and its
possible separation into multiple smaller plumes are still highly debat-
ed (e.g. Furman et al., 2006; Kendall et al., 2006; Meshesha and Shinjo,
Roll back
2008) Asthenosphere of the slab
In the East African Rift, the rapid rotation of the near-surface stress A
field during the episode of rifting (Bonini et al., 1997; Bosworth et al.,
1992; Ring et al., 1992; Strecker et al., 1990) strongly suggests that
lithosphere-generated stresses (i.e. a “passive” rifting component) Crust
Active Oceanic
greatly aided the fracturing of the lithosphere in recent times (i.e. Lithosphere
Rifting
Pleistocene). Again, as with some of the examples of subduction- or
mountain-related rifts, a combination of “active” and “passive” process- Thermal
erosion
es can occur during the global evolution of the deformation.
Subduction
8. Transform-related rifts
Asthenospheric Asthenosphere
upwelling

Transform-related rifts form in association with conservative plate

boundaries, which is probably the simplest tectonic environment in
which to initiate rifting. The extension is achieved by the formation
of pull apart basins along major strike slip faults (e.g. Aydın and B
Slab detachment
Nur, 1982; Burchfield and Stewart, 1966; Crowell, 1974), either at
restraining bends or at horsetail terminations, and the basins thus
formed display many different shapes. Extensional duplexes may Active Continental
Rifting lithosphere
also be observed along bends or stepovers.
Thermal erosion
e

When pull-apart basins form along major regional transform faults,

er
os c
th ni
ph
L i cea

the extension can continue to completion, with the formation of a new

O

oceanic ridge. For example, the Alpine Tethys Ocean which formed be-
tween the Gibraltar transform fault to the south and the North-Pennine
Asthenospheric
transform fault to the north (Bernoulli and Lemoine, 1980; Handy et al., upwelling
2010; Kelts, 1981; Laubscher and Bernoulli, 1977; Lemoine et al., 1986 ;
Stampfli and Borel, 2002)
The emblematic example of a transform-related rift is the Dead
Sea, which is formed along an offset of the transform fault which sep- Asthenosphere
Accumulated slab
arates the Arabian Plate and the Palestinian block (Freund et al.,
1968). This transform fault accommodates the northward displace-
ment of the Arabian Plate resulting from the activity of the Red Sea C
oceanic ridge. Another well-known example can be found along the
San Andreas–San Gabriel fault in California (e.g. The Ridge Basin), Fig. 3. Distinct tectonic evolutions in subduction-related rifts. A “passive” process is
where the deformation is related to the north-westward shift of the expected for slab roll-back (A) whereas an “active” process is expected for slab detach-
Pacific Plate – with part of the coast of California attached – relative ment (B) and for stagnant slab (C). C is inspired by Zou et al. (2008).
 O. Merle / Tectonophysics 513 (2011) 88–95
Tectonic evolution
'Active' and 'Passive' processes
ACTIVE
Plume-related rifts
(Possibly with a passive component at a late stage)
PASSIVE
Mountain-related rifts
(Possibly with an active component at a late stage)
Slab retreat PASSIVE
Subduction-related rifts Stagnant slab ACTIVE
Slab detachment ACTIVE
Transform-related rifts PASSIVE
Fig. 4. Tectonic evolution for each type of rift in term of “passive” or “active” processes
(see text for explanation).
evolution which are easily recognizable in the field, especially during
the early stages of the rift (Fig. 1). In the mind of its promoters, this
classification is genetic: the active rift results from the rise of a mantle
plume whereas the passive rift is related to all other tectonic environ-
ments. In others words, in the framework of the new classification,
“active” rifting corresponds to plume-related rifts and “passive” rift-
ing is associated with the three other types of rifts, namely
subduction-, mountain- and transform-related rifts.
In terms of tectonic evolution, the “active” mechanism is related to
the upwelling of hot mantle material at the base of the lithosphere.
Clearly, active upwelling of the asthenosphere can occur without a
mantle plume, and can be activated instead by subduction or during
mountain building. For this reason, the subduction-related and
mountain-related rifts may, potentially, reveal “active” processes in
their tectonic evolution, and to investigate further we need to define
the tectonic origin of this type of active mantle upwelling.
According to the literature (see section on “Subduction-related
rifts”), the evolution of subduction zones is very diverse and it is possi-
ble to define three different cases (Fig. 3). The classic case is slab retreat
(i.e. roll-back process) which causes the formation of a back-arc basin in
the continent. This evolution does not cause any destabilization of the
asthenosphere and extension results from regional stresses located at
the lateral boundary of the continental lithosphere. In this case, “pas-
sive” rifting is inferred to be the dominant tectonic process (Fig. 3A).
In contrast, when a portion of the slab breaks off and sinks into the
asthenosphere, the latter is destabilized and active upwelling occurs
(Fig. 3B). Likewise, in the case of accumulation and thickening of a
stagnant slab at the mantle transition zone (i.e. 600 km depth), active
rise of the asthenosphere may also happen (Zou et al., 2008) (Fig. 3C).
In both cases, an “active” tectonic process is expected.
The case of mountain ranges is the least well-known. Some rifts
such as the European Cenozoic Rift System (see section on
“Mountain-related rifts”) display a tectonic evolution in which a ‘pas-
sive’ process is followed by an ‘active’ one. If the main ‘passive’ com-
ponent may be easily linked to far-field stresses generated by the
continent–continent collision, the active one has been long ignored
or misunderstood. Clearly, the “active” component indicates that the
underlying asthenosphere may be destabilized during the formation
of a mountain chain. One of the tectonic hypotheses is to consider
that the deep lithospheric root pushes the asthenosphere away
from it and causes its active upwelling (see references herein).
For transform-related rifts, there are no known cases on Earth
where the asthenosphere has been destabilized by strike-slip move-
ments along conservative plate boundaries. The tectonic evolution
of these types of rifts is “passive”.
93
This first attempt, necessarily incomplete, to define the tectonic
evolution of the four types of rift of the new classification is summa-
rized in Fig. 4. By thus addressing the problem of the tectonic evolu-
tion of rift systems, this new classification shows that many
processes acting at a plate scale are still poorly understood, in partic-
ular the mechanical decoupling between plate motions (i.e. elastic
deformation) and the movements of the underlying asthenosphere
(i.e. very viscous fluid deformation) in the case of subduction and
continent–continent collisions. These processes are thought to be of
paramount importance in rift formation. This outline of the tectonic
evolution of the four types of rift in the new classification is intended
to draw attention to these fundamental processes.
10. Concluding remarks
Whatever the causes of rifting, many of them combine “active”
and “passive” mechanisms during their evolution. The active/passive
classification, although it allowed a better understanding of the
extensional processes, is inadequate. It seems useful to propose a
new classification based upon the causes of rifting in terms of plate
tectonics. Each rift can be easily identified according to the major
structure of the plate tectonics which causes its initiation, namely
the subduction zone, the continental collision zone, the mantle
plume and the transform fault.
No classification is perfect, and even the new one presented here is
not completely clear-cut. For example, it is clear that far-field stresses
due to subduction or collision can be superimposed onto intraplate ac-
tivity due to a mantle plume. A composite mantle-subduction-related
rift or mantle-collision-related rift may also develop in a few specific
cases.
However, by referring to the major structures of plate tectonics,
this classification provides a fresh look at these major structures,
and reveals the diversity of their consequences. For example, two
mountain-related rifts like the Baikal and the ECRIS show that stres-
ses transmitted in the foreland of a mountain chain can produce dif-
ferent rifting processes. The same is true for subduction-related
rifts: the Basin and Range Province, the Sea of Japon, or the volcanic
province of Wuliadanchi reveal that subduction can produce episodes
of rifting whose evolution is very varied.
While this classification might not define the specific tectonic fea-
tures of each type of rift – no classification can achieve that illusive
goal –, it does provide a tectonic guide for the understanding of the
great variety of rifting processes. When combined with an under-
standing of the multiple local factors that influence and/or control
lithospheric deformation, this classification provides an insight into
the origin of the continental rifts observed on Earth.
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