Professional Documents
Culture Documents
INTRODUCTION
In past few years the field of communication has been developing with no leaps or bounds. It has
become a necessity of each human being to be connected with each other. Telephone is rapidly
becoming a tool to quench this thirst.
In Automatic Telephony operator are not required to establish connections manually between the
different calling and the called subscribers as are required in the case of manual telephone
systems. In these system subscribers they establish required connections by operating the
different switches placed at the central place known as the EXCHANGE from their telephones at
remote place from it. The automatic telephone systems are rapidly replacing manual ones due to
their outstanding merits over the latter types, some of which are enumerated below:
Fig.1.1
* In Automatic Telephony higher level Block ofiscommunication
of secrecy maintained due to absence of
Operators who can overhear the conversation if they like in the manual telephone
Systems.
The working of an Automatic Telephone system does not depend for its efficiency on the
personal efficiencies of the operators.
* There is no possibility of the calls being missed or wrong metering being done due to faults
of operators or due to phonetic errors between the subscribers and the operators.
Notes:
(1) Whenever any telephone company desires to connect its exchange or lines with the exchange
or lines of another telephone company and the latter refuses to permit this to be done upon
reasonable terms, rates and conditions, the company desiring the connection may proceed as
provided in subsection (2) or as provided in subsection (3) of this section.
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(2) The company desiring the connection may file a written statement with the Public Service
Commission setting out the reasons why the connection is desired and the points at which the
connection should be made, and giving the name and address of the owner or chief officer
residing in this state of each company with which the connection is desired. The executive
director of the commission shall thereupon cause a copy of the written statement to be served
upon the companies owning or operating such lines or exchanges, by mailing a copy to the
owner or chief officer residing in this state, and shall fix a date, not earlier than ten (10) days
from the date of mailing the notice, for the hearing of the application. Upon the day so fixed for
the hearing, the companies may respond in writing to the application, and either side may
introduce such testimony as it desires and be heard by attorneys. After the hearing is completed
the commission shall make its finding and enter it in a book to be kept for that purpose, and shall
mail a copy thereof to each side; and if the commission directs the connection to be made it shall
indicate the points where the connection is to be made, the number of wires to be connected, the
terms and conditions and the rates to be charged, and the division of the rates charged between
the companies handling the messages. The cost of making the connection shall be borne equally
by the parties.
(3) In lieu of the procedure provided in subsection (2) of this section, the company desiring the
connection may compel the connection upon reasonable terms by suit in equity in the Franklin
Circuit Court or in the Circuit Court of the county in which the company making the demand
resides or has its chief office in this state, and the court shall, by mandatory injunction, compel
the physical connection of the wires and interchange of messages, and enforce the same by
contempt proceedings and in the same manner that other mandatory injunctions are enforced
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2. THE ORGANIZATION
B.H.E.L.(HARDWAR)
2.1 A PROFILE:
B.H.E.L. Hardwar , one of the keys manufacturing units of B.H.E.L. is located between
Shivalik Mountains and Holy River GANGA. Its manufacturing plant includes two factories at
Hardwar.
On the northern side is heavy electrical equipment plant (H.E.E.P.), which commenced
production in 1967 with know–how from M/S Kraft-work union, AG of Germany. Now H.E.E.P.
has a technical collaboration with M/S Semen’s Germany. For manufacturing of large size gas
turbine.
Located immediately to the south of H.E.E.P. is the central foundry forge plant
(C.F.F.P.) which was primarily set up for manufacture of alloy steel casting and forging required
for industry and power generation equipment. It was established in technical collaboration with
M/S Crensot – Loire of France .
BHEL was primarily set up to meet the needs of the power sector in the country. The first
plant was established nearly 35 years ago at Bhopal, which heralded the genesis of the heavy
electrical equipment in India. BHEL is today the largest engineering enterprise in India, with
excellent track record of performance, making profits continuously since 1971-72. It achieved a
sales turnover of Rs. 3154 carores with a pretax Profit of Rs.201 carores, in 1990-91.
The areas of BHEL operations broadly cover conversion, transmission, utilization and
conservation of energy in core sectors of the economy like Power, Industry and Transportation,
etc., and fulfill vital infrastructure needs of the country.
Today, BHEL has 13 manufacturing divisions, 8 service centers and 4 Power Sector Regional
Centers, in addition to over 150 project sites spread all over India and even abroad to provide
prompt and effective service to customers.
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2.2 PROFILE OF HEEP:-
Establishment in 1960's under the Indo – soviet agreement of 1959 and 1960 in the area
of Scientific, technical and industrial co–operation.
DRP prepared in 1963 – 64, construction started from Oct.1963.
Initial product of electric motors started from Jan.1967.
Major contribution /election /commissioning completed by 1971 –72 as per original DRP
scope.
Motor manufacturing technology up dated within semen’s collaboration during
1984 –87.
Facilities being modernized continually through replacement, reconditioning,
retrofitting, technological, operational balancing.
HEEP Hardwar is manned by nearly 8324 employees comprising engineers, trained technician
and skilled workers. The employees are encouraged to participate in suggestion scheme and open
forum to give suggestions leading to increase in production, improvement in quality and
economy in construction of material.
Development of human resource and improvement in the quality of work life receive highest
priority in B.H.E.L. The HRDC has imparted training to large number of employees, diploma
and engineer trainees and apprentices through various development programs and training
modules in technical functional skill and behavioral area.
This institute has been set – up by BHEL at Ranipur. This institute has been set up by BHEL
under United Nation Development Program (UNDP). It started functioning during 1986. Parco's
focuses on developing technologies to control pollution in the area of air, water, noise and solid
waste. The institute is concentrating on research and development activities related to
protection of environment from pollution originating from industries. PCRI provides constancy
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services to industries giving practical methods to reduce pollution levels within permissible
limits.
Through persistence and extensive efforts, PCRI is emerging as one of the leading institute of its
kind in the world.
1.RESIDENTIAL :
Spruced over 25 square km BHEL, Hardwar has large township with 6780 quarters including
hostel accommodation. In addition loans have been arranged for the employee by the
management through various financial institution to unable them to build there houses.
2.MEDICAL :
3.EDUCATION :
There are 19 educational institutions in BHEL campus from nursery to degree level, which cater
to the educational needs of the children of BHEL employees. These include Degree College, 1
central school, 9 schools run by BHEL education management board (EMB), a branch of D.P.S.,
4 institute of UP government and a few private agencies.
Shopping centers.
Central stadium.
Club.
Police station.
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2.8 HEEP PRODUCT PROFILE :
1.THERMAL SETS :
Steam turbines and generators up to 500 MW capacity for utility and combined cycle
applications; capability to manufacture up to 1000 MW unit cycle.
2.GAS TURBINES :
Gas turbines for industry and utility application; range-3 to 200 MW (ISO).
Gas turbines based co-generation and combined cycle system .
3. HYDRO SETS :
Custom– built conventional hydro turbine of kaplan, Francis and Pelton with
matching generators upto 250MW unit size.
Spherical butterfly and rotary valves and auxiliaries for hydro station .
Reheaters / separators .
5. ELECTRICAL MACHINES:
DC general purpose and rolling mill machines from 100 to 19000KW suitable
for operation on voltage up to 1200V. These are provided with STDP, totally
enclosed and duct ventilated enclosures .
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6. CONTROL PANEL :
Control panel for voltage upto 400KW and control desks for generating stations and
EMV sub–stations.
Sophisticated heavy casting and forging of creep resistant alloy steels, stainless steel
8. AVIATION :
9. DEFENCE PROCEDURE :
2.9 DEPARTMENTS :
Engineering
Finance
Quality management
Material management
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Vigilance
Medical services
Aviation
3. TELECOMMUNICATION
3.1 HISTORY:
Early telecommunications included smoke signals and drums. Drums were used by natives in
Africa, New Guinea and South America, and smoke signals in North America and China.
The first commercial electrical telegraph was constructed in England by Sir Charles Wheatstone
and Sir William Fothergill Cooke. It used the deflection of needles to represent messages and
started operating over twenty-one kilometres (thirteen miles) of the Great Western Railway on 9
April 1839. Both Wheatstone and Cooke viewed their device as "an improvement to the
[existing] electromagnetic telegraph" not as a new device.
The conventional telephone was invented by Alexander Bell in 1876. Antonio Meucci had in
1849 invented a device that allowed the electrical transmission of voice over a line but Meucca’s
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device depended upon the electrophonic effect and was of little practical value because it
required users to place the receiver in their mouth to “hear” what was being said.[
The first commercial telephone services were set up in 1878 and 1879 on both sides of the
Atlantic in the cities of New Haven and London. Bell held patents needed for such services in
both countries. The technology grew quickly from this point, with inter-city lines being built and
telephone exchanges in every major city of the United States by the mid-1880s. Despite this,
transatlantic voice communication remained impossible for customers until January 7, 1927
when a connection was established using radio. However no cable connection existed until TAT-
1 was inaugurated on September 25, 1956 providing 36 telephone circuits.
3.3 IN B.H.E.L:
BHEL manufactures EPABX and MAX systems based on C-Dot technology and has
plans to make other ranges of telecommunication equipment also.
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Fig.3.3 Communication Network in BHEL
But now-a-days Electronic Exchanges are used. In Electronic exchange electronic devices effect
the inter-connection between different transmission circuits and Electro-mechanical relays and
switches are dispensed with. Such electronic devices remove difficulties associated with
mechanical contacts. The greatest advantage of using electronic devices in place of
electromechanical devices is that no time is loosed in making a connection and a very high speed
of operation is possible.
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4.2 HISTORY:
. .
Fig. 4.3 TIVADAR PUSKÁS, the inventor. Fig. 4.4 An AT&T Central Office in
Houston,Texas
Prior to the telephone, electrical switches were used to switch telegraph lines. One of the first
people to build a telephone exchange was Hungarian Tivadar Puskás in 1877. George W. Coy
designed and built the first commercial telephone exchange which opened in New Haven,
Connecticut in January, 1878. The switchboard was built from "carriage bolts, handles from
teapot lids and bustle wire" and could handle two simultaneous conversations.
Later exchanges consisted of one to several hundred plug boards staffed by telephone operators.
Each operator sat in front of a vertical panel containing banks of ¼-inch tip-ring-sleeve (3-
conductor) jacks, each of which was the local termination of a subscriber's telephone line. In
front of the jack panel lay a horizontal panel containing two rows of patch cords, each pair
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connected to a cord circuit. When a calling party lifted the receiver, a signal lamp near the jack
would light. The operator would plug one of the cords (the "answering cord") into the
subscriber's jack and switch her headset into the circuit to ask, "Number please?" Depending
upon the answer, the operator might plug the other cord of the pair (the "ringing cord") into the
called party's local jack and start the ringing cycle, or plug into a trunk circuit to start what might
be a long distance call handled by subsequent operators in another bank of boards or in another
building miles away. In 1918, the average time to complete the connection for a long-
distance call was 15 minutes. In the ring down method, the originating operator called another
intermediate operator who would call the called subscriber, or passed it on to another
intermediate operator.[8] This chain of intermediate operators could complete the call only if
intermediate trunk lines were available between all the centers at the same time. In 1943 when
military calls had priority, a cross-country US call might take as long as 2 hours to request and
schedule in cities that used manual switchboards for toll calls.
On March 10, 1891, Almon Strowger, an undertaker in Kansas City, Missouri, patented the
stepping switch, a device which led to the automation of telephone circuit switching. While there
were many extensions and adaptations of this initial patent, the one best known consists of 10
levels or banks, each having 10 contacts arranged in a semi-circle. When used with a telephone
dial, each pair of numbers caused the shaft of the central contact "hand" first to step up a level
per digit and then to swing in a contact row per digit.
Later step switches were arranged in banks, beginning with a line-finder which detected that one
of up to a hundred subscriber lines had the receiver lifted "off hook". The line finder hooked the
subscriber to a "dial tone" bank to show that it was ready. The subscriber's dial pulsed at 10
pulses per second (depending on standards in particular countries).
Exchanges based on the Strowger switch were challenged by other selectors and by crossbar
technology. These phone exchanges promised faster switching and would accept pulses faster
than the Strowger's typical 10 pps—typically about 20 pps. Many also accepted DTMF "touch
tones" or other tone signaling systems.
A transitional technology (from pulse to DTMF) had DTMF link finders which converted DTMF
to pulse, to feed to older Strowger, panel, or crossbar switches. This technology was used as late
as mid 2002.
With all-manual calling, the customer calls the operator and asks the operator for the number,
and provided that the number is in the same central office, the operator connects the call by
plugging into the jack on the switchboard corresponding to that customer's line. If the call is to
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another central office, the operator plugs into the trunk for the other office and ask the operator
answering (known as the "inward" operator) to connect the call.
Most manual telephone exchanges in cities were common-battery, meaning that the central office
provided power for the telephone circuits, as is the case today. A customer lifting their receiver
would change their line status to "tip," thereby lighting a light on the operator's switchboard. In
smaller towns, early telephones were often magneto, or crank, phones, where the subscriber
turned a crank to generate current to activate the "tip" condition, notifying the operator of the
call. Batteries at the subscriber's home provided the current to allow conversation. Magneto
systems were in use in some small towns in the U.S. as late at the 1980s.
In large cities, such as New York City, with hundreds of central offices, it took many years to
convert the whole city to dial service. To help automate service to manual offices during the
transition to dial service, a special type of switchboard, which would display the number dialed
by the customer, was used. For instance, if a customer in the MUrray Hill exchange picked up
the phone and dialed a number in the CIty Island exchange, the customer would never need to
know the destination number was in a manual exchange. Dialing that number would connect to
the CIty Island exchange inward operator, who would see the number displayed on the
switchboard, and plug into the line.
These came into existence in the early 1900s. They were designed to replace the need for human
telephone operators. Before the exchanges became automated, operators had to complete the
connections required for a telephone call. Almost everywhere, operators have been replaced by
computerized exchanges.
The local exchange automatically senses an off hook (tip) telephone condition, provides dial tone
to that phone, receives the pulses or DTMF tones generated by the phone, and then completes a
connection to the called phone within the same exchange or to another distant exchange.
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The exchange then maintains the connection until a party hangs up, and the connection is
disconnected. Additional features, such as billing equipment, may also be incorporated into the
exchange.
Early exchanges used motors, shaft drives, rotating switches and relays. Some types of automatic
exchanges were Strowger (also known as Step-By-Step), All Relay, X-Y, Panel and Crossbar.
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1. Tone type:
In this type of exchange sine waves are used. There speed of dialing for a given number
is more than that of Pulse type.
2. Pulse type:
In this type of exchange square wave is used due to which the dialing speed is lesser. The
telephone apparatus used for both types are different in construction. But now days both types of
apparatus are integrated in a single machine in which switch-over can be made via a selector
switch.
4.3.4 Private Branch Exchange(PBX):
A Private Branch eXchange (also called PBX or Private Business eXchange) is a telephone
exchange that is owned by a private business, as opposed to one owned by a common carrier or
by a telephone company.
Overview
Using a PBX saves connecting all of a business's telephone sets separately to the public
telephone network (PSTN or ISDN). Such a set-up would require every set to have its own line
(usually with a monthly recurring line charge), and "internal" calls would have to be routed out
of the building to a central switch, only to come back in again.
As well as telephone sets, fax machines, modems and many other communication devices can be
connected to a PBX (although the PBX may degrade line quality for modems). For this reason,
all such devices are generally referred to as extensions.
The PBX equipment is typically installed at a business's premises, and connects calls between
the telephones installed there. In addition, a limited number of outside lines (called trunk lines)
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are usually available for making and receiving calls external to the site (i.e. to the public
telephone network). Companies with multiple sites can connect their PBXs together with trunk
lines. PBX-like services can also be provided by equipment located off site at a central provider,
delivering services over the public telephone network. This is known as a hosted PBX. For
example, most local phone companies offer a Centrex service in which each extension has a
trunk line connected to the telephone company's Central Office. Other companies offer similar
services.
PBXs are distinguished from smaller "key systems" by the fact that external lines are not
normally indicated or selectable at an individual extension. From a user's point of view calls on a
key system are made by selecting a specific outgoing line and dialing the external number; calls
on a PBX are made by dialing 9 (or 0 in some systems) followed by the external number; an
outgoing trunk line is automatically selected upon which to complete the call.
There are many PBX hardware manufacturers. Some of the most well known include: Avaya
(was Lucent was AT&T), Alcatel, Comdial, Cisco Systems, Ericsson, Fujitsu, InterTel, Mitel,
NEC, Nortel, Panasonic, Samsung, Siemens AG (includes Rolm), ShoreTel, Toshiba, Vertical,
and Vodavi.
PBX Functions
• Establishing connections (circuits) between the telephone sets of two users. (e.g. mapping
a dialled number to a physical phone, ensuring the phone isn't already busy)
• Maintaining such connections as long as the users require them. (i.e. channeling voice
signals between the users)
In addition to these basic functions, PBXs offer many other capabilities, with different
manufacturers providing different features in an effort to differentiate their products. Here is a
short list of common capabilities (note that each manufacturer may have a different name for
each capability):
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• Call transfer
• Voice mail
• Follow-me
• Music on hold
• Night service
• Call waiting
• Call pick-up
• Call park
• Call conferencing
• Custom greetings
• Shared message boxes (where a department can have a shared voicemail box)
• Automated directory services (where callers can be routed to a given employee by keying
or speaking the letters of the employee's name)
• Call accounting
A hosted PBX system delivers PBX functionality as a service, available over the Public
Service Telephone Network (PSTN) and/or the internet. Hosted PBXes are typically provided by
the telephone company, using equipment located in the premises of the telephone company's
exchange. This means the customer organization doesn't need to buy or install PBX equipment
(generally the service is provided by a lease agreement) and the telephone company can (in some
configurations) use the same switching equipment to service multiple PBX hosting accounts.
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The first hosted PBX was introduced to the market in late 1997 by Virtual PBX. Instead
of buying PBX equipment, users contract for PBX services from a hosted PBX service provider,
a particular type of Application Service Provider (ASP). The first hosted PBX service was very
feature-rich compared to most premise-based systems of the time. In fact, some PBX functions,
such as follow-me calling, appeared in a hosted service before they became available in
hardware PBX equipment. Since that introduction, updates and new offerings from several
companies have moved feature sets in both directions. Today, it is possible to get hosted PBX
service that includes far more features than were available from the first systems of this class, or
to contract with companies that provide less functionality for more simple needs.
• Allows a single number to be presented for the entire company, despite its being
geographically distributed. A company could even chose to have no premises, with
workers connected from home using their domestic telephones but receiving the same
features as any PBX user.
• Allows multimodal access, where employees access the network via a variety of
telecommunications systems, including POTS, ISDN, cellular phones, and VOIP. This
allows one extension to ring in multiple locations (either concurrently or sequentially).
• Supports integration with custom toll plans (that allow intra company calls, even from
private premises, to be dialed at a cheaper rate) and integrated billing and accounting
(where calls made on a private line but on the company's behalf are billed centrally to the
company).
• Eliminates the need for companies to manage or pay for on-site hardware maintenance.
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Since the voltage supplied in Indian Subcontinent is 220-volts/50 Hz. A.C. but for the
normal working of the exchange 48(46-53) volts of D.C. is required.
Hence a Rectifier circuit, backed with battery array for power-failures, is used. This
rectifier block not only rectifies the input supply but also works as a battery charger. It is known
as Float rectifier cum charger.
Battery backup is utilized for smooth operation of the exchange during power failures.
For battery back-up lead acid battery array is used in parallel to the supply from the rectifier
block, so that during power failures the exchange supplies are not terminated.
From M.D.F. a number of cables, based upon the requirement of a place, are connected to
cabinets. On the cabinets these cables are divided into cables of 20 pairs. Now every 20 pair
cable goes to the distribution box (D.B.). At the D.B. this 20 pair cable is further divided into
two parts of 10 pairs each. These pairs are then connected to the subscriber ports via jumpers.
The lines from these ports then goes to the subscribers through single pair cables which are
usually of P.V.C. type. These wires are connected to the instrument via Rossete-Box.
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Fig. 4.6 MDF
4.7 I.D.F.: -
These frames like M.D.F. consists of a large number of verticals with horizontal cross-
arms fitted with tag blocks at both the ends. The cable from M.D.F. is terminated on the multiple
side from where connections are extended to metering and from the exchange side cables are run
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to the respected line-cards. The two tag blocks are joined by means of jumper wires as in the
M.D.F., so that any subscriber can be given connection to any uniselector on the line-card. The
subscriber and, therefore, their uniselectors are divided into different groups and it is necessary
for these groups to originate more or less the same amount of traffic for smooth distribution
among different trunks.
5.TELEPHONE SWITCHES:
5.1 OVERVIEW
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A telephone switch is the brains of an exchange. It is a device for routing calls from one
telephone to another, generally as part of the public switched telephone network. They work by
connecting two or more digital virtual circuits together, according to a dialed telephone number.
Calls are setup between switches using the Signalling System 7 protocol, or one of its variants.
Digital switches encode the speech going on, in extremely minute time slices — many per
second. At each time slice, a digital representation of the tone is made. The digits are then sent to
the receiving end of the line, where the reverse process occurs, to produce the sound for the
receiving phone. In other words, when you use a telephone, you are generally having your voice
"encoded" and then reconstructed for the person on the other end. Your voice is very slightly
delayed in the process (probably by only a small fraction of one second) — it is not "live", it is
reconstructed — delayed only minutely. (See below for more info.)
Individual local loop telephone lines are connected to a remote concentrator. In many cases, the
concentrator is co-located in the same building as the switch. The interface between
concentrators and telephone switches has been standardised by ETSI as the V5 protocol.
Some telephone switches do not have concentrators directly connected to them, but rather are
used to connect calls between other telephone switches. Usually a complex machine (or series of
them) in a central exchange building, these are referred to as "carrier-level" switches or tandems.
Some telephone exchange buildings in small towns now house only remote switches, and are
homed "parent" switch, usually several kilometres away. The remote switch is dependent on the
parent switch for routing and number plan information. Unlike a digital loop carrier, a remote
switch can route calls between local phones itself, without using trunks to the parent switch.
Telephone switches are usually owned and operated by a telephone service provider or "carrier"
and located in their premises, but sometimes individual businesses or private commercial
buildings will house their own switch, called a PBX, or Private Branch Exchange.
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5.2 THE SWITCH’S PLACE IN THE SYSTEM:
Telephone switches are a small part of a large network. The majority of work and expense of the
phone system is the wiring outside the central office, or the "Outside Plant".
Some companies use "pair gain" devices to provide telephone service to subscribers. These
devices are used to provide service where existing copper facilities have been exhausted or by
siting in a neighborhood, can reduce the length of copper pairs, enabling digital services such as
ISDN or DSL. Pair gain or digital loop carriers (DLCs) are located outside the central office,
usually in a large neighborhood distant from the CO.
DLCs are often referred to as Subscriber Loop Carriers (SLCs), after Lucent's proprietary name
for their pair gain products. Early SLC systems (SLC-1) used an analog carrier for transport
between the remote site and the central office. Later systems (SLC-96, SLC-5) and other
vendors' DLC products contain line cards that convert the analog signal to a digital signal
(usually PCM). This digital signal can then be transported over copper, fiber, or other transport
medium to the central office. Other components include ringing generators to provide ringing
current and battery backups.
DLCs can be configured as universal (UDLCs) or integrated (IDLCS). Universal DLCs have two
terminals, a central office terminal (COT) and a remote terminal (RT), that function similarly.
Both terminals interface with analog signals, convert to digital signals, and transport to the other
side where the reverse is performed. Sometimes, the transport is handled by separate equipment.
In an Integrated DLC, the COT is eliminated. Instead, the RT is connected digitally to equipment
in the telephone switch. This reduces the total amount of equipment required. Several standards
cover DLCs, including Telcordia's TR/GR-008 & TR/GR-303. Switches are used in both local
central offices and in long distance centers.
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5.3 SWITCH DESIGN:
Long distance switches may use a slower, more efficient switch-allocation algorithm than central
offices, because they have near 100% utilization of their input and output channels. Central
offices have more than 90% of their channel capacity unused.
While traditionally, telephone switches connected physical circuits (e.g., wire pairs), modern
telephone switches use a combination of space- and time-division switching. In other words,
each voice channel is represented by a time slot (say 1 or 2) on a physical wire pair (A or B). In
order to connect two voice channels (say A1 and B2) together, the telephone switch interchanges
the information between A1 and B2. It switches both the time slot and physical connection. To
do this, it exchanges data between the time slots and connections 8000 times per second, under
control of digital logic that cycles through electronic lists of the current connections. Using both
types of switching makes a modern switch far smaller than either a space or time switch could be
by itself.
The structure of a switch is an odd number of layers of smaller, simpler subswitches. Each layer
is interconnected by a web of wires that goes from each subswitch, to a set of the next layer of
subswitches. In most designs, a physical (space) switching layer alternates with a time switching
layer. The layers are symmetric, because in a telephone system callers can also be callees.
A time-division subswitch reads a complete cycle of time slots into a memory, and then writes it
out in a different order, also under control of a cyclic computer memory. This causes some delay
in the signal.
A space-division subswitch switches electrical paths, often using some variant of a nonblocking
minimal spanning switch, or a crossover switch.
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5.4 SWITCH CONTROL SYSTEM:
One way is to have enough switching fabric to assure that the pairwise allocation will always
succeed by building a fully-connected mesh network. This is the method usually used in central
office switches, which have low utilization of their resources.
The scarce resources in a telephone switch are the connections between layers of subswitches.
The control logic has to allocate these connections, and most switches do so in a way that is fault
tolerant. See nonblocking minimal spanning switch for a discussion of Charles Clos's algorithm,
used in many telephone switches, and arguably one of the most important algorithms in modern
industry.
Composite switches are inherently fault-tolerant. If a subswitch fails, the controlling computer
can sense it during a periodic test. The computer marks all the connections to the subswitch as
"in use". This prevents new calls, and does not interrupt old calls that remain working. As calls
are ended, the subswitch then becomes unused. Some time later, a technician can replace the
circuit board. The next test succeeds, the connections to the repaired subswitch are marked "not
in use", and the switch returns to full operation.
To prevent frustration with unsensed failures, all the connections between layers in the switch
are allocated using first-in-first-out lists. That way, when a disgusted customer hangs up and
redials, they will get a different set of connections and sub switches. A last-in-first-out allocation
of connections might cause a continuing string of very frustrating failures.
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In telecommunication, a central office (C.O.) is a common carrier switching center in which
trunks and local loops are terminated and switched.
5.6 USAGE:
• central office originally referred to the switching equipment itself. Now it is used
generally for the building housing switching and related equipment.
• telephone exchange means an exchange building in the UK, and is also the UK name for
a telephone switch, and also has a technical meaning in U.S. telecoms.
• telephone switch is the U.S. term, but is in increasing use in technical UK telecoms
usage, to make the CO/switch/concentrator distinction clear
This is intended to be a list of the more common central office (telephone company operated)
telephone switches. This list is nowhere near complete. Many British and non-North American
switches are missing.
• AGCS
• Alcatel
• Automatic Electric
• Avaya
• GPO/PO/British Telecommunications
• CopperCom
• Ericsson
• Fujitsu
• GEC
• Italtel
• Leich
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• Marconi (was GEC)
• MetaSwitch
• Mitel
• Motorola
• NEC
• Nokia
• Nortel
• Philips
• REDCOM Labs
• Siemens
• Sonus
• Stromberg-Carlson
• Tadiran Telecom
• Tesla
• Tekelec
• Vidar
ALCATEL
• E10 Five
• E10B
• OmniPCX Office
• OmniPCX Enterprise
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6. TELEPHONE LINES
MAX Lines
EPABX Lines
C-DOT Lines
Before MAX Ex. Lines are used only Internal Exchange. But New (CORAL) MAX lines
are used for both internal (Intercom) and external communication links BHEL.
EPABX lines are used for both internal and external communication links in BHEL. If
the user wants to dial outside the periphery of BHEL, he can use these lines. There are about 500
lines available here. These lines are distributed in 17 line-cards with 24 line numbers in each. Its
I.D.F. section has 40 tag blocks. 96 numbers available here are connected via digital lines in
which a host of facilities are provided that can be accessed using code 69.
These lines are the direct telephone lines from C-DOT The facility they provide is called
DID (Direct Inward Dialing). It has 24 lines and any BHEL number starting with digit 5 can be
accessed using code 48.
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7. CONNECTION TYPES:
7.1 TYPES OF CONNECTION:
• With wires i.e. Cables
7.2 CABLES:
Two types of Cables are used.
They are:
7.2.1 Underground Cables: These types of cables run under the earth and are basically used to
connect the exchange to the subscriber's Distribution Box ( D.B.). They are further of two types
based upon their construction and the insulating material used.
a. Paper core A.T.C. (Armored Tin Cable)
b. Jelly filled A.T.C. (Armored Tin Cable)
7.2.2 Overhead cables: These types of cables are used to connect the equipments inside the
exchange and to connect the peripheral devices to the subscriber's Distribution Box
( D.B.). They are generally of P.V.C. type.
In an exchange, based upon the number of conductor pairs, following types of cables are used:
• Single Pair cable
• 2 Pairs cable
• 5 Pairs cable
• 10 Pairs cable
• 20 Pairs cable
• 50 Pairs cable
• 100 Pairs cable
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7.2.3 Color-coding:
Single pair
Blue-White
2 Pair cable
Blue-White/Red-Orange/White-Red
5 Pair cable
Blue-White/Orange-White/Green-White/Brown-White /Grey-White
10 Pair cable
Blue-White/Orange-White/Green-White/Brown-White-Slate/
Grey-White/Blue-Red/Orange-Red-Green/Red-Brown/Red-Slate/Grey-Red
20 Pair cable
Blue-White-Orange/White-Green-White/Brown-White-Slate/Grey-White-Blue/White-
White-Blue/Orange-White-Blue/Green-White-Blue/Brown-White-Blue/Slate-White-
Orange/White-White-Orange/Green-White-Orange/Brown-White-Orange/Slate-White-
Green/White-White-Green/Brown-White-Green/Slate(Grey)-White-Brown/White-White-
Brown/Slate-White-Slate/White-White
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8. LIST OF SPECIAL USER FEATURES ON VARIOUS EXCHANGES
1. CALL PICK UP: 29-xxxx To pick up a call ringing at another location xxxx.
2. CALL TRANSFER: 2 Parties conversing, any party can dial 3rd party, then
Conversation among them Hang-up. The party on line now
talks to 3rd party.
6. APPOINTMENT REMINDER:
Dial 27-xx-yy {xx=hr, yy=min}.
To Cancel: Dial 27.
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8.2 SECTOR-6 EXCHANGE (BHEL C-DOT)
This exchange is used for internal communication. It is connected with MAX as well as PABX.
It has a working capacity of 204 ports.
AUTO CALL BACK: Flash -71. Call back only obtainable from local SN (3 digit) no's.
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9. VARIOUS TYPES OF FAULTS
There are mainly two types of faults that often occur in the Exchange. These are basically
9.1.1 Break fault: They are also called as Disconnection faults. They can occur in the connectors
at home, in line or in exchange. In common they are broadly called as "Telephone is dead".
9.2.2 Loop fault: They are also called as Line-Shorting faults. In this fault connectors are
shorted prior the instrument forming a local loop. If unattended for a long time they may cause
severe damage to the Exchange.
• wetting of connectors
• Water in Rosette-Box
• Weak insulation or
• Oxidation of copper wire
•
Connectors can either touch from earth, with other connector or with any conductor (such as
metallic table, frame etc.)
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9.2 FAULTS THAT OCCUR DUE TO INSTRUMENT:
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10.OPTICAL FIBER
The operation of an Optical Fibre is based on the principle of Total Internal Reflection
(TIR).Light reflects or refracts (bends) depending on the angle at which it strikes a surface.This
occurs because different interfaces between materials refract light in different ways.
Fibre optic transmission makes use of 3 optical windows (850, 1300, 1550 nm) that are
given by the attenuation characteristics of the silica fibres.Also,670 nm light is used for visible
fault location, and low-cost 780 nm lasers
have been introduced for short haul access networks.For on-line test purposes (fibre monitoring),
1625 nm has been used to cover even long haul applications.
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10.1 CLASSIFICATION OF FIBERS
10.1.1 Step Index fiber: In the composition of step index fiber the refractive index of the core
material is constant through out the length and the diameter and an adrupt change occurs in the
step at the core cladding boundary.
10.1.2 Graded Index Fiber: In the composition of a graded index fiber the ractive index of the
core material is progressively varying as a function of a radial distance from the centre of the
fiber.
In order to improve the performance of the fibers and to reduce the attenuation as well as leaky
modes,W shaped refractive index profile is preferred.In this type of fiber,the core diameter is as
small as four micrometer and the cladding diameter is as big as four hundred micrometer.Both
step index and graded index types of W shaped fibers are available.In the fiber cable,the fiber
can be of following types:
A) Multimode step index fiber
In a multimode step index fiber several lower and higher modes travels together.Lower mode
travelling along centre of the fiber reaches the fiber end fast whereas higher order modes due to
multiple reflections at core cladding boundary reaches the fiber end later.So,there is a
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phenomena of model dispersion which is limiting the bandwidth of multimode fiber.There is
apower loss in the cable due to radiation modes and leaky modes which are either lost in the
cladding layer or absorbed in the core layer after travelling some distance.
In the multimode graded index fiber,multimode travels faster as compared to the multimode step
index fiber.the modes are converged at the center after some distance due to gradual variation of
refractive index.due to this,the light rays at centre travels slowly and light rays away from the
centre travels faster and so light rays due to various modes arrive almost together at the same
time and reducing the model dispersion.
• The cable is capable to tolerate higher temperature and has good mechanical strength.
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11.MAINTENANCE
The subject of maintenance of Automatic Telephone Exchange can be broadly divided under two
categories: -
1. Suitable design and adoption of suitable adjustment standards of the equipment parts of
the exchange can minimize failures in service.
2. Some preventive measures may also reduce service failures viz. keeping the rooms dust
free, maintaining temperature and humidity under tolerable limits using air-conditioners.
3. Routine inspection, routine tests and routine adjustments also help in preventing service
failures. When faults occur in some parts of the exchange, they should be detected and
removed as quickly as possible.
Various tools are also used to check the faults in the telephone lines and for checking fault inside
the exchange.
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