Anderson, Loren Runar et al "STRESS ANALYSIS"

Structural Mechanics of Buried Pipes

Boca Raton: CRC Press LLC,2000
Figure 19-1 F-load (parallel plate load) on a circular ring showing maximum principal stresses s x and s y at
points A and B. The parallel plate load is the basic test for failure due to external forces.

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CHAPTER 19 STRESS ANALYSIS
Pipes are essential components of life. If quality of
life is to improve, it will be partly because of better
piping systems that are fail-safe over longer servic e
life. Pipe failure can be catastrophic. Failure
analysis is essential — not only for repair,
assessment of damage, and allocation of
responsibility; but for improvements in pipes and pipe
systems of the future. Some (not all) failures can be
stress analyzed. See Figure 19-1.
Stress failures of flexible pipes by bursting are
analyzed in Chapter 2. Wall crushing is analyzed in
Chapter 6. For these cases, reconstruction of failure
is simple. Not so simple is the reconstruction of a
rigid pipe failure. Under some conditions, flexible
pipes fail as rigid pipes. For example, bursting of a
flexible pipe sometimes occurs so suddenly as to
cause brittle fracture instead of plastic yield. Water
hammer is often the cause. Bursting due to internal
pressure may be affected by longitudinal stress
and/or external loading. Failure usually occurs at a
joint or an appurtenance where stresses may
concentrate or where strength of material may be
deficient. For purposes of design, analyses are
based on simple mechanics of stress and
deformation. But for failures, combined or
c ompound stress analyses, with corresponding
performance limits, may be required. In fact, stress
theory is not the only theory for failure analysis.
Nevertheless, questions about failure always seem
to arise in terms of stresses and strains and
performance limits for tri-axially stressed elastic
materials. Better theories are becoming available
for plastic and stress-regressive materials.
Following are a few of the most common combined
and compound elastic stress analyses.
COMBINED STRESS ANALYSIS
Combined analysis is the addition of all stresses
acting in the same direction at a point. These
stresses may be either normal or shearing stresses.
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The failure (critical) stresses are of greatest interest.
Figure 19-1 shows an F-load (parallel plate load).
Consider point A on the inside surface under the F-
load. The maximum principal stress is caused by
flexure,
s x= Mc/I
where
s x = maximum principal stress
M = moment at section A
I/c = section modulus of the pipe wall per unit
length of pipe
A = cross-sectional area of the pipe wall per
unit length of pipe
P' = internal pressure (or vacuum)
P = vertical external soil pressure
D = mean diameter of the pipe = 2r
t = wall thickness for plain pipe wall
(smooth cylindrical surfaces)
c = distance from neutral surface of the pipe
wall to the most remote fiber
= t/2 for plain pipe
d = /D D = ring deflection
D = decrease in vertical diameter
S = normal yield strength
S' = shearing yield strength
t = shearing stress
E = modulus of elasticity
C = cohesive strength of the materials.
But now suppose the pipe is subjected to internal
pressure P' in addition to the F-load. Clearly s x is
increased by the additional stress P'r/A. At the crown,
s x= P'r/A + Mc/I POINT A
This is combined stress. The internal pressure could
be negative; i.e., vacuum or external pressure. But
is stress s x at A the critical stress? At point B ring
compression stress due to the F-load is felt. With all
stresses included, the critical combination of
stresses might occur at point B,
Figure 19-2 Procedure for superimposing the orientation diagram on the stress diagram in order to evaluate
stresses on various planes through infinitesinal cube 0.

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where ring compression stress F/2A due to the F-
load, external fluid pressure P'r/A, and flexure stress
Mc/I all combine in a maximum negative
(compression) principal stress. At springline,
s y = Pr/A + P'r/A + Mc/I POINT B
This stress at B could be more critical than the
maximum stress at A, depending on tensile and
compressive strengths of the pipe wall. However,
loads do not always occur simultaneously. For
example, when an internal vacuum occurs, the ring
cross section shrinks slightly and reduces ring
compression stress. As long as the ring is held in
shape by the soil, the flexure stress is zero. For
analyzing stress, a more useful formula than s =
Mc/I, is the approximate formula for s based on ring
deflection. At springline,
s y= 8Ecd/D
The coefficient 8 is conservative. In fact, it varies
as a function of ring deflection. If the ring remains
elliptical, the coefficient varies:
from 6.7 at d = 5%
to 7.5 at d = 10%
to 8.0 at d = 12.5%.
For the concentrated F-load, the coefficient is 9
because ring deflection is not quite elliptical. But
when the pipe is buried, the loads are distributed, and
ring deflection is essentially elliptical.
For combined stress analysis by elastic theory,
failure is the equation of maximum stress (normal or
shearing) to the corresponding yield strength of
material. The assumption is that elastic limit is
failure — not necessarily true.
On what plane does fracture occur? The answer is
useful in reconstructing the cause of pipe failures.
For example, on what plane does a compression
fracture occur in brittle material at point B in Figure
19-1? An approximate answer can be found from a
Mohr circle analysis.
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MOHR CIRCLE ANALYSIS
Appendix E describes techniques for construction,
application and analysis of the Mohr stress circle,
orientation diagram, and strength envelope. The
interrelationship of the three diagrams is
accomplished by superposition onto a single diagram.
Construction
Stress Diagram:
1. Draw the free-body-diagram of stresses on an
infinitesimal unit cube, O. Figure 19-2a is an
example of cube O with numerical values of
stresses shown.
2. Draw the s and t axes, Figure 19-2b; and plot the
Mohr stress circle. Three points are required:
a) Center is on the s -axis.
b) Circle passes through point (s x, t xy).
c) Circle passes through point (s y, t yx).
Note that t yx = -t xy; and that the sign convention is
positive for normal stresses in compression, and for
c ounterclockwise shearing couples. This is the
correct sign convention. Tension (negative) is a
reduction of compressive intermolecular bond.
Orientation Diagram:
1. Orientation of coordinate axes x and y is the same
as for the unit cube. When superimposed on the
stress diagram (Figure 19-2c), the y-axis intersects
the stress circle at point (s y,-t xy). The axes are still
parallel to the unit cube axes.
2. The origin of axes, O, is the location of the unit
cube, which is shown superimposed and correctly
oriented on the stress axes of Figure 19-2c. The
origin (cube O) always falls on the stress circle.
Figure 19-3 Strength envelopes.

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Strength Envelopes:
For most soils and many construction materials,
failure is slip on a shear plane. It is shown in Figure
19-3a as slip of a block due to shearing force F. At
slip, F is equal to the sum of cohesion C (glue on the
slip surface) and friction Ntanj , where j is the
friction angle and N = s A.
Dividing through by A and noting that F/A = S', the
shearing stress at failure, called Coulomb strength,
is,
S' = C + s tanj = SHEARING STRENGTH
A plot of the Coulomb shearing strength on the s -
t axes is the strength envelope. See Figure 19-3b.
Any stress point outside of the strength envelope is
failure. The material slips (shears).
Application
1. Any plane through O perpendic ular to the page
(seen as a line) is oriented the same as the
infinitesimal cube.
2. Any plane drawn through O intersects the stress
circle at a point whose stress coordinates are the
stresses on that plane.
3. When a stress circle is tangent to the strength
envelopes, shear slip is incipient on those planes that
intersect the stress circle at the points of tangency.
These are the failure planes, at angle b . See Figure
19-3c.
Analysis
1. The horizontal distance to the center of the stress
circle is the average of s x and s y.
DISTANCE TO CENTER = (s x+ s y)/2
2. From Figure 19-2b, The radius of the Mohr circle
is, by the Pythagorean theorem,
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_________________
/
RADIUS OF CIRCLE = \ (s x - s y )2/4 + (t xy )2
3. Any central angle is twice the corresponding
circumferential angle where both angles intercept
the same arc.
The values of principal stresses, maximum shearing
stresses, and the planes on which they act can be
calculated by trigonometry from the superimposed
diagrams. As an example, for the unit cube of
Figure 19-2, the pertinent stresses are:
s 1 = 2500 psi = maximum principal stress
s 3 = 500 psi = minimum principal stress
t max = 1000 psi = maximum shearing stress
Principal planes and planes of maximum shearing
stress are dotted on Figure 19-2c.
Example
The vertical stresses at point B in the unreinforced
concrete pipe of Figure 19-1 are at incipient failure.
What would be the expected failure plane angle, b ,
at B if failure occurred. b is the angle of bevel of
the fracture. From the laboratory, tension strength
is s T = 2 ksi, and compression strength is s C = 12
ksi.
First, from the infinitesimal cube, O, draw the stress
axes, s and t , as shown in Figure 19-4, and plot the
stress circles for both tension and compression
failures. The tangents to the failure circles are
strength envelopes.
Second, superimpose cube B and its orientation
diagram onto the stress diagram. Keep orientation
the same — x-axis horizontal and y-axis vertical.
Cube B must be located at a point where its axes
(which are the principal planes through cube B)
intersect the Mohr circle at the stresses on those
principal planes. Cube B always falls on the Mohr
circle. Because both the tension load and the com-
pression load act on horizontal planes, x-planes are
drawn through the failure stress points s t and s c.
Figure 19-4 Mohr analysis at failure (cracking) at point B on the inside of an unreinforced concrete pipe at
the springline.

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Horizontal stresses (on vertical planes) are both zero
so the y-axis is at zero stress.
The results are the angles b of failure planes through
O. From strength tests, the friction angle of this
concrete is j = 45.58°. From the Mohr diagram, the
angle of the failure plane is b = 45° + j /2 = 68°.
Example 2
If cohesionless soil is loaded vertically with stress
s z, what is the minimum horizontal stress, at active
soil resistance, required to prevent shear failure
planes from developing in the soil? At what angles
do shear failure planes develop if the horizontal
resistance is not adequate? The soil friction angle is
30°.
From Figure 19-5, a stress circle is drawn tangent to
the strength envelopes which, for cohesionless soil,
are straight lines from zero stress at angles j = 30°.
The maximum principal stress is s z at the right side
of the stress circle. Because it acts on a horizontal
plane, the x-plane is drawn through this point. The
minimum principal stress is s x at the left side of the
stress circle as shown. Because it acts on a vertical
plane, the z-plane is drawn through this point. The
intersection of the z and y axes is the origin where
the infinitesimal cube O is located. Let the distance
to the center of the circle be X. The radius of the
c ircle is Xsinj ; s 1 = X + Xsinj ; and s 3 = X -
Xsinj . The ratio is s 1 /s 3 = K = (1+sinj )/(1-sinj )
= 3. The horizontal stress required to prevent shear
slip is s x = s z /K = s z /3.
Shear failure planes are at angle b from the origin,
O, to the points of tangency of the failure stress
circle to the strength envelopes. These angles are b
= 45° + j /2. For j = 30°, the failure planes are at +
60o.
Seven different combined failures are shown in
Figures 19-6 to 19-8. All of these failures were
observed in asbestos cement pipes, 12-inch inside
diameter. Such failures are typical of failures in
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unreinforced brittle pipes in general. The sketches
of failure planes (bevel angles) are to scale.
The analyses above are only examples, but the same
procedure can be followed to reconstruct combined
stress failures.
COMPOUND STRESS ANALYSIS
Occasionally the state of stresses at a point is so
complex that the mere combining of stresses in the
same direction is inadequate. Compound analysis
investigates the critical stress resulting from multi-
directional stresses, both normal and shearing. For
planar stresses (biaxial) no new concepts are
needed. For triaxial stresses, it is usually precise
enough to consider separately each of the three
views of the infinitesimal unit cube as a biaxial case
in order to ascertain which view results in the largest
stress circle; i.e., nearest to tangency with the
strength envelope. This becomes the critical case
for analysis and design. In general, compound stress
analysis is required for specific cases such as the
following.
Stress Risers
Stress risers are discontinuities that cause stress
concentrations. At discontinuities, concentrated
stress sometimes exceeds the maximum allowable.
Remedies include saddles, stiffener rings, and crotch
plates. However, it may be sufficient to simply
thicken the wall by means of a boss or plate. Failure
analysis due to stress risers starts with basic stress
analysis. See Appendix E.
The free-body-diagram for compound stress analysis
is an infinitesimal cube on which six pairs of forces
act. Figure 19-9 is the cross section of wall of a
pressurized container. The maximum stress occurs
on the inside surface on cube Op. The notations for
three pairs of normal stresses and three pairs of
shearing stress couples are as follows.
Figure 19-5 Mohr analysis for evaluating minimum (active) resistance of soil at shearing failure of the soil.
(Failure planes form at angles b .)

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Figure 19-6 Sketches and descriptions of failure of asbestos cement (AC) pipes from field notes. These
fractures are typical of brittle pipes.

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Figure 19-7 Sketches and descriptions of failure of asbestos cement (AC) pipes from field notes. These
fractures are typical of brittle pipes.

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Figure 19-8 Sketches and description of failure of asbestos cement (AC) pipes from field notes. These
fractures are typical of brittle pipes.

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Figure 19-9 Cross-section of a segment of the wall of a pressurized container (top) with an infinitesimal cube
on the inside surface identified for stress analysis, and shown enlarged (bottom) with stresses acting on it.
The front view (bottom right) is a typical free-body-diagram to be used for the Mohr stress analysis.

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 s r = radial stress acting on an r-plane
(perpendicular to the radial stress),
s t = tangential stress acting on a t-plane
(perpendicular to the tangential stress),
s z = longitudinal stress acting on a z-plane
(perpendicular to the longitudinal stress),
t rt = two equal and opposite shearing couples
acting about the z-axis,
t tz = two equal and opposite shearing couples
acting about the r-axis,
t rz = two equal and opposite shearing couples
acting about the t-axis.
The double subscripts for shearing stresses indicate
the direction of each stress and the plane in which it
acts. In the discussions to follow, the shearing
stresses are assumed to be zero. This assumption is
true only if, as is usually the case for pressurized
containers, the normal stresses on Op are principal
stresses. The shearing stresses identified above are
not zero for such loads as torque on the container, or
for concentrated forces. For example, if torque T is
applied about the longitudinal axis of a thin-wall pipe,
the resulting shearing stress is approximately t tr =
T/2p r2t. See texts on mechanics of materials.
Shearing stresses can be taken into account by
compound stress analysis based on the Mohr circle.
Figures 19-10 and 19-11 show points, Op, on the
inside surfaces of pressurized containers, with their
corresponding Mohr circles. The Mohr stress
coordinates are normal stresses (abscissae) and
shearing stress couples (ordinates). If the Op (origin
of planes) is superimposed on the Mohr circle with
its axes oriented, Any plane drawn through the Op,
intersects Mohr circle at the stress coordinates,
normal, s , and shearing, t , acting on that plane.
Strength envelopes can be shown on the same stress
axes. If stresses increase in the material such that
the Mohr circle comes tangent to the strength
envelope, failure is incipient. Failure planes are
those planes passing through the Op and intersecting
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the circle at points of tangency of the circle to the
strength envelopes.
The ideal pressure container is a thin-wall sphere
with a wall that performs as a membrane. A toy
balloon is such a container. The ratio of volume to
surface area is greater for a sphere than for any
other container. The tangential (circumferential)
stresses in the wall, s t, are all tension, and are equal
in all directions. See Figure 19-10. This is a most
favorable stress relationship. The only compression
stress in the wall of the container is radial pressure,
P' = s r, acting normal to the wall on the inside of the
container. The maximum shearing stress, t , is half
the difference between radial stress and tangential
stress; i.e., 2t = s t - s r , with due regard for signs.
But the radial compression stress, s r, is so much
smaller than the tangential tension stress, s t, that it
is negligible. Therefore, s t = P'r/2t, and maximum
shearing stress, t , is half the tensile stress, s t. This,
too, is a most favorable stress relationship of spheres
compared to other vessels.
The fracture plane for thin-wall pressure containers
is beveled at failure angle q f for which two
possibilities are shown on the Mohr stress circle of
Figure 19-10 for a hypothetical material. For steel
and some plastics, the strength envelopes are nearly
horizontal; i.e., j = 0o.
Consequently, the failure planes are at q f = 45o. For
unreinforced concrete, the strength envelopes are at
angles of approximately j = 45o, for which q f = 45o
+ j /2 = 67.5 o.
Structurally, cylindrical containers are less than half
as efficient as spheres. Longitudinal and tangential
stresses are not equal. See Figure 19-11.
Tangential stresses are twice as large in a cylinder
as in a sphere of the same diameter and wall
thickness. And, of course, the ratio of volume to
surface area is less for a cylinder. When cylinders
and spheres are used together, discontinuities occur,
as, for example, between cylindrical tanks and
hemispherical end closures. Similar stress
Figure 19-10 Mohr stress circle at failure of an infinitesimal cube located on the inside of a thin-wall sphere
with internal pressure P'. The coordinate axes for the Mohr circle are positive for normal stresses (abscissae)
in compression and are positive for shearing stresses (ordinates) in counterclockwise couples.

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 s r

s r

Figure 19-11 Mohr stress circle at failure of an infinitesimal cube, Op, on the inside surface of a pressurized,
closed-ended cylinder, showing three orthogonal views of Op with the corresponding Mohr circles. The
largest circle is critical; i.e., it will be the first to come tangent to the strength envelope.

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AT RADIUS, r,

TANGENTIAL STRESS s f= P(a/r)2(r2 + b2)/(b2 - a2)

LONGIDUTINAL STRESS s z = Pa2/(b2 - a2)

Figure 19-12 (top) Cross section of a thick-wall steel cylinder of diameter OD = 2(ID), and showing the
variation of tangential stress, s t, throughout the cylinder wall when subjected to internal pressure, P'.
(bottom) Mohr circle with strength envelopes for steel (nearly horizontal), showing failure planes at 45o.

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 risers occur in wyes, tees, valves, reducers, etc. external pressure. For analysis of external
Pipes are sometimes capped when they are to be pressures on thick-wall pipes and tanks, refer to
extended at a later date. Taps cause stress texts on mechanics of materials.
concentrations on the edge of the tapped hole.
Thick-wall containers feel higher tangential stress on
the inside than thin-wall hoop stress, s t = P'(ID)/2t. Taps
These stress risers are discussed in the following.
The most common attachments to pipes are tapped
into the pipes. Stress concentrations occur at holes
Thick-wall Cylinders in the walls of pressure containers. Taps are
required for attaching corporation stops, smaller
Thick-wall cylinders subjected to internal pressure, pipes, air-relief valves (ARVs), pressure gages, etc.
feel maximum tangential stress (hoop stress) on the Stresses concentrate in the wall around the tapped
inside of the wall: hole, and are critical if internal pressures are high
and the pipe material is non-plastic. Plastics include
s t (OD)2 + (ID)2 most pipe grade steel which is elasto-plastic. Plastic
P' (OD)2 - (ID)2 . . . . . (19.1) yields before it fractures. This is not true, however,
for pipes subjected to impact loads or very low
where temperatures or repeated loadings. Under such
s t = naximum tangential stress (hoop stress) loads, even plastics can fail by brittle fracture. One
OD = outside diameter remedy is to thicken the wall around the hole. For
ID = inside diameter example, a bead or boss could be formed around the
P' = internal pressure edge of the hole. See Figure 19-13. Engineers use
a rule of thumb — the bead or boss must contain a
Example 1 volume equal to the volume of material cut away for
the hole.
Figure 19-12 is the cross section of a thick-wall,
high-pressure pipe. What is the maximum tangential From elastic theory (and tests) tangential stresses
stress, s t, and the maximum shearing stress, t ? OD vary as shown in Figure 19-14 for a very large plate
= 2(ID). From Equation 19.1, s t = 5P'/3. The with a hole in the middle of it. The elastic equations
average hoop stress is s = P'(ID)/2t = P'. Clearly, for tangential stress s t, radial stress s r, and shearing
the maximum stress is 5/3 rds as great as the stress t , on an infinitesimal cube in the plate, are:
average. From the Mohr circle, maximum shearing
stress is 4 P'/3. If the cylinder is steel, the strength 2s t =s o(1 + r 2/r2) - s o(1 + 3r 4/r4)cos 2q
envelopes are nearly horizontal as shown and the . . . . . (19.2)
failure planes are at 45o.
2s r = s o(1-r 2/r2) + s o(1-4r 2/r2+3r 4/r4)cos 2q
Longitudinal stress is calculated the same way for . . . . . (19.3)
both thick-wall and thin-wall cylinders. See
Chapters 14 and 15. 2t = s o(1 + 2r 2/r2 - 3r 4/r4) sin 2q ) . . . . . (19.4)

Radial stress is maximum on the inside of the wall, where (See Figure 19-14)
and is simply internal pressure, P', in compression. s r = radial stress with respect to the hole,
Tangential stress is maximum on the inside when the s t = tangential stress, (perpendicular to radial
pipe is subjected to either internal pressure or stress at any point),

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Figure 19-14 Stresses in a plate with a hole in it, showing how stress channels crowd around the hole like
traffic around an excavation in the road, creating stress concentrations, Ks o, at the edge of the hole. If the
hole is very small, K = 3 and s t = 3s o.

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 t = shearing stress,
b = width of the plate,
r = radius of the hole,
r = radius to the stress point in the plate,
q = angle of the radius from the direction of
average stress, s o,
s o = average uniform stress in the plate if no
hole were in it.
Of primary concern are stresses tangent to the edge
of the hole where r = r . If the plate is infinitely
wide, r /b 0, and s o is unaffected by the hole.
From Equations 19.2 to 19.4,
s t = -s o, compression at q = 0o . . . . . (19.5)
s t =3s o, tension at q = 90o . . . . . (19.6)
Shearing stresses, t , are zero at the edge of the hole
and increase to a maximum of t = s o /2 at great
distances from the hole on planes at 45o with the
longitudinal axis.
Design of taps in pipes follows the above rationale
for uniaxial loading in the case of gasketed pressure
pipes with no longitudinal stress. See Figure 19-15,
top sketch. If the diameter of the hole is much
smaller than the diameter of the pipe, Equations 19.5
and 19.6 can be used. From Equation 19.6, the
maximum stress at the edge of the hole tapped in
gasketed pipes is tangential stress,
19.6. For example, from Equation 19.5, the
tangential stress at B is -s o /2 in compression due to
longitudinal stress, s o /2 in tension. At the same
point B, from Equation 19.6, the tangential stress is
3s o in tension due to hoop stress, s o. Combining the
two tangential stresses at B, for closed-end pipes,
s t = 5P'(ID)/4A, tension at B . . . . . (19.8)
CLOSED-END PRESSURE PIPES
Example 1
What is the maximum tangential stress on the edge
of a small 1-inch hole (tap) in a 6-inch ID steel pipe
if the wall thickness is 0.125 inch and internal
pressure is 400 psi? Slip couplings, such as Dresser
or Baker, eliminate longitudinal stress in the pipe.
From Equation 19.7,
s t = 3(400psi)(6 in)/2(0.125 in) = 28.8 ksi
If yield stress is 42 ksi, the safety factor is 42/28.8 =
1.46. If P' is a repeating pressure, fatigue strength
of the steel should be considered. Fatigue strength
is usually lower than yield strength, especially if the
pressure cycles are reversed, and the hole is
threaded. Threads are stress risers.
If the pipe is not gasketed, longitudinal stress, s z is
usually tension, in which case stress risers at a tap
are less than for a gasketed pipe.

s t = 3P'(ID)/2A, tension at B . . . . . (19.7) This tap analysis is based on static pressure and a
GASKETED PRESSURE PIPES small diameter tap in a large diameter pipe.
Refinements are forthcoming. In the 1980s Roland
where W. Jeppson, at Utah State University, tested
s t = tangential stress at edge of hole, threaded taps with corporation stops for service
P' = pressure in the pipe, connections in AWWA C-900 PVC pipes, 6 inches
ID = inside diameter, in nominal diameter, subjected to cyclic internal
A = cross-sectional area of the wall per unit water pressure surges from 100 to 200 psi at a rate
length of pipe, of 30 surges per minute. Loading was continual
A = t for plain wall pipes. without down time during which plastic might
partially recover. Dye in the water made the
For the case of a closed-end pipe or tank, see Figure slightest crack visible. None of the five 0.75-inch
19-15. In the bottom sketch, the tangential stress is taps or the five 1-inch taps leaked after 1.5 million
analyzed by combining Equations 19.5 and

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Figure 19-15 Principal stresses and stress concentrations in the pipe wall and around a hole tapped in the wall
of a pressure pipe: (top) gasketed pipe, and (bottom) closed-end pipe. Obviously, stress concentrations are
maximum around the hole in the gasketed pipe.

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cycles of pressure. Similar surge tests were
performed on larger 24-inch PVC pipes. Some
leakage was noted. Results were only qualitative,
but it was concluded that service life of a tapped
large-diameter PVC pipe subjected to pressure
surges is only moderately less than an untapped
pipe. However, both exceed normal expected
service life. A different problem showed up
serendipitously. The gasketed end closures for the
test sections leaked more than did the corporation
stops.
Example 2
What is the maximum tangential stress at the edge
of the taps in Dr. Jeppson's pressure tests of
AWWA D-900 PVC pipe 6D? It is assumed
(questionably) that the taps are small compared with
the pipe diameter.
OD = 6.900 inches average,
t = 0.276 inch minimum,
DR = 25 = dimension ratio,
P' = 200 psi maximum.
Hoop stress in the wall of the pipe is,
s o = P'(ID)/2t = 200 psi(6.900-0.552)/2(0.276)
s o = 2300 psi
Because the test pipe was gasketed, from Equation
19.7, the maximum tangential stress is 3s o = 6.9 ksi.
This is higher than the yield strength of PVC, and
would indicate that to assume that pipe diameter is
infinitely greater than hole diameter may be too
conservative. Moreover, Equation 19.7 is based on
elastic limits. PVC is plastic.
If a tap, or any stress riser, is in any section other
than a cylinder, the hoop stress, s o, must be
evaluated for that specific section. For example, to
find the maximum "hoop" stress in the wall of a
valve with a bonnet, s o = P'(ID)2t where ID is the
greatest width of a plane that can be passed through
the bonnet and pipe.
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Stress risers are not necessarily critical in pliant
materials such as plastics — including steel.
Because of a demand for corrosion-resistant
polyethylene pipes under sanitary landfills, and
because those pipes must be perforated or slotted to
drain leachate and collect methane gas, tests have
been performed to ascertain the effects of small
perforations or circumferential slots (width of a
circular saw blade) on the structural integrity of the
pipe. Clearly, the strength of the ring is reduced by
the area of surface cut away. The ring stiffness is
reduced also — but relatively less. When the ring is
loaded and deformed into an ellipse, visible warping
at the edges of the perforations and the ends of the
sawed slots is evidence of stress concentration.
However, the plastic yields without fracture, and
relaxes. The integrity of the pipe is not
compromised.
End Closures
In this section, end closures are analyzed for stress
risers. However, any transition from a pipe to
another section (wye, tee, reducer, valve, etc.)
results in similar stress risers, usually to a lesser
degree, and can be analyzed in a similar manner.
Consider the hemispherical cap on a thin-wall
cylinder with internal pressure P' as shown on
Figure 19-16. Notation is as follows.
P' = internal pressure,
r = mean radius of thin-wall container,
t = wall thickness,
s r = radial stress on the inside of the wall,
s t = tangential stress in the wall,
s z = longitudinal stress in the wall,
E = modulus of elasticity,
n = Poisson ratio,
e r = radial strain = percent increase in radius,
,e t = tangential strain,
e z = longitudinal strain,
Figure 19-16 Pressurized thin-wall container with hemispherical end-closures, showing:
(bottom) how internal pressure, P', increases the radius by a percentage equal to the tangential strain; and
(top) how shearing discontinuity at section A-A can be eliminated by reducing the wall thickness of the
hemisphere, but leaving, instead, a reentrant corner which itself is a stress riser.

©2000 CRC Press LLC

The tangential stresses are:
Cylinder, s t = P'/(r/t)
Hemisphere, s t = 0.5P'(r/t)
If wall thicknesses are the same for cylinder and
hemisphere, as shown at the left side of Figure 19-
16, tangential stress in the hemisphere is only half as
great as in the cylinder. Therefore, increase in
radius is less in the sphere than in the cylinder; and
a radial shearing stress occurs at section A-A. The
discontinuity is a stress riser.
Tangential stresses would be equal if the
hemis pherical wall were only half as thick as the
cylindrical wall. This is shown at the right side of
Figure 19-16. The shearing discontinuity is reduced
but is not eliminated. The problem is still the
difference between increases in radii. Neglecting
the relatively minor effect of radial pressure on the
w all in thin-wall containers, tangential strain, e t, is
the percent increase in circumference, which is the
percent increase in radius — which is radial strain.
Therefore, radial strain is e r = e t, and stress-strain
relationships are Ee t = s t - sn z, as follows:
Cylinder, Ee t = s t - sn t /2
Ee t = P'(r/tc)(1 - 0.5n ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (19.9)
where tc is the thickness of the cylinder.
Hemisphere, Ee t = s t moments (couples) on the weld.
Ee t = P'(r/ts)(1 - n )
where ts is the thickness of the hemisphere.
If the radial strains are to be equal, Equations 19.9
and 19.10 must be equal; and the ratio of wall
thicknesses would have to be,
ts /tc = (1 - n )/2(1 - 0.5 n )
For example, if Poisson ratio is n = 0.25, the ratio of
wall thicknesses of hemisphere to cylinder is
©2000 CRC Press LLC
0.4286, which is even less than the original ratio of
0.5 required for equal tangential stresses. The
shearing discontinuity is essentially resolved.
However, the connection now mates two different
wall thicknesses with a reentrant corner which is
itself a stress riser. For brittle materials, the
reentrant corner could be critical. But if the material
is pliant and a safety factor is included in design, the
reentrant corner might be mitigated by a good weld,
and/or by ductile pipe material for which the stress
riser is not critical because the material yields
without fracture. Or it might be remedied by
shaping the end closure to something other than a
hemisphere. The end closures of rocket motors are
ellipsoidal to reduce stress risers.
Strength of Welded Joints in Steel Pipes
If the weld is a full-penetration butt weld,
longitudinal strength is no less than the strength of
the steel pipe. If there is any question about the
welding procedure, some designers assume strength
to be 90% of steel strength.
If the weld is a lap weld, and the gap is no greater
than 0.125 inch, longitudinal strength of a single
welded lap joint is about 75% of pipe strength. The
strength of a double-welded lap joint is no less than
80% of pipe strength. The forces on fillet welds of
lap joints are shearing forces not couples. The
curved surfaces of both bell and spigot prevent
. . . . (19.10)
STRESSES IN STEEL PIPES
Steel pipes draw a disproportionate amount of stress
analysis because of advances in the analysis of steel
structures for which performance limit is yield stress
by the elastic theory. For steel pipes, performance
limit is deformation (strain) — not elastic limit
(yield). In fact, some steel pipes are strained well
above elastic limit during the process of fabrication.
Nevertheless, stress theories persist. Some common
stress analyses follow.
Figure 19-17 Standard tension test of steel, showing the stress-strain diagram with the elastic limit and
ultimate strength.

Figure 19-18 Standard tension test on steel, showing the Mohr circle at elastic limit in tension and in
compression (dotted) and the strength envelopes and failure planes in shear (slip).

©2000 CRC Press LLC

Performance Limit:
Performance limit is strength, s f, at elastic limit. It is
often referred to loosely as yield stress. It is found
from standard uniaxial stress-strain tests. See
Figure 19-17. For pipe-quality steel, typical
properties are as follows.
Properties of Pipe Steel:
s f = 42 ksi = stress (failure) at elastic limit,
E = 30(103) ksi = modulus of elasticity,
e = F/E = strain below the elastic limit,
e u = 21% = approximate elongation at fracture,
n = 0.27 to 0.30 = Poisson ratio,
U = 15 lb.ft a 0oF = Charpy toughness.
For stress design, STRESS must be less than
STRENGTH reduced by a safety factor.
Strength
From Figure 19-17, ultimate steel strength is greater
than yield strength. For some analyses, this
difference provides a margin of safety in addition to
the safety factor. For energy analyses, the margin
of safety is much greater. Energy input, Ue, up to
elastic limit per unit volume of the test specimen of
Figure 19-17, is the average force, P/2, times the
distance, D , divided by volume, AL. If s f = 42 ksi
and E = 30,000 ksi,
Ue = PD /2AL = (1/2)(P/A)(D /L) = 0.5se
Ue = s f2/2E. Ue = 29.4 ksi = RESILIENCE
= Area under the stress-strain diagram up to
the elastic limit.
Energy up to ultimate strength, Uu, is the area under
the entire stress-strain diagram to elongation (strain)
at failure — which is roughly 21%;
Uu = 8,800 ksi = TOUGHNESS
= Area under the entire stress-strain diagram.
©2000 CRC Press LLC
Ultimate energy, Uu, in steel is three hundred times
greater than elastic energy, Ue. Design by elastic
energy (resilience) is extremely conservative. The
above applies only to uniaxial stress. The energy of
compound stress es is investigated in the following.
Stress:
Compound stress analysis is based on elastic theory
(elastic limit). Compound analyses are seldom
justified for buried steel pipes. In the first place, one
principal stress is usually so much greater than either
of the others that uniaxial stress analysis is
adequate. In the second place, properties of the
embedment are imprecise, loads are unpredictable,
and pipe-soil interaction is statically indeterminate to
the infinite degree. In the third place, steel is elasto-
plastic — not limited to the elastic limit. Yield stress
is determined by tensile tests (not triaxial tests) that
provide only normal failure stress, s f. Performance
limit is shearing failure — not tension failure.
The shearing failure plane is beveled at 45o.
Mohr Stress Circle:
Figure 19-18 shows the Mohr stress circle for a
standard tension test to failure. Ordinates are
shearing stress, t . Abscissae are normal stress, s .
For steel, it is assumed that tension is positive and
clockwise shear is positive.
The infinitesimal cube is superimposed on the stress
circle by orienting the planes on which the principal
stresses act. Any plane through the cube
intersects the Mohr circle at its own stress
coordinates. The shearing and normal stresses at
the point of intersection act on that plane. All planes
are correctly oriented. For tests in compression, the
shearing stress at yield is nearly the same as in
tension. See the dotted Mohr circle. Tangents to
the two Mohr failure circles are strength
envelopes. Any shearing stress outside of
Figure 19-19 Compound stress analyses for steel pipes based on shearing strength. Mohr circles are shown
for principal stresses acting on an infinitesimal cube on the inside surface of the pipe wall.

©2000 CRC Press LLC

the strength envelopes is failure. Failure planes are
at 45o with the principal stresses.
Elastic Stress Analysis — Combined Stresses:
Stresses are added in combined stress analysis. For
example, in Figure 19-19, s y = P'r/t - Pr/t, where P'
is internal pres sure and P is external soil pressure.
However, for conservative design, P and P' are
analyzed separately. Longitudinal stress, s z , is the
sum of longitudinal stresses due to temperature
decrease, Poisson effect of internal pressure, and
thrusts due to valves, elbows, etc. However,
external loads such as longitudinal beam bending and
thrust blocks may or may not contribute to combined
longitudinal stresses. They must be considered on a
case-by-case basis.
Elastic Stress Analysis — Compound Stresses:
Performance limit is shearing failure. Maximum
shearing stress equals shearing strength; i.e., t = t f.
In order to relate shearing stress at failure to the
standard tension test at failure, from the Mohr circle
in Figure 19-18, t f = s f /2.
Figure 19-19 shows an infinitesimal cube in the
inside of a pipe wall with principal stresses acting on
it. The horizontal stress is internal pressure P, which
is small compared to the other stresses. If the cube
were on the outside of the pipe wall, P would be
zero. For analysis, s x = 0. Mohr circles are shown
for the three views of the infinitesimal cube. If the
pipe is not subjected to torque or point loads,
shearing stresses do not act on the cube, and the
three stresses are principal stresses. The front view
is critical. For analysis, shearing stress at failure is
half the normal stress at yield, s f /2. Therefore, Pr/t
= s f = 42 ksi. A safety factor (often two) is used
for design; i.e., Pr/t = 21 ksi.
The side view is not critical. The critical circle
shown is an improbable hypothetical condition
©2000 CRC Press LLC
wherein longitudinal and circumferential stresses are
of opposite sign. Vacuum in the pipe, a high
external fill, and a high water table might combine to
cause suc h stresses. But failure would probably be
collapse not stress failure. Steel pipe collapse is
usually a function of ring stiffness not yield stress.
The top view is critical only if longitudinal stress is
excessive or if internal pressure is zero or negative
(vacuum). This usually requires collapse analysis
not stress analysis. See Chapter 10 on ring stability.
Stresses are not added in compound stress analysis.
Figure 19-20 shows strength envelops of s y as a
function of s z at yield stress according to the theory
of elasticity. The shear stress analyses are dotted.
A more accurate analysis is maximum strain energy,
U = S f (s /2)e . See Appendix F for the analysis of
strain energy at failure. The strain energy results do
not quite model test results for steel.
Huber, Hencky, von Mises Equation:
More accurate for steel is the Huber-Hencky-von
Mises equation, which discounts the strain energy
that only causes volume change. See Appendix F
for the equation and Figure 19-20 for the plot of the
elliptical strength envelope for two-dimensional
compound stress. Most buried pipes do not require
Huber-Hencky-von Mises analysis. Because s x =
P is relatively small, the two-dimensional analysis is
adequate. As an example, if s z = s f /2, according to
the Huber-Hencky-von Mises equation, s y =
1.155s f. Clearly this allows a slightly greater stress
than yield, but the increase is small. It is
conservative to design by uniaxial stress analysis;
i.e., critical stress is s y = s f at P = 0. In general, for
buried pipes, compound stress analysis is not needed,
and may be misleading because it is based on elastic
limits.
Collapse Analysis
For unburied steel pipes, collapse is Pr3/EI = 3,
Figure 19-20 Strength envelopes at elastic limit, s f.
where I is the moment of inertia of the wall cross
section per unit length of pipe. Collapse is a function
of external pressure, P, and ring stiffness, EI/r 3 —
not yield stress. Ring deflection and soil strength are
pertinent but are usually controlled by specifications.
STRESSES IN CONCRETE PIPES
Concrete pipes are so complex that stress analysis
is impractical. Performance limits are usually found
from tests.
FAILURE SURFACES
1. A crystalline surface with sharp edges indicates
sudden fracture due to an instantaneous load such as
water hammer. High-strength steel (such as bolts)
under high tension may fail by hydrogen
embrittlement. Some plastics can fail by "brittle
fracture" — especially under shock load and low
temperatures.
©2000 CRC Press LLC
2. A smooth, satin surface indicates quick fracture.
3. A long fracture surface (tear) indicates crack
propagation due to stress energy stored in the pipe.
4. A rippled surface — especially if oxydized near
the pipe surface — indicates fatigue.
5. A hole in a pressure pipe abraded from outside-in
could be caused by a leak out of which a high-
pressure jet causes turbulence in the embedment
that "sand-blasts" the pipe. The cutting action from
outside is remarkably rapid.
6. Chevrons along a torn surface point toward the
location where fracture was initiated.
7. Pock-marks of oxidized material indicate
corrosion. A stream bed appearance with loss of
material inside on the invert indicates erosion.
PROBLEMS
19-1 An unreinforced concrete pipe has a wall
thickness of t = 3 inches, ID = 36 inches, and length
of L = 11 ft. A 12-kip dual-wheel load passes over
midspan. Soil cover is negligible. What is the water
pressure inside the pipe at failure if the soil has been
washed out from around the pipe leaving it simply
supported on the ends? The joints are gasketed.
Unit weight of concrete is 144 pcf, unit weight of
water is 62.4 pcf, and strengths of the concrete are
2 ksi in tension and 12 ksi in compression.
(P = 300 psi)
19-2 What is the maximum tangential stress in a
thick-wall, closed-end cylinder that has a small tap
in it, if OD = 1.4(ID)? (s t = 8 P')
19-3 A polyethylene pipe is to be installed under a
river. A tunnel, slightly larger than the pipe, is
directionally drilled under the river and driller's mud
is left in the tunnel to prevent collapse of the tunnel
until the pipe can be pulled through. As the pipe is
being pulled into place, the driller's mud is replaced
by grout. What is the maximum stress in the wall of
a polyethylene pipe subjected to the external
hydrostatic pressure of grout with unit weight 95 pcf,
and depth of 80 ft? The pipe is empty such that
pressure inside is atmospheric.
©2000 CRC Press LLC
DR = 9.5 = OD/t for this thick-wall pipe. Neglect
longitudinal force during the pull. (s t = 280 psi)
19-4 Resolve problem 19.3 while the polyethylene
pipe is being pulled into place with a longitudinal
stress of 500 psi. The pulling force is monitored to
make sure the pipe doesn't bind and break while it is
being pulled into the tunnel. (t = 375 psi)
19-5 Resolve problem 19.4 if the pipe is filled with
driller's mud as it is pulled into place. The unit
weight of driller's mud is 75 pcf. (s t = 100 psi)
19-6 What is the effect of tapping, or perforating, or
circumferentially slotting the polyethylene pipe of
problems 19.3 to 19.5? Small perforations or narrow
sawed slots are common practice in fabricating
polyethylene pipes to be used under sanitary landfills
to collect leachate and methane gas.
19-7 What should be the ratio of thicknesses of an
end closure and thin-wall pressurized cylinder if the
end closure is a hemisphere, fitted inside the
cylinder, and reversed in direction (like the bottoms
of spray paint cans)? What is required to withstand
the shearing discontinuity? What should be the size
and type of weld? What might be the size and
design of a restraining ring? Etc.
Anderson, Loren Runar et al "PLASTIC PIPES"
Structural Mechanics of Buried Pipes
Boca Raton: CRC Press LLC,2000
Figure 20-1 Nomenclature for a plastic pipe buried in a select embedment within a trench and showing ring
deflection, d = D /D due to the vertical pressure of a landfill.

Figure 20-2 Typical tensile strength regression line for PVC at 70°F showing how strength decreases linearly
with time on a log-log plot.

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