Drilling Fluids Course

RHEOLOGY AND HYDRAULICS
Well Area Operations

Agip KCO ENGINEERING
Drilling Supervisors Training Course
Drilling Muds
CALCULATIONS-MAP-1 RPW2021A 1
INTRODUCTION
The physical properties of the drilling fluids, such as density and rheological
properties, are monitored in order to optimize the drilling process. These physical
properties directly characterize different aspects which are necessary for the good
result of the drilling operation.
¾ To guarantee the control on pressure in order to avoid inflows of

formation fluids.
¾ To guarantee henergy to the bit to maximise the rate of penetration

(ROP).

Drilling Muds
INTRODUCTION
¾ To guarantee the stability of the wellbore by means of an adequate distribution of

the stresses, either hydrostatic or mechanical on the well walls (pressured or
mechanically stressed zones).
¾ To maintain drilling cuttings and weighting materials in suspension during static

periods (immobility periods without circulation); for instance, the electrical logs,
trips for bit changing etc.

Drilling Muds
INTRODUCTION
¾ To allow the separation of the drilling cuttings and gas on the surface.
¾ To remove drilling cuttings from the well .

Drilling Muds
RHEOLOGY
Rheology is the science of deformation of materials (if they are solid), or the science of
the flow (if they are liquid) under applied stress.
In the case of fluid, applied force induces flow.

Drilling Muds
RHEOLOGY
VISCOSITY
Viscosity is a measure of the resistence of a fluid to flow.
The following terms are used to describe the drilling fluids viscosity and their rheological
properties:
1) Funnel Viscosity (Marsh)(sec/qt o sec/l).
2) Apparent Viscosity (cP or mPa.sec).
3) Effective Viscosity (cP or mPa.sec).
4) Plastic Viscosity (cP or mPa.sec).
5) Yield point (lb/100 ft2 or Pa).
6) Gel Strengths (lb/100 ft2 or Pa).

Drilling Muds
RHEOLOGY
Marsh funnel viscosity
The funnel viscosity (or Marsh viscosity), is measured through the Marsh funnel
viscosimeter.

Drilling Muds
RHEOLOGY
Speed profile- Shear rate or Shear stress
V max
V=0
Laminar Annular flow

Drilling Muds
RHEOLOGY
Shear Stress (τ)
τ = Force / Area
It is usually expressed in Dyne/cm2 or in lb/100 ft2.

Note: 1 Dyne/cm2 = 4.79 lb/100ft2
Shear Rate (γ)
γ = Velocity / Distance = (V2-V1) / d = (cm/sec) / cm = 1 / sec = sec-1

It is expressed in sec-1 (reciprocal seconds).

Drilling Muds
RHEOLOGY
Where:
γ = Shear rate in reciprocal seconds
V2 = Velocity of the B layer (cm/sec)
V1 = Velocity of the A layer (cm/sec)
d = Distance between A and B (cm)
Shear rate and shear stress
Note: 1.703 Sec-1 = 1 x RPM. (Where the RPM refer to the Fann VG meter viscometer.)

Drilling Supervisors Training
Drilling Muds
Course CALCULATIONS-MAP-10
RPW2021A 10
RHEOLOGY
Viscosity (µ)
The concept of viscosity was introduced by Newton: It is a measure of the resistance of

a fluid to flow. The shear stress between adjacent fluid layers is proportional to the
negative value of the velocity gradient between the two layers.
Poise – The visosity of 1 poise is equivalent to the force in dynes required to move 2
adjacent layers of fluid with a surface area of 1 cm2 and distance between them 1 cm in
1 second.
Viscosity (µ) = shear stress (τ) / shear rate (y) = τ / y

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RPW2021A 11
RHEOLOGY
The result of the previous definitions is:
µ = (Dyne.sec) / cm2
(poise difinition)
Because one poise is a larger value, in practical a centipoise, is used for mud
measurements (100 centipoise = 1 poise)

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RPW2021A 12
RHEOLOGY
Plastic viscosity
Drilling muds are usually composed of a continuous fluid phase in which solids are
dispersed. The plastic viscosity indicates the resistance to the flow produced by
mechanical friction.
Mechanical friction is caused by:
• Solids concentration
• Solids shape and size
• Viscosity of the fluid phase
• Presence of polymers carboxymethylcellulose (CMC))
• The ratio oil to water in the inverted emulsions
• The type of emulsifier

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RHEOLOGY
The value of the plastic viscosity (PV) is obtained subtracting the reading at 300 RPM
from the reading at 600 RPM. Therefore, the plastic viscosity in centipoise (cP) or in
milliPascal seconds (mPa s) is calculated according to the formula:
PV (cP) = θ 600 – θ 300
There are three methods to remove the drilled solids:
1. Mechanical control of the solids;(continuous).

2. Settling.
3. Dilution or substitution. (expensive).

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RPW2021A 14
RHEOLOGY
Yield Point (YP)

The yield point, is the second component of the drilling fluids flow resistance. It is a
measure of the electrochemical and attractive forces in the fluid. These forces are
determined by positive or negative charges, localized or near the surface of the
particles. The yield point is a measure of the whole effect of these forces. It
depends on:
1) The superficial properties of the clayey solids dispersed in the fluid;
2) The volumetric concentration of the solids;
3) The electrical ambient of the solids (the concentration and types of ions present
in the fluid phase).

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RHEOLOGY
A high viscosity deriving from a high yeld point or from attractive forces can be cause
by:
• The introduction of soluble contaminants (ions) such as salts, cement, anhydrite or

gypsum, which cause the formation of flocculated clay and reactive solids.
• The crushing of particles from formation clay by the action of the bit or by the drill
pipes produces new residual forces on the surface of the crushed particles. Due to
these forces, the particles attract mutually and gather in shapes or disorganized
aggregations.

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RHEOLOGY
¾ The introduction of inert solids (barite) into the mud with the consequent increasing of
the yield point. This increase is the consequence of the fact that the solid particles
are closer one to another. This decreases the interparticle distance causing an
increase in the values of the attractive forces between them.
¾ The drilling of hydratable clay formation. Such situation introduces new active solids
in the mud. Again this brings the particles closer together and increases the total
number of charges.
¾ Insufficient deflocculant treatment.

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RPW2021A 17
RHEOLOGY
The yield point values can be controlled through adequate chemical treatments.
Reducing the attractive forces (by chemical means), will cause a decrease of the yield
point. The yield point can be lowered by the following methods:
¾ The charges present on the edges of the particles can be neutralized by the
absorption of negative ions (great quantities) on the surface of the clay particles.
These residual charges are neutralized by chemical substances such as:
tannines, lignines, complex phosphates, lignosulfonates, etc.. The attractive
forces existing before the treatment, are cancelled by the chemical substance
introduced and the negative charges on the clays are predominant. As a
consequence, the solids repel each other

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RPW2021A 18
RHEOLOGY
¾ In case of calcium or magnesium contamination, the ions which cause the

development of the attractive forces are removed making them precipitate in the
form of insoluble compounds. In this way, the attractive forces and the mud YP
decrease.
¾ Dilution with water can lower/decrease the yield point but, unless the solids
concentration is really high, this method is ineffective and can be expensive. Water
can alter mud properties in an undesirable manner. This is the case of weighted
muds where the water addition can increase the filtrate and decrease the mud
weight.

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RHEOLOGY
The yield point (YP) is calculated by the reading at the rotational viscometer (lb/100
ft2) as follows:
YP = θ 300 – (θ 600 – θ 300)

O
YP = θ 300 – PV

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RHEOLOGY
Apparent viscosity (µa)
The apparent viscosity of a fluid, measured by the rotational viscometer Fann VG

meter, is the viscosity of a mud at 600 RPM (1022 sec-1). It is the consequence of the
combined action of the plastic viscosity and the yield point. The increasing of one or
the other will give an increase in the apparent viscosity (and probably of the funnel
viscosity). The latter is sometimes called single point viscosity.
The equation for the apparent viscosity is:
µa = (300)(θ 600) / ( 600 ) = (θ600) / 2

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RHEOLOGY
Effective viscosity (µe)
The effective viscosity read on the VG meter, is the mud viscosity at the determining
RPM, i.e. at the speed of the viscometer, It is calculated through the following
equation .
µe = (300)( θ at a determined RPM) / RPM
NOTE:
One unit on the reading /dial = 1.067 lb/100 ft2 = 5.11 dyne/cm2
and one RPM = 1.703 sec-1

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RPW2021A 22
RHEOLOGY
Gel force
Thixotropy is the property exhibited by some fluids to form a gelled structure over
time when not subject to shear and then to liquefy when agitated. Most water-base
drilling fluids exhibit thixotropy, because of the presence of electrically charged
particles or special polymers which form a rigid matrix.

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RPW2021A 23
RHEOLOGY
• The readings of the gel strength through the rotational viscometer (velocity = 3 RPM)
at intervals of 10 seconds, 10 minutes and critical situations at intervals of 30 minutes
give a measure of the thixotropy degree of the fluid. The gel strength is a function of
the quantity and type of solids in suspension, of the time, of the temperature and of
the chemical treatment. In other words, all that promotes or prevents the bonding of
the particles will increase or decrease the tendence of a fluid to gelatinize.

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RPW2021A 24
RHEOLOGY
Excessive gel strength can cause problems :
1. Excessive pressure at the start of circulation after a trip or a break.
2. Reduction of the efficiency of the equipment for solids removal.
3. Swabbing or surging phenomena when the drillstring is pulled out or runs in with
escessive velocity, the consequent reduction or increase of the hydrostatic
weight can cause blow out or loss of circulation.

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RPW2021A 25
RHEOLOGY
¾ Excessive pressures waves as the bit is lowered.
¾ Impossibility for the logging tools to run to the bottom.
¾ Trapped air or gas in the mud.

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RPW2021A 26
RHEOLOGY
Types of gels

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RPW2021A 27
RHEOLOGY
EFFECTS OF TEMPERATURE AND PRESSURE ON VISCOSITY
TYPES OF FLUIDS

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RPW2021A 28
RHEOLOGY
In Newtonian fuids, if the temperature remains constant, the viscosity does not vary as
the shear rate changes. The base fluids of the majority of drilling muds (fresh water, sea
water, diesel, mineral and synthetical oils) are Newtonian. In such fluids the shear stress
is directly proportional to the shear rate. Graphically, the Newtonian fluids are
represented by a line passing through the origin. The viscosity is the angular gradient of
the line.
The initial yield stress (the stress necessary to cause flow to start) of a Newtonian fluid is
always equal to zero.

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RPW2021A 29
RHEOLOGY
Example of viscosity on a newtonian fluid

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RPW2021A 30
RHEOLOGY
τ = µ xγ
This general definition is independent from the unit of measurement chosen.
µ = (1.0678 x θ) / (1.703 xω)
The viscosity obtained is in English units of measurement ( ft, lb, etc.), but viscosity
is reported in centipoise on the API Daily Mud Report.
µ (cP) = [478.9 x (1.0678 / 1.703)] x (θ / ω)
If the values of the numbers are approximated the formula is:
µ (cP) = 300 x (θ / ω)

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RPW2021A 31
RHEOLOGY
Newtonian Laminar velocity profile
Maximum velocity profile Profile inclination

=
Minimum shear rate
dv
dr
Average velocitya
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RPW2021A 32
RHEOLOGY
The flow velocity profile increases with the distance of the wall- The more distant the
wall of the tube the higher the flow velocity.
The shear rate (sec–1) at the wall of a cylindirc pipe can be calculated with the
following equation:
γ = 8V / D
Where:
V = average velocity of the fluid in the pipe (ft/sec)
D = diameter of the pipe (ft)

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RPW2021A 33
RHEOLOGY
This equation becomes different in case of concentric pipes.
γ = 12V / (DH – DP)
Where:
V = average velocity of the fluid in the pipe (ft/sec)
DH = hole diameter (ft)
DP = external diameter of the pipe (ft)
The DH – DP difference is also called hydraulic diameter. (Annular space).

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RPW2021A 34
RHEOLOGY
Laminar Annular Newtonian velocity profile

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RPW2021A 35
RHEOLOGY
Non Newtonian fluids (Muds)
Average velocity
Laminar flow in non-Newtonian velocity profile

Drilling Muds
RPW2021A 36
RHEOLOGY
Shear rate effect on the effective viscosity for a non-Newtonian fluid

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RPW2021A 37
RHEOLOGY
“Shear thinning” effect (pseudoplastic behaviour) in non-Newtonian fluids

Drilling Muds
RPW2021A 38
RHEOLOGY
Non-Newtonian fluids are classified in two categories:
¾ Fluids with properties independent of time.
¾ Fluids with properties dependent on time.

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RPW2021A 39
RHEOLOGY
Non-Newtonian fluids independent of time:
¾ Bingham plastic fluids.
¾ Pseudoplastic fluids.
¾ Dilatant fluids.

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RPW2021A 40
RHEOLOGY
Non-Newtonian fluids dependent on time:
• Thyxotropic fluids

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RPW2021A 41
RHEOLOGY
Rheogram showing the behaviour of the Bingham plastic, pseudoplastic and dilatant fluids

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RPW2021A 42
RHEOLOGY
Bingham’s plastic fluids
In Bingham plastic fluids, the shear stress also varies linearly with shear rate but,
unlike Newtonian fluids, a minimum force must be applied to impart motion to
them. This force is known as the yield point or yield value.

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RHEOLOGY
The equation for the Bingham plastic fluids is:

τ = PV (γ/300) + YP
Where:
Plastic Viscosity (PV) = θ 600 - θ 300 (cps)
Yield Point (YP) = θ 300 – PV

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RPW2021A 44
RHEOLOGY
Curve of shear stress versus shear rate

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RPW2021A 45
RHEOLOGY
The common terms associated with the model of the Bingham’s plastic fluids are:
Plastic viscosity (plastic viscosity – PV), apparent viscosity (µa), yield point and gel
strength.

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RPW2021A 46
RHEOLOGY
Viscosity –Shear Rate Curve

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RHEOLOGY
Parameters of the Bingham plastic model

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RPW2021A 48
RHEOLOGY
Place
Shear Rate, sec-1
drill pipe 00 - 500

heavy drill pipe 00 - 3000
bit nozzles 0,000 - 100,000
annulus 0 - 500
mud tanks -5
Shear rate in a flow system

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RPW2021A 49
RHEOLOGY
Pseudoplastic fluids (Power Law Fluids))
τ = Kγ n
Pseudoplastic fluids, like Newtonian, will flow under any applied stress, however
small. But, as distinct from Newtonian fluids, the shear stress is not proportional to
the shear rate, but to its “nth” power; hence the name “power-law-fluids”. “K” is the
consistency index in Pa·sn or in lb·sn/100ft2, and “n” is the dimensionless flow
behaviour index which is unity or smaller than unity.

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RHEOLOGY
Depending on the n value, there are three different types of flow and rheological
behaviour profiles:
n < 1:The fluid is non-Newtonian pseudoplastic.
n = 1: The fluid is Newtonian.
n > 1: the fluid is dilatant, shear thickening (drilling fluids do not belong to this
category) (shear thickening – increasing of the stress viscosity, expanding
behaviour. This behaviour, is opposite to the shear thinning, and is characterized
by an increase in viscosity, as the shear rate increases).

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RHEOLOGY
For the pseudoplastic fluids:

τ = K (γ)n; (0 < n < 1)
where:
τ = shear stress
γ = shear rate
K = fluid consistency index (constant characteristic of a fluid)
n = flow behaviour index

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RHEOLOGY
Dilatant fluids
τ = K (γ)n; (n > 1)
“n” effects on fluids behaviour

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RHEOLOGY
Thyxotropic fluids
Rheogram of the hysteresis cycle

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RHEOLOGY
Law of modified power (YPL- yield power law model)
Comparison on rheological models

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RHEOLOGY
Comparison on rheological models in logarithmic coordinates

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RPW2021A 56
RHEOLOGY
The Herschel-Bulkley equation is expressed as follows:

τ = τо+ K(γ)n
Where:
τ = Shear stress
τо = yield stress or stress to begin the motion
K = Consistency index
γ= Shear rate
n = Power law index

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RPW2021A 57
FLOW RUNNING
Stage 1 — No flow
Stage 2 — Plug flow

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RPW2021A 58
FLOW RUNNING
Stage 3 —Transition from plug flow to laminar flow
Stage 4 — Laminar flow
Stage 5 — Transition from laminar flow to turbulent flow
Stage 6 — Turbulent flow

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FLOW RUNNING
or laminar flow Flow stages

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HYDRAULIC RHEOLOGICAL MODELS
Bingham Plastic
Due to its simplicity, the Bingham Plastic is the most used model to describe the
rheological properties of a drilling fluid. It assumes that the shear stress would be a
linear function of the shear rate and it is expressed as follows:
YP = yield point, lbf /100 ft2
PV = plastic viscosity, cp (centipoise)

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RPW2021A 61
As this model is developed by the determination of the data of shear rates from 500
to 1000 sec-1, it allows a better identification of a fluid with higher shear rates. The PV
and YP are calculated from data obtained by the conventional rotating viscometer, at
300 and at 600 rpm with the following formula: PV = θ600 – θ300
Where: PV = plastic viscosity, cp
θ600 = 600 rpm (instrument reading)
θ300 = 300 rpm (instrument reading)
YP = θ300 – PV
Multiplying the rpm by 1.702 the shear rate in sec-1 is obtained. Once having
determined the PV and YP values, the model can be used to determine the shear
stress at whatever shear rate

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Power Law
The Power Law model describes a fluid where the shear stress meets the shear rate
in a straight line. As it is less approximate than the Bingham Plastic model, this
module is often used to keep the characteristics of suspension under control and to
calculate the pressure losses of the mud in the annular space.
The Power Law formula is:

τ = Kγⁿ
where: K = flow consistency index (lb-secn/100 ft2),
n = flow behaviour index (dimensionless).

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RPW2021A 63
The rheological parameters n and K can be calculated through two points of whatever
shear-rate/shear-stress. As it is fairly improbable that in a log-log graph of
rheological data a straight line can be obtained, it is better to determine n and K in the
drill pipes (np and Kp) and in the annular space (na and Ka). The most accurate
results will be obtained with the use of n and K in the range from 5 to 200 sec-1 in the
annular space and from 200 to 100 sec-1 in the pipes (rpm = sec-1 ÷1.7).

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HYDRAULICS RHEOLOGICAL MODELS
The reading of a normal instrument at six velocities, allows the determination of the
power law constants.
The formula for n and K are:
⎛τ 2 ⎞
log ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ τ1 ⎠
n= τ 2
⎛γ2 ⎞ K =
log ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ (γ 2 )n
⎝ γ1 ⎠

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RPW2021A 65
Where:
τ2= reading shear stress at higher shear rate,
τ1= reading shear stress at low shear rate,

γ2 = high shear rate range (rpm),
γ1 = low shear rate range (rpm).
If readings from 600 to 300 rpm are carried out, the formula is simplified as follows:
⎛ θ 600 ⎞ θ
n = 3 . 32 log ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ K = 300
⎝ θ 300 511 n
⎠

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RPW2021A 66
Herschel - Buckley (modified Power Law)
It is a combination of the characteristics of the Newtonian model,Bingham Plastic and

Power Law. The formula is:
τ = YP + K γ n
This model using three parameters, reproduces the results of the three models
described previously. Due to the difficulty to obtain this data, using the rheometer a γp =
3 RPM is assumed.

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RPW2021A 67
Guide to the hydraulics optimization
Where: n = 3.32log [(θ 600 − YP ) ÷ (θ 300 − YP )]
YP = θ3 (lb/100 ft2),
θ 300
K = n
511

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REYNOLDS NUMBER
The number of Reynolds (NRe) is a dimensionless number that is used to determine

whether a fluid is in laminar or turbulent flow.
According to the API rule, the number of Reynolds, lower or equal to 2100 indicates a
laminar flow while if it is higher than 2.100 the regime is turbulent flow.

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RPW2021A 69
• The general formula for the number of Reynolds is:
⎛ ρ ⎞
N Re = VD ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝µ ⎠
Where:
V = Velocity
D =Diameter
ρ = Density
µ =Viscosity

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The number of Reynolds in the pipes is:
⎛ ρ ⎞
N = 15 . 467 V p D ⎜ ⎟
Rep ⎜ µ ep ⎟
⎝ ⎠

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The number of Reynolds in the annular is:
⎛ ρ ⎞
N Rea = 15 .467 Va (D 2 - D 1 ) ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ µ ea ⎠

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RPW2021A 72
Where: D = ID drill pipe or drill collars
D2 = ID hole or casing
D1 = OD drill pipe or drill collars
µep = Effective viscosity (cP) pipe
µea = Effective viscosity (cP) annulus

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FRICTION FACTORS FOR THE POWER-LAW MODULE

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HYDRAULIC EQUATIONS
AVERAGE BULK VELOCITY
The API calls in this way the velocity of a fluid in an annular space or inside the
pipes, assuming that all the fluids flow at the same velocity.
Average bulk velocity in the pipes (Vp):
0 . 408 Q
V =
D2
p

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RPW2021A 75
HYDRAULIC EQUATIONS
Average bulk velocity in the annulus (Va):
0 . 408 Q
Va =
(D 22 − D 12 )
Where:
V = Velocity (ft/sec)
Q = Rate (gpm)
D = Diameter (in.)

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HYDRAULIC EQUATIONS
Pressure Losses
In the drilling, the flow inside the pipes on the surface, their connections, drill pipe,
drill collars and at the bit chokes is always turbulent.

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HYDRAULIC EQUATIONS
The flow in the annulus can be both laminar and turbulent. However, the annular
pressure losses are rather low compared to the total pressure fall.
In the turbulent flow, the effect of the viscosity properties of the mud in the pressure
losses are very limited. As a consequence, the calculations are usually made using
programmes, rules, tables, etc based on turbulent flow.

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HYDRAULIC EQUATIONS
In the indications of a hydraulic programme it is necessary to calculate the pressure
losses in the one or more flow rates. The circulating pressure, Pc, corresponds to the
sum of the following pressure losses:
1. Surface connection (standpipe, rotary hose, kelly e swivel).
2. Drillpipes.
3. Heavy-weight drillpipes.
4. Drill collars.
5. Annulus between the drill collars and the open hole.
6. Annulus between the drillpipes the open hole.

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RPW2021A 79

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RHEOLOGY AND HYDRAULICS

Well Area Operations

¾ To guarantee the control on pressure in order to avoid inflows of

¾ To guarantee henergy to the bit to maximise the rate of penetration

Well Area Operations

¾ To guarantee the stability of the wellbore by means of an adequate distribution of

¾ To maintain drilling cuttings and weighting materials in suspension during static

Well Area Operations

¾ To remove drilling cuttings from the well .

Well Area Operations

In the case of fluid, applied force induces flow.

Well Area Operations

Viscosity is a measure of the resistence of a fluid to flow.

1) Funnel Viscosity (Marsh)(sec/qt o sec/l).

2) Apparent Viscosity (cP or mPa.sec).

3) Effective Viscosity (cP or mPa.sec).

4) Plastic Viscosity (cP or mPa.sec).

5) Yield point (lb/100 ft2 or Pa).

6) Gel Strengths (lb/100 ft2 or Pa).

Well Area Operations

Marsh funnel viscosity

Well Area Operations

Speed profile- Shear rate or Shear stress

Laminar Annular flow

Well Area Operations

Shear Stress (τ)

It is usually expressed in Dyne/cm2 or in lb/100 ft2.

Shear Rate (γ)

γ = Velocity / Distance = (V2-V1) / d = (cm/sec) / cm = 1 / sec = sec-1

Well Area Operations

V2 = Velocity of the B layer (cm/sec)

V1 = Velocity of the A layer (cm/sec)

d = Distance between A and B (cm)

Shear rate and shear stress

Well Area Operations

The concept of viscosity was introduced by Newton: It is a measure of the resistance of

Viscosity (µ) = shear stress (τ) / shear rate (y) = τ / y

Well Area Operations

The result of the previous definitions is:

Well Area Operations

Mechanical friction is caused by:

• Solids shape and size

• Viscosity of the fluid phase

• Presence of polymers carboxymethylcellulose (CMC))

• The ratio oil to water in the inverted emulsions

• The type of emulsifier

Well Area Operations

PV (cP) = θ 600 – θ 300

There are three methods to remove the drilled solids:

1. Mechanical control of the solids;(continuous).

Well Area Operations

Yield Point (YP)

1) The superficial properties of the clayey solids dispersed in the fluid;

2) The volumetric concentration of the solids;

Well Area Operations

• The introduction of soluble contaminants (ions) such as salts, cement, anhydrite or

Well Area Operations

¾ Insufficient deflocculant treatment.

Well Area Operations

Well Area Operations

¾ In case of calcium or magnesium contamination, the ions which cause the

Well Area Operations

YP = θ 300 – (θ 600 – θ 300)