Index

Absolute pressure, 23, 255 Bourdon pressure gage, 259 Constant-pressure specific heat, (0h0T)p, 76
Absolute temperature scale, 25, 131 Brayton cycle, 235 Constant-volume specific heat, (0u0T)v, 76
Absorptivity, 346, 481 British gravitational (BG) units, 21 Continuum hypothesis, 21
Adiabatic process, 42 Buckingham Pi theorem, 297 Control mass, see Closed system
Advection, 344 Buoyancy, 264 Control surface, 15
Air, ideal gas properties of, 533, 552 Buoyancy forces, 264, 411, 439, 442 Control volume:
Airfoil, 335 definition, 15
Air-standard analysis: energy balance for, 99 –103
for gas turbines, 235 Capacity, refrigeration, 210 entropy balance for, 157–159
for internal combustion engines, 225 Carnot corollaries, statements, 129 mass balance for, 96–99
Air-standard cycles: Carnot cycle: momentum balance for, 272
Brayton cycle, 237–243 heat pump, 137 Convection, energy transfer by, 42, 344
Diesel cycle, 230 –234 power, 136–137 Convection heat transfer, 9, 344
Otto cycle, 225–230 refrigeration, 137, 207–209 See also External flow, Free convection,
Angle of attack, 336 Carnot efficiency, 132 Internal flow
Archimedes’ principle, 264 Celsius (Centigrade) temperature scale, 25 boundary layer effects, 406, 424, 438
Area: Center of buoyancy, 264 coefficient, 345, 356
centroid, 262 Center of pressure, 262 typical values, 345
second moment, 262 Centroid, 262 correlations
Area interpretation: Chemical equilibrium, 18 general forms, 409
of pdV, 37–40 Chlorofluorocarbon (CF) compounds, 218 selection rules, 411
of TdS, 149–151, 172 Chord length, 335 correlations, table of
of vdp, 172 Clausius statement of the second law, 125 external flow, 423
Atmospheric pressure, standard, 23 equivalence with Kelvin-Planck statement, free convection, 446
Atomic and molecular weights, table of, 521 125 internal flow, 438
Clausius, inequality of, 141–142 local vs. average, 408
Back work ratio, 189, 237 Closed feedwater heaters, 206 measurement of, 419
Barometer, 255 Closed system: overall, 366, 370, 433, 449
Base unit, 19 definition, 15 forced convection, 345
Basic dimensions, 19, 294 energy balance for, 43– 45 Newton’s law of cooling, 345, 407, 426
Bernoulli equation, 176, 278: entropy balance for, 151–154 problem of, 405
relation to mechanical energy equation, Coefficient of performance: Cooling tower, 186
282 heat pump cycle, 54, 217 Critical constants, tables of, 511
use of, 280 maximum for two reservoirs, 131–133, 208 Critical point, 60
Bessel functions, 395, 511 refrigeration cycles, 53, 210 Critical Reynolds number, 327, 408
BG units, 21 Colebrook formula, 319 Cutoff ratio, 231
Biot number, 388 Compressed liquids, see Liquids Cycle, thermodynamic, 16
Blackbody radiation, 346, 473 Compression ratio, 226 Cylinder, flow past, 331
Blasius formula, 319 Compressor, 108, 207, 234 drag coefficient for, 331
Body force, 251 isentropic efficiency of, 168 Cylinder, heat transfer:
Boiler, 116, 136, 186, 188 Condenser, 111, 117, 136, 162, 186, conduction analysis
Boundary, 14 193–195, 207 steady-state, 369
Boundary layer, hydrodynamic: Conduction, energy transfer by, 42, 342 transient, 386, 395
concept of, 315, 326 Conduction heat transfer, 42, 342, 356, 359 free convection, 444
external flow, 326, 406 See also Fins, One-dimensional, steady- cross flow, heat transfer, 418
in a pipe, 314 state conduction, Thermal resistances,
internal flow, 314, 424 Transient conduction
laminar, 327 boundary conditions, 361, 362 Density, 22
on a circular cylinder, 332 energy balances, 349, 351 Design, engineering, 7
on a flat plate, 326 energy generation, 349, 373 Diesel cycle, 230–234
separation, 332 Fourier’s law, 343, 359 Diffuser, 104,
thickness, 326 heat equation, 361, 392, 395 Dimensional analysis, 293, 296
transition, 327 forms, solutions to, 363, 371, 373 Dimensionally homogeneous, 296
turbulent, 328 heat flux vs. rate, 343 Dimensionless groups, 301
Boundary layer, thermal, 344 initial condition, 361 Dimensionless groups, tables of:
external flow, 406, 410 temperature gradient, 359 heat transfer, 410
free convection, 438 Conservation of energy, 7, 31, 33, 43, 99 fluid mechanics, 301
internal flow, 424 Conservation of mass, 7, 96 Dimensionless product, 294
557
558 Index

Dimensions, 19 Entrance region, internal flow, 314 boundary layer behavior, 414
of common quantities, 294 hydrodynamic, 425 free convection, 440, 442
Domestic hot water supply, 3–4 thermal, 425 Flow energy, 101
Drag coefficient, 326 Entropy: Flow rate:
data, 332 approximation using saturated liquid data, mass, 97
for a cylinder, 331 144 volumetric, 97
for a flat plate, 329 definition, 143 Flow separation, 332
for a sphere, 331 general comments, 143 Flow work, 101
for various objects, 333 of ideal gas, 147–148 Fluid mechanics, 251
Drag, 326, 330 of incompressible substances, 148 Fluid statics, 251
friction, 330 production, 142, 151–154, 157 Fluid, definition of, 269
pressure, 330 transfer, 149, 151, 157 Fourier number, 389
Dry compression, 209 Entropy balance: Fourier’s law, 343
Dynamic pressure, 279 for closed systems, 151–157 Free convection, 345, 438
for control volumes, 157–162 correlations, table of, 446
Effectiveness: Equation of state, ideal gas, 81 cylinder, horizontal, 440
NTU method, 454 Equilibrium: plate, horizontal, 442
regenerator, 244 chemical, 18 vertical plate, 440
Efficiency: definition, 18 sphere, 440
Carnot, 132 mechanical, 18 Free jet, 280
isentropic compressor, 168 phase, 18 Free surface, 260
isentropic nozzle, 167 state, 18 Freon 12, 218
isentropic pump, 168 test for, 18 Friction drag, 330
isentropic turbine, 167 thermal, 18, 24 Friction factor, 318
thermal, 53 thermodynamic, 18 for laminar flow, 318
Elbow losses, 321 Euler number, 301 for smooth pipe, 319
Electric power, 35, 349 Evaporator, 111, 207, 209 for turbulent flow, 319
Electromagnetic spectrum, waves, 469 Exact differential, 34 Froude number, 301
Electronic cooling, 113, 443 Exit loss, 321 Fully developed region, internal flow:
Elevation head, 280 Extensive property, 17 hydrodynamic, 314
Emissive power, 346, 470 External flow, 325 laminar, 315
Emissivity, 346, 356, 479 heat transfer, 345, 412 turbulent, 316
Energy: correlations, table of, 423 thermal, 426
conservation of, 2, 31, 33, 43, 99 cylinder in cross flow, 418
flow, 101 flat plate, 412
sphere, 421 Gage pressure, 255
internal, 40, 176 Gas constant, universal, 79
kinetic, 31, 41 tubes, non-circular, 419
Extended surfaces, see Fins Gas turbine:
mechanical, 175 air-standard analysis, 235
potential, 32, 41 External irreversibility, 127, 195
closed cycle, 235
solar, 186 open to atmosphere, 235
total, of a system, 40–41 F  ma, 19, 272 regenerative, 243–246
transfer, 31, 33–40, 41–42, 99–102, 103 Fahrenheit temperature scale, 25 Gaussian error function, 395, 511
Energy balance (equation): Feedwater heater, 110, 202–206 Grashof number, 411, 439
for closed system, 43–45 Film temperature, 411
for control volumes, 99–103 Fins, 377
internal, for heat transfer, 177, 349 annular type, 378, 383 Head loss in a pipe, 317
mechanical, for fluid mechanics, 175, 282, conduction-convection analysis, 378 Head loss, 176, 283
349 heat rate relations, table of, 380 in entrances, 321
Engineering design, 7 performance parameters, 382 in exits, 321
Engineering model, 7 rectangular cross-section, 378–380 major, 318
Engines, internal combustion, 223–234 thermal resistance of, 383 minor, 318
English units, 20–21 tip conditions, 379 Head, 280
Enthalpy: First law of thermodynamics, 43 elevation, 280
approximation using saturated liquid data, heat transfer, applied to, 348, 351 loss, 283
77–78 First moment of area, 261 pressure, 253, 280
definition, 71 Flat plate, flow past: pump, 283
of ideal gas, 81, 83 boundary layer on, 326 turbine, 283
of incompressible substances, 78–79 drag coefficient, 329 velocity, 280
reference states and reference values, 72 flow past, 326 Heat:
Enthalpy-entropy diagram, 145 Flat plate, heat transfer from: capacity, see Specific heat
Entrance length, 315 correlations, table of, 423, 446 definition, 23, 41
Entrance loss, 321 forced convection, 412 energy transfer by, 31, 41–42, 101, 103
 Index 559

entropy transfer accompanying, 149, of ideal gas, 81, 85 Liquids:

152, 157 of incompressible substances, 78 compressed (subcooled), 63, 77–78, 144
sign convention in thermodynamics, 41, 52 Internal flow, fluid mechanics, 313 incompressible model for, 78–79, 148
transfer modes, 42 Internal flow, heat transfer, 345, 423 saturated, 60
waste, 217 boundary layers, 424 Loss coefficient, 320
Heat engine, see Power cycle convection rate equation, 426, 431 entrance, 312
Heat exchangers, 110, 446 correlations, tables of, 433, 438 exit, 321
concentric tube, 447, 449, 450 energy balances, 427, 428 pipe components, 321
convection rate equation, 448 fully developed conditions, 426 Lumped capacitance method, 386
cross-flow, shell and tube, 447, 453 log mean temperature difference, 432 applications, 390, 421
fluid energy balances, 448 mean temperature, 426
log mean temperature difference, 450 surface thermal conditions
(LMTD) method, 451 constant heat flux, 428 Mach number, 297, 301
special operating conditions, 451 constant temperature, 431 Macroscopic viewpoint, 16
Heat pump, 52, 53–54, 217–218 external fluid, 433 Major loss, 318, 320
air source, 54, 217 Internal irreversibility, 127, 128, 142 Manometer, 256
Carnot cycle, 137 Internally reversible process, 128, 142, piezometer, 256
ground-source, 54, 217 149, 171 U-tube, 256
vapor-compression, 217–218 Interpolation, linear, 65–66 Mass, 17, 19–21
Heat rate, 189, 343 Inviscid fluid, 271 Mass balance, 96–99
Heat recovery steam generator, 217 Irradiation, 346, 471 Mass flow rate, 97–98
Heat transfer: Irreversibilities, 126–127 Mean effective pressure, 224
definition of, 342 Irreversible process, 126–127 Mechanical energy equation (balance),
modes, 8, 9, 342, 354 Isentropic efficiency: 175, 282
thermal engineering and, 6, 8 compressor, 168 Melting, 60, 63
Hybrid electric vehicle, 4–6 nozzle, 167 Method of repeating variables, 298
Hydraulic diameter, 434 pump, 168 Methodology for solving problems, 26, 190
Hydraulically smooth, 319 turbine, 167 Microscopic viewpoint, 16, 41
Hydroelectric, 106 Isentropic process, 149, 162 Minor loss, 318
Hydrostatic force on plane surface, 260 ideal gas relations for, 163–166 Model, 304
Hydrostatic pressure distribution, 253 Isolated system, 15 Model, engineering, 7
Hyperbolic functions, 380, 511 Isothermal process, 24 Modeling laws, 305
Molar basis, 22
Mole, 22
Joule’s experiments, 41, 81 Molecular weight, 22
Ice point, 25
table of values, 521
Ideal gas:
Mollier diagram, 145
enthalpy, 81, 83
Momentum:
entropy, 147–148 Kelvin temperature scale, 24, 131
conservation of, 7
equation of state, 81 Kelvin-Planck statement of the second law,
equation for control volumes, 272
internal energy, 81, 85 125–126
Moody chart, 318, 319
model, definition of, 81 analytical expression of, 126
polytropic process of, 89–91, 164–166, equivalence with Clausius statement, 125
173 Kinematic viscosity, 271
Kinetic energy, 31, 41 Newton’s law of cooling, 345, 426
specific heat relations, 83–85
Kirchoff’s law, 484 Newton’s second law of motion, 19
tables of properties of, 85, 147, 535, 554
for control volumes, 272
Incompressible flow, 271
Newtonian fluid, 271
Incompressible substance, 78–79, 148–149
No-slip condition, 270, 326
Independent property, 59 Laminar boundary layer:
Nozzle, 104–106
Inequality of Clausius, 141–142 description of, 327
isentropic efficiency, 167
Inexact differential, 34 drag coefficient for, 327
Nuclear power, 185
Intensive property, 17 thickness of, 327
Nusselt number, 409, 440
Interactive Heat Transfer (IHT), 11, 352, Laminar flow:
391, 481 fluid mechanics
Interactive Thermodynamics (IT), 11 pipe, 314 One-dimensional flow, 97–98
Internal combustion engines, 223–234 boundary layer, 327 One-dimensional, steady-state conduction, 362
nomenclature, 223–225 past a cylinder, 332 extended surfaces, see fins
Internal energy, 40 heat transfer plane wall, 362
approximation using saturated liquid circular tubes, 433 composite walls, 365
data, 77 flat plate, 412 generation effects, 373
equation, 177 Lift, 326, 335 radial systems, 269, 370
general comments, 40–41 Lift coefficient, 326, 335 composite walls, 370
generation, 177 Linear interpolation, 65–66 generation effects, 377
560 Index

heat equation solutions (table), 371 saturation, 61 wavelength conditions, 470

thermal resistance, circuits, 364, 369 stagnation, 279 spectral, total, 470, 472, 479
Open feedwater heater, 110, 202–206 static, 279 Radiation exchange
Optical pyrometer, 24 vacuum, 255 blackbody, 492
Otto cycle, 225–230 Pressure-temperature diagram, 61, 65 diffuse-gray and large surroundings, 347
Pressure-volume diagram, 36–38, 61, 62 large surroundings, 347, 498
Perfect gas, see Ideal gas Pressure-volume-temperature surface, 61 enclosures, 486
Phase, 17 Problem-solving methodology, 26, 190 two-surface (table), 498
changes, 62–64 Process: three-surface, reradiating surface, 500
diagram, 60 adiabatic, 42 network representations, 493, 495, 497
equilibrium, 18 definition, 16 radiation shields, 498
Pi terms, 297 internally reversible, 128, 142, 149, 171 resistances, surface and space, 493, 496
Pi theorem, 297 irreversible, 126–127 view factor, 489
Piezometer tube, 256 isentropic, 149, 162–166 Radiosity, 471, 489
Pipe: polytropic, 38, 89–91, 164–166, 173 Rankine cycle, 187–197
fittings, 321 quasiequilibrium (quasistatic), 18, 37, Rankine temperature scale, 25, 133
flow in, 314 59, 128 Rate equations, heat transfer, 356
fully developed flow in, 315 reversible, 126, 128 conduction, 343, 359
head loss, 317 throttling, 115 convection, 345
hydraulically smooth, 319 Property: radiation, 346
laminar flow in, 315 critical, 60, 521 Rayleigh number, 411, 439
relative roughness, 318 definition, 16 Recuperator, 110
transitional flow in, 314 extensive, 17 Reference state, 72, 85, 143
turbulent flow in, 316 independent, 59 Reflectivity, 482
velocity profile, 315, 317 intensive, 16 Refrigerant 12, 218
Pipe flow examples, 322 test for, 17 Refrigeration, 53, 206
Pipe system, 313 thermometric, 24 capacity, 210
Pitot-static tube, 280 Prototype, 305 Carnot cycle, 137, 207–209
Planck’s law, 474 Pump, 108, 116, 136, 172, 186, 188, ton of, 210
Plane wall systems, heat transfer: 190, 283 vapor-compression, 207–216
composite walls, 365 isentropic efficiency, 168 Regeneration:
energy generation effects, 373 Pump head, 283 in gas turbines, 243–246
steady-state conduction, 362 Pure substance, 18 in vapor power plants, 202–206
transient conduction, 386, 392 Pyrometer, optical, 24 Regenerator, 243–246
Planform area, 335 effectiveness, 244
Poiseuille’s law, 316 Reheat in vapor power plants, 199
Quality, definition, 63
Polytropic process, 38, 173 Relative roughness, 318
Quasiequilibrium (quasistatic) process, 18,
of an ideal gas, 89–91, 164–166, 173 pipe, 318
37, 59, 128
Potential energy, 32, 41 flat plate, 328
Power, 35 Repeating variables, 298
electrical, 36 Radial systems, heat transfer Reservoir, thermal, 125
transmitted by a shaft, 35 composite systems, 370 Resistance temperature detector, 24
Power cycle, 52 energy generation effects, 377 Reversible process, 126, 128
Power-law velocity profile, 317 steady-state conduction, 369 internally reversible, 128, 142, 149, 171
Prandtl number, 410, 413, 425 transient conduction, 386, 395 Reynolds number, 297, 301, 314, 410, 424
Prediction equation, 305 Radiation, 9, 345, 468 critical (transition), 327, 408
Pressure drag, 330 See also Radiation exchange entry length, 425
Pressure force, 260 band emission fraction, 476 Roughness, 318
Pressure gradient, 252 blackbody properties, 473
Pressure head, 253, 280 heat transfer coefficient, 347, 391 Saturated liquid, 60
Pressure transducer, 260 properties, 346, 476, 484 Saturated vapor, 60
Pressure: interrelationships, 483 Saturation pressure, 61
absolute, 23, 255 typical values, 480 Saturation temperature, 61
atmospheric, standard, 23 quantities and processes, 470 Second law of thermodynamics:
critical, 60, 521 definitions (table), 472 Clausius statement, 125
definition, 22 surface characteristics general remarks, 123–125
dynamic, 279 diffuse, 470 Kelvin-Planck statement, 125
gage, 255 diffuse-gray, 484 Second moment of area, 262
hydrostatic, 279 spectrally selective, 479, 484 Semitransparent media, 481
mean effective, 224 surface energy balances, 471, 472, 483 Separation, boundary layer, 332
measurement of, 279 surroundings, 347 Shear stress, 271
 Index 561

SI units, 19–20 Surroundings, 14 Transient conduction, 385

Sign convention in thermodynamics: System: lumped capacitance method, 386
for cycles, 52, 87, 226, 236 boundary, 14 Heisler, Grober charts, 393
for heat, 41 closed, 15 plane wall, 391
for work, 34 definition, 14 radial systems, 395
Similarity requirement, 305 isolated, 15 series solution, 392, 395
Similitude, 304 open (control volume), 15 semi-infinite media, 395
Simple compressible system, 59 simple compressible, 59 Transmissivity, 483
Solar radiation, 434, 482, 487 Transition:
Specific gravity, 257 T dS equations, 146 in a pipe, 316
Specific heat: Temperature: on a flat plate, 327
constant-pressure, (0h0T )p, 76 absolute, 25, 131 Transitional flow:
constant-volume, (0u0T )v, 76 critical, 60, 521 pipe, 314
of ideal gases, 83–85, 534, 553 equality of, 23 on a flat plate, 327
of monatomic ideal gases, 85 Kelvin scale of, 24, 131 Triple point, 25, 60, 61
relations, 83 saturation, 61 Tubes, heat transfer:
of solids and liquids, 78, 513, 514–520 sensors, 24 cross flow, 418
Specific heat ratio, 84 thermodynamic scale of, 25 free convection, 444
Specific volume, 21 triple point, 25, 60, 61 laminar flow in, 435
approximation using saturated liquid various scales of, 24–25 turbulent flow in, 435
data, 77 Temperature distributions, heat transfer noncircular, 433, 436
critical, 60 steady-state, 363, 369, 370, 373 Turbine head, 283
molar, 22 transient, 386, 389, 395 Turbine, 106, 117, 186, 235, 283
Sphere, drag coefficient, 331 Temperature-entropy diagram, 145 isentropic efficiency, 167
Sphere, heat transfer from Temperature-specific volume diagram, 62 Turbulence, heat transfer:
external flow, 421 Thermal conductivity, 343 effects in boundary layers, 414, 425
free convection, 444 typical values (figure), 360 free convection, 439
steady-state conduction, 370 Thermal diffusivity, 361 Turbulent boundary layer:
transient conduction, 386, 395 Thermal efficiency, 53 cylinder, 332
Stagnation point, 279 of a Carnot cycle, 132 flat plate, 328
Stagnation pressure, 279 Thermal equilibrium, 18, 24 Turbulent flow, fluid mechanics:
measurement of, 279 Thermal radiation, energy transfer by, characteristics of, 316
Stall, 336 42, 345 in a pipe, 316
State: Thermal reservoir, 125 on a flat plate, 328
critical, 60 Thermal resistance Turbulent flow, heat transfer:
definition, 16 circuits, 364, 369, 370 circular tubes, 435
equilibrium, 18 conduction (table), 371 flat plate, 413
reference, 72, 85, 143 contact, 366 transition criteria, 414
steady, 16, 48, 98, 102–117, 158–162 convection, 364, 371
triple, 25, 61 fin, 382 Units, 19, 294
State principle, 59 Thermal time constant, 387 British Gravitational (BG), 21
Static fluid, pressure variation in, 252 Thermistor, 24 English, 20–21
Static pressure, 279 Thermodynamics: SI, 19–20
measurement of, 279 first law of, 43 Universal gas constant, 79
Statistical thermodynamics, 16, 41 general comments, 14 Upstream velocity, 325
Steady flow, 272 second law of, 123–126 U-tube manometer, 256
Steady state, 16, 48, 98, 102–117, 158–162 statistical, 16, 41
Steam generator, 198 Thermodynamic tables, 522–556 Vacuum pressure, 255
Steam point, 25 Thermometer, 24 Vacuum, 255
Steam tables, 64, 71, 144, 522–528, Thermometric property, 24 Valve losses, 321
538–547 Thermophysical (transport) properties, 9, 356, Vapor, saturated, 60
Stefan-Boltzmann law, 346, 476 360, 511 Vapor power cycle, 117, 136, 186
Streamlined body, 332 of common materials, 516 Vapor-compression refrigeration, 207–216
Streamline, 278 of technical materials, 514 Vaporization, 60, 62–64
Streamlining, 332 of gases, 518 Velocity head, 280
Subcooled liquids, see Liquids of liquids, 519 Velocity profile:
Sublimation, 60 of saturated water, 520 in a boundary layer, 326
Superheat, 198 Throttling calorimeter, 115–116 in a pipe (laminar), 315
Superheated vapor, 64 Throttling process, 115 in a pipe ( turbulent), 317
Surface force, 251 Ton of refrigeration, 210 View factor (radiation exchange), 489
Surface roughness, 318 Transient analysis of control volumes, 102 reciprocity relation, 489
562 Index

summation rule, 490 Wake, 332 expansion or compression, 36–40

tables and graphs of, 490, 491 Water: flow work, 101
Viscosity, 270 ideal gas properties of, 535, 554 in mechanics, definition of, 32
kinematic, 271 steam tables, 64, 71, 144, 522–528, in quasiequilibrium processes, 37
Volume: 538–547 sign convention for, 34
critical specific, 60 transport properties, 520 thermodynamic definition of, 33
specific, 21 Wet compression, 209 transmitted by a shaft, 35
Volumetric energy generation, 349, 373 Wholly turbulent, 318 Working fluid, 218
Volumetric flow rate, 98 Wien’s displacement law, 475
Volumetric heat capacity, 361 Wing loading, 335
Volumetric thermal expansion coefficient, Work:
411, 440 electrical, 36
Vortex tube, 160–162 energy transfer by, 31, 32, 33–40, 100–101