Accepted Manuscript

Solar and wind energy: Challenges and solutions in desert regions

Ali Al-Dousari, Waleed Al-Nassar, Ali Al-Hemoud, Abeer Alsaleh, Ashraf Ramadan,
Noor Al-Dousari, Modi Ahmed

PII: S0360-5442(19)30600-0
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2019.03.180
Reference: EGY 15016

To appear in: Energy

Received Date: 9 December 2018

Revised Date: 22 February 2019
Accepted Date: 29 March 2019

Please cite this article as: Al-Dousari A, Al-Nassar W, Al-Hemoud A, Alsaleh A, Ramadan A, Al-Dousari
N, Ahmed M, Solar and wind energy: Challenges and solutions in desert regions, Energy (2019), doi:
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2019.03.180.

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 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

Solar and wind Energy: Challenges and solutions in desert regions

Ali Al-Dousari*1, Waleed Al-Nassar2, Ali Al-Hemoud1, Abeer Alsaleh1, Ashraf Ramadan1, Noor
Al-Dousari1 and Modi Ahmed1
1
Kuwait Institute for Scientific Research (KISR), Environmental and Life Sciences Research
Center (ELSRC), 2Energy Research Center (ERC)

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*e-mail: adousari@kisr.edu.kw

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Abstract

In desert regions, several environmental challenges have the potential to reduce solar energy

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production. These are the formation of thinly crusted mud and/or carbonates coatings caused
from deposited dust aerosols during humid conditions and other weather conditions. These

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challenges that profoundly affect photovoltaic panel surfaces as well as wind turbines were
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delineated to conclude the potential feasibility to establish solar and/or wind energy systems in
Kuwait. The study concluded that photovoltaic (PV) cells are not the most suitable energy source
for Kuwait due to the above mentioned environmental challenges; therefore, alternative
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renewable energy sources are considered more feasible. After one year of operation at solar units
and wind farms in Kuwait, the results clearly show that wind energy records energy production
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numbers that exceed the industry average. This was associated with high capacity factors
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throughout the year, resulting in an annual power production that is 2.3 times higher than that of
PV; powering 450 homes compared to 199 homes for PV. West of the state of Kuwait and the
Bubiyan Island are the recommended potential sites for wind farm establishment.
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Keywords: Aerosol, aeolian, photovoltaic; Solar; wind; energy; dust; desert; Kuwait.

Introduction
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Worldwide, the use of solar and wind energy is expected to increase more than any other energy
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source of the middle of this century [1]. Solar and wind energy is abundant, environmentally
clean, quiet and a renewable source of energy [2]. Therefore, solar and wind energy as a
renewable energy source is conquering the peak among different alternative energy sources and
being progressively adapted in numerous applications [3]. Many environmental problems in
desert regions affect the solar photovoltaic panel such as shadow, air pollution and dust [4] [5].
Dust, solar radiation and relative humidity have a negative effect on various photovoltaic

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technologies in the Middle East [6] [7] the Taklimakan [7] and the Gobi [8] desert regions. The
awareness about these environmental challenges at a certain geographical location is of vital
importance for setting up any clean energy systems and for estimation of their output and
efficiencies [10]. Also, the knowledge of these challenges is a requirement for designing and
modeling of all photovoltaic and wind systems [11] and valuable for atmospheric energy

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balance, climatology and air quality studies [12] [13]. These challenges being common in nature,
thus passive and active solutions are likely to be applicable in desert regions subject to their

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specific conditions [14]. The issues of social community engagement and sustainable
development in the context of solar energy development in the region are debated along with the

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necessity for improvement of the human capital required to address alternative solar energy
challenges from a social and technical standpoint [15]. Moreover, challenges of wind energy

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potential require careful assessment of wind characteristics such as mean wind speed and its
frequency distribution [16].
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The Gulf Cooperation Countries (GCC: Kuwait, Qatar, Bahrain, Saudi Arabia, Emirates and
Oman) have a high risk of electricity shortage and load peak, in addition to the burning up of
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hydrocarbon resources to meet the increasing demand for energy [17] [18]. Launching
alternative and environmentally clean energy systems in Kuwait will lead to more efficient
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power supply, a modern electrical network, more job opportunities, cleaner environment, and
better global image [19]. Among the different renewable energy alternatives, solar power
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generation imposes itself as the dominant practice in the GCC countries (Bou-Rabee et al.,
2017). Kuwait average solar intake is around 9-11 hr d-1 with average diurnal solar insolation
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that can reach more than 7.0 kWh m-2 [20]. On the other hand, aeolian processes is common in
terrestrial [21] and marine [22] [23] [24] environment within Kuwait and surrounding region.
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The mean total annual dusty days in Kuwait is 255 days [25] which could act as a challenge for
solar power generation in the region. There are more dusty days in the northern Arabian Gulf
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including Kuwait in comparison to the southern portion [26] [26] [28]. Therefore, this will place
Kuwait as an ideal location to investigate the considerable effect of dust and weather challenges
on solar and wind energy generation. While most of the researchers in the region investigated the
potential preferred areas to establish solar energy units via solar radiation availability;
environmental challenges such as dust in the desert region affecting the efficiency of solar panels
have not been previously investigated. Therefore, the aim of this study is to determine the

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potential feasibility of whether to establish solar and/or wind energy systems in Kuwait using a
new approach by delineating depositional dust (rates, carbonates percentages and mud content)
and meteorological conditions (solar radiation, wind speed and direction, and humidity) that play
a major role as environmental challenges to wind and solar energy generation in desert areas.

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Physiographic setting of the study area

Kuwait is considered a good regional example for a desert ecosystem that accordingly, there are

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some environmental challenges facing solar energy production for the following reasons:
1. Experienced one of the highest dust deposition rates as a desert area region [29]

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2. Contains a wide variation range of physical and chemical dust properties [30],
3. Presents all metrological challenges (solar radiation and humidity instabilities) for solar
energy production.

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The Shagaya area, west of Kuwait, was selected due to that the fact that it is 280 meters
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above sea level, thus causing the airstream passing over the location to be compressed. Hence,
the site is subjected year-round to higher wind velocities than the urban areas of Kuwait [31].
The study area is a hot and windy desert environment. Kuwait climatic aridity is revealed by
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extreme diurnal and monthly variation in air temperature. Statistical summary of meteorological
data for the period 1958 to 2016 indicated that the mean temperature in summer (June to
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October) was 37.4°C. The mean evaporation rate and air humidity in Kuwait were 6,060 mm/yr
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and 55.3%, respectively. Rainfall in Kuwait can be described as low and variable with 113.8 mm
as mean annual average (2010-2016). The northwesterly wind is the dominant wind and
represents approximately 60% of the total wind direction in Kuwait. Winds from other directions
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are less frequent, less intense and of shorter duration. The average wind velocity is 4.8 m·s-1
(Figure 1).
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Figure 1. Location map for weather (2003-2016) and dust (2009-2011) monitoring stations with
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average wind rose for Kuwait.

Methodology
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Weather data and depositional dust rates

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Average solar radiation and humidity data (2010-2016) were obtained from 9 weather
stations in Kuwait. The solar radiation was measured using Li-COR pyranometer installed at 10
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meter height in all weather stations.

Deposited dust rates were monitored from August 2009 to July 2011 from 47 site locations
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all over the State of Kuwait using dust traps following the design by Al-Awadhi [32] modified
from Reheis [33] dust trap. The trap is with 20 cm radius and 240 cm height from ground level
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containing two layers of marbles was used in this study (Figure 2). The fallen dust was collected
monthly from all traps. Samples were obtained from dust traps by carefully washing the
containers and marbles with distilled water into plastic bottles. In the laboratory, the samples
were slowly dried at about 60°C in large evaporating dishes or beakers and then weighted.

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Figure 2. The dust trap photo (left photo) and design diagram (right sketches).

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Two renewable energy power plants of 10MW capacity each, one is photovoltaic (PV) and
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the other is wind located in Shagaya area, west of Kuwait were compared (Figure 3 and table 1).
Five wind turbines (2 MW for each) were established near the solar energy unit in the Shagaya
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Area. The wind and PV farms were analyzed from an economic point of view concerning their
Levelized Cost of Electricity (LCOE). The monthly calculated capacity factor was obtained for
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about year operation (June 2017 to July of 2018). Annual production of both plants was
measured; CAPEX (Capital Expenditure) and OPEX (operation expenditure) were taken into
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consideration throughout the life of the plants along with Investment cots. LCOE, the net present
value method (NPV) and rate of return (ROR) were calculated as follows, respectively:
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n
Ct
∑ (1 + i) t
LCOE = t =0
n (1)
Et
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∑
t =0 (1 + i )
t
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Where: Ct represents the project costs incurred in year t; Et represents the power generation in
year t; i represents the economic discount rate; and n represents the number of years in the period
under consideration.
n
CF1 CF2 CFt CFt
NPV = C0 = − I 0 + + + ... + = − I + ∑ (2)
1 + i (1 + i ) (1 + i ) t =1 (1 + i )
2 t 0 t

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Where, I0 represents Investment in time t=0, CFt represents cash out - flow in t, t represents
period (year), 0 ≤ t ≤ n and i represents discount rate.

FV = PV (1 + i ) t (3)
Where, FV represents future value of money, PV represents the present value of money, t

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represents period (year), 0 ≤ t ≤ n and i represents discount rate and effectively in this case ROR.

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Figure 3. Cleaned photovoltaic cells compared to unclean units from deposited dust at the
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Kuwait Institute for Scientific Research (KISR).

Table 1. The WTG and PV Manufacturer Specifications.

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WIND TURBINES (WTG)

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Manufacturer Gamesa
Type G97
Capacity 2000 kW
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Rotor diameter 87 m
Power Production 6,828,719 kWh/year
Capacity factor 39 %
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Full load hours 3'412 h/year

Operating hours 7'348 h/year
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PV PLANT (PV)
Manufacturer SMA
Type Sunny Central 2200
Capacity 10000 kW
Power Production 18,847,406 kWh/year
Capacity factor 21.5 %
Equivalent Production hours 1,692

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Mud and carbonates content in dust

Dust fallout particle size percentages were determined using sieve mesh (63 micrometers) to
separate mud from sand for all collected samples during four months (February, May, August
and November 2010). Also, the whole components of the dust samples collected during March,

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June, September and December were softly milled and analyzed using Philips PW-1830 X-ray
diffraction (XRD) for semi-quantitative analysis for carbonates (mainly calcite and dolomite).

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Mapping

These methods will allow establishing a decent delineation to dust fallout depositional rates,

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carbonate and mud content in the dust, humidity, wind and solar radiation in Kuwait. The
collected data for dust fallout rates, carbonates and mud percentages, humidity, wind and solar
radiations was stored as GIS layers using the ArcGIS S/W software, and geostatistical

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interpolator (Simple IDW method) was conducted to produce the annual average distribution
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maps.

Results and Discussion

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The accumulated dust

The annual dust accumulation ranges are 10-1065 t km-2 (average is 216 t km-2) in 2009-2010
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and 149-576 t km-2 (average is 339 t km-2) in 2010-2011 (Figure 4). The amount of deposited
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dust in Kuwait represents one of the highest rates in the world (Table 2). The dust risk maps
were developed based on the average annual dust fallout for two years 2009-2010 (Fig. 5a) and
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2010-2011(Fig. 5b). These maps show significant trends in dust accumulation over the two
monitoring years. There were little variations in average dust quantities between the two years
2009/2010 and 2010/2011. The maps identify specific areas with high (more than 350 t km-2)
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and low dust accumulations in Kuwait in the two monitoring years, but the zones with high dust
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accumulation seemed to extend to cover more places in 2010-2011 compared to 2009-2010. The
effect of dust on solar or wind energy production were regionally addressed by multiple authors
[34][35][36][37][38][39] and globally [14][40][1]. Although renewable energy has potential for
development in the regional scale in Iraq [41] and Iran [42] due to environmental, social and
economic advantages, it faces some environmental challenges including dust.

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Figure 4. The average monthly deposited dust (t km-2) from the 47 sampling site in Kuwait
(September 2009- August 2011).
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Table 2. The average annual deposited in Kuwait and surrounding regions.

Annual dust (t km2)

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Location Political region Reference

Kuwait Kuwait Present study 216-339
Khur Al-Zubir Iraq [43] 75.92
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Um Qasir Iraq [43] 193.47

Riyadh Saudi Arabia [44] 392
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Al Fahal Oman [45] 89

Crete Greece [46] 10-100
Libya Libya [47] 155
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Sidi Ifni Morocco [48] 145

Tan Tan Morocco [48] 175
Dakhla Mauritania [48] 191
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Boujdour Western Sahara [49] 219

A long Niger River Mali [50] 913-10446
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Diarnena Chad [51] 142

California U.S.A [52] 6.8-33.9
Xilingele Mongolia [53] 292
Shapotou China [54] 372
Tokyo Japan [55] 3.5
Namoi valley Australia [56] 16.9-58.2

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Figure 5. Maps for annual deposited dust in 2009-2010 (a) and 2010-2011 (b), average mud and
carbonate percentages within dust (c, d), and average solar radiation and humidity (e,
f).

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Dust particles can cause disruptions to economic systems, particularly the increase of off-site
costs. Deposited dust on electrical components can increase cleaning cost which is deemed
necessary to ensure minimization of power leakage and efficient operation [57]. Dust can have a
detrimental effect on the operating potential of PV plants [58]. Dust deposits on PV cells,
combined with lack of water sources in the deserts to clean solar-power units will add the

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variable cost of cleaning services. Dust was shown to degrade the energy delivery, which in turn
leads to a reduction in power output of PV systems by 15% to 30% [59]. Power reduction can

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even reach 100% during dust concentration by water-soluble salts during high humidity. The
efficiency of the PV is a major factor impacting the cost of energy generation. LCOE declines

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exponentially as the efficiency of the PV units is the reduced [60]. Fortunately, the effect of dust
on wind turbines in Shagaya was taken into consideration during the design stage of the wind

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farm. The provider of the turbines, GAMESA, offered a dust package that reduces and combats
dust. The package includes brushes on moving components and tighter, smaller clearance seals.
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The wind farm has been operating for more than one year, and dust has not affected the wind
turbine performance or caused any downtime, the only concern is the dust accumulation inside
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the nacelle during severe sand storms, which is treated with more frequent housekeeping.

The mud content

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The mud size fractions are defined as all particles that are less than 0.063 mm (4 phi) in size.
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Mud contains two major size fractions; these are silt and clay. It was observed that northern
Kuwait contains more mud percentages compared to the south. There were little variations in
mud percentages in fallen dust between all months, but, February showed the lowest mud
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percentages when compared to other months, while August and November showed the highest
percentages. The average annual percentages of mud within the accumulated dust range from 10-
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95%, with an average of 63% (Fig. 5c). Globally, the highest mud percentages (≥ 85%) within
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dust are found regionally in Um Qasir-Iraq and Manamah-Bahrain, and globally in Cairo-Egypt,
Bald Hill-Australia and Cartagena-Colombia.

The carbonates content

Quartz and carbonates form the major component of dust fallout mineralogy (Table 3). There
were a little variation average carbonates percentages in dust between all months in Kuwait, but,
the percentages vary widely from one site to another. The fallen dust in Kuwait contains higher

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percentages of carbonates by up to 58% during winter seasons (October-April). Carbonates as a

major component of dust fallout mineralogy are good indicators of low aeolian activity in the
area during winter and spring time. On the other hand, the low carbonates percentages in dust are
good indicators of high aeolian activity during summer (May-September). In September, large
areas of Kuwait experience lower percentages of carbonates. The wind corridor, western and

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northwestern areas show the lowest percentages down to 5% of the total weight of dust samples.
The average annual percentages of carbonates within accumulated dust range from 4 to 36.8%

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with an average of 27.6% (Fig. 5d). The highest carbonates percentages are around coastal areas
and in the northeastern parts of Kuwait. Kuwait dust contains nearly similar amounts of

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carbonates found in close regions such as Bahrain and Dubai but varies a lot from other regional
areas such as Um Qasir and Al-Ahwar-Iraq located at the northeastern side of Kuwait (Table 3).

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This is attributed to the dust storm trajectories that come from Iraq and Iran which are
dominantly rich in carbonates and mud [61].
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Table 3. Average particle size and mineralogical percentages of dust fallout in Kuwait compared
to global dust samples.
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Sector Source Size particles % Minerals %

Sand Mud Quartz Carbonates Feldspars Clay Others
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Kuwait Present study 37 63 38 45 10 2 5

Ahwar-Iraq [62] 3 97 13 80 8 0 0
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Manamah-
12 87 32 41 10 3 15
Bahrain [29]
Walameen-south
40 61 62 13 24 1 0
Saudi [29]
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Ain-Emirates [29] 97 4 26 52 20 1 0
Dubai-Emirates [29] 17 82 21 45 6 0 27
Amman-Jordan [63] 30 70 21 68 4 0 7
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Tripoli-Libya [47] 20 81 64 27 5 4 0
Biougra-Morocco [49] 12 88 46 46 8 1 0
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Cartagena-
10 90 66 0 33 0 1
Colombia [29]
Cairo-Egypt [29] 10 90 51 34 15 0 0
Bald Hill-
9 90 57 0 21 14 7
Australia [56]
Average 25 75 41 38 14 2 5
Maximum 97 97 66 80 33 14 27
Minimum 3 4 13 0 4 0 0

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The solar radiation

The results of the average annual solar radiations on the horizontal surfaces at Kuwait are
geographically represented (Fig. 5e). The average annual solar radiation ranges from 223Wm-2 to
246 W m-2. The north and northwestern areas demonstrate higher solar radiation in comparison

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to other areas in Kuwait.

The average humidity

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Similar to solar radiation, these areas show lower humidity percentages, while coastal areas
show higher percentages (Fig. 5f). The mud and/or carbonates combined with humidity cause the

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formation of thin crust coating layer that is hard to clean. Multiple cleaning can cause scratch
and damage to the solar cells.

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Solar Photovoltaic (PV) and Wind Energy
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After one year of operation at the Shagaya solar and wind farm in Kuwait, it was shown that
wind energy in that specified location, southwestern and west of Kuwait, records energy
production numbers that far exceed the industry average. This was clearly associated with the
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high capacity factors throughout the year (Figure 6). The Shagaya was selected as the southern
parts is heavily occupied by the oil industry and is generally restricted. Also, the selection was
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based on the meteorological mast installed in Shagaya Wind Farm, average wind speed is around
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7.8 m/s (Table 4). In addition, an offshore study done by Al-Nassar and Neelamani [31]indicates
that the southern part of the Bubiyan Island was found to be suitable to establish a wind farm
with wind power density of more than 500 Watt/m2 during the summer months.
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Based on the obtained results during the first year of operation analysed for both the Wind
and the PV farms are of the same capacity, both rated at 10 MW. Table 5 shows renewable
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maximum net generating power capacity for the GCC and nearby countries. Therefore, the wind
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farm annual production is 2.3 times higher than that of the PV farm. The capacity factor of wind,
however, was found to be 40% compared to 22% for that of PV.

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Figure 6. The wind turbines at the Shagaya area west of Kuwait (left) and wind power density

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distribution map over Kuwait at 30 m height in W/m2 (right).
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Table 4. Average monthly wind speed and the monthly (gross) production in Shagaya wind farm
during the first year of operation.
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Avg. wind speed Production

Month-year
(m/s) (kWh)
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Aug-17 8.0 4,179,365

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Sep-17 6.9 3,822,571

Oct-17 7.2 3,174,254
Nov-17 6.7 2,770,897
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Dec-17 7.8 3,948,152

Jan-18 7.3 3,330,362
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Feb-18 7.0 2,876,305

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Mar-18 7.3 2,692,287

Apr-18 7.2 2,624,838
May-18 6.3 2,506,604
Jun-18 10.2 5,192,837
Jul-18 11.1 5,471,524

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Table 5. Energy capacity (MW) for the GCC and selected neighboring countries [64]
Country PV Energy (MW) Wind Energy (MW)
2014 2015 2016 2017 2014 2015 2016
Kuwait 2 3 31 31 0 0 18
Bahrain 5 5 5 5 1 1 1

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Qatar 4 4 5 5 - - -
Emirates 34 35 42 255 - - -

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Saudi 24 74 74 89 6 6 6
Oman 1 2 2 8 - - -

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Iran 9 9 43 111 198 242 264
Iraq 37 37 37 37 - - -

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Yemen 5 60 300
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The current Shagaya wind farm powers 450 houses, at the current annual household
consumption of 94,500 kW/h/yr compared to 199 homes for PV. As for potential power
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producing companies, the Shagaya wind energy power plant provides investors with 8.5 % rate
of return with 5.36 year payback period. A comparison between the LCOE of wind energy
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generation with the LCOE of photovoltaic power plants is essential. For the Shagaya wind
energy power plant, Simplified LCOE obtained for Shagaya wind farm is 0.015 KWD/kWh,
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which represents an LCOE of 0.046 USD/kWh, compared to 0.027 KWD/kWh, equivalent to

0.082 USD/kWh for solar PV. Thus, the LCOE value for wind energy is 44% lower than that of
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PV. It can be noted from the comparison between the LCOE of different renewable energy
technologies worldwide that the simplified LCOE of wind energy is approximately 50% lower
than the expected LCOE values for solar photovoltaic PV plants (Figure 7).
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The monthly calculated capacity factor was obtained during the first year of operation. June
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and July of 2018 are near record numbers ever recorded worldwide by industry standards, 68%-
70% (Figure 8). Based on the capacity factor evolution observed, the Capacity Factor for the
Shagaya wind farm is expected to be above 40%. Note that the average standard capacity factor
for on-shore wind farms is 30%. Comparing the first month of operation, July of last year (2017)
with July of this year (2018), there is a great difference in performance such that the first six

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months were dedicated to adjust and improve the wind farm performance. Therefore, availability
was low (below the contractual, 95%) during the first few months (Figure 9).

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Figure 7. Comparison of LCOE according to the technology implemented. Renewable power

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generation costs in 2017 [64].

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80% 70%
68%
70%
60% 50%
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50% 41%
39% 39% 33%
21% 33% 35% 33% 30%
40% 27%
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30%
20%
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10%
0%
Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul

WTG1 WTG2 WTG3 WTG4 WTG5 Average

Figure 8. Monthly Capacity Factor for the five wind turbines in the Shagaya site.

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120%

100%

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80%

60%

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40%

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20%

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0%
Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul
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Monthly 56% 87% 94% 98% 97% 99% 98% 98% 99% 99% 99% 99% 99%

Figure 9. Wind farm monthly average availability.

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The economic results of the wind project were based on the reference fuel price scenario of
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Kuwait ministry of electricity and water. An overview of the economic results of the wind and
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PV projects is given in Table 6. Due to the relatively low CAPEX and OPEX of the wind project
and the relatively high energy generation, the Net Present Value (NPV) is positive, which means
that the investment is profitable for the Kuwaiti economy. This can also be noted in the ROR,
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which is 8.5%, and thus higher than the basic discount rate of 7.0%.
The Shagaya was found to be 42.59 GWh gross total estimated as annual power production, 21%
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higher than expected (contractual 31.160 GWh). As for the PV (Table 6), expected annual
energy production is estimated to be 18.85 GWh gross total power. The capacity factor of wind,
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however, was found to be 40% higher, compared to 22% for that of PV. As for the OPEX value
per year, this number was the total value of the 25 years calculated taking into consideration the
time value of money including inflation, interest and discount rates, averaged out equally per
year over the life of the plant.

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Table 6. Economic results of the Shagaya Wind and PV Farms.

Wind Farm PV Plant
Generation 42,590,000 KWh 18,850,000 KWh
CAPEX 5,595,000 KD 5,488,365 KD
OPEX /Year 205,232 KD 145,991 KD

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LCOE 0.0152 KD/kWh 0.0269 KD/kWh
15.2 fils/kWh 26.9 fils/kWh
4.62 USD/MWh 8.15 USD/MWh

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Discount 7%
Years 25

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Exchange 3.2988

CAPEX 5,595,000 KD 4,613,856 KD

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OPEX
Year 1 62,102 145,991
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Year 2 62,102 145,991
Year 3 268,281 145,991
Year 4 268,281 145,991
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Year 5 268,281 145,991

Year 6 268,281 145,991
Year 7 268,281 145,991
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Year 8 268,281 145,991

Year 9 268,281 145,991
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Year 10 268,281 145,991

Year 11 299,233 145,991
Year 12 299,233 145,991
Year 13 299,233 145,991
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Year 14 299,233 145,991

Year 15 299,233 145,991
Year 16 142,628 145,991
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Year 17 142,628 145,991

Year 18 142,628 145,991
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Year 19 142,628 145,991

Year 20 142,628 145,991
Year 21 142,628 145,991
Year 22 142,628 145,991
Year 23 142,628 145,991
Year 24 142,628 145,991
Year 25 142,628 145,991

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Conclusions

Kuwait offers optimum conditions for the development of solar and wind energy solutions to
enhance energy production. The government recently suggested a plan for the development of
solar energy with a more ambitious vision to act a solar and wind energy exporter. On the other

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hand, the establishment of solar energy units in Kuwait should take in consideration important
environmental challenges, which include solar radiation, humidity, fallen dust, and mud and
carbonates in the dust. This study has positively pinpointed the environmental challenges that

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can affect the performance of solar PV technologies in desert regions. The effect of dust
(depositional rates, carbonates and mud content), humidity and solar radiation on the power

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efficiency of solar panels was observed. Therefore, local and regional projects are in progress for
stabilization of dust source areas using mechanical methods and massive plantations with native

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plants and green belts in local and regional scales [65]. Native plants and green belts have
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contributed to the reduction in the annual amounts of mobile sand by 94% and 95.3%, and dust
by 64.5% and 68.4%, respectively [65]. Also, alternative renewable energy sources would be
more feasible. After one year of operation at the Shagaya Wind Farm, west of Kuwait, it was
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clearly shown that wind energy in this location registered record energy production numbers far
exceeding the industry average. This was clearly associated with the high capacity factors
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throughout the year. Southwestern, western sides of the state of Kuwait and southern Bubiyan
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Island are the potential sites for wind farm establishment.

Acknowledgments: This project was sponsored by Kuwait Foundation for the Advancement of
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Science (KFAS) and the Kuwait Institute for Scientific Research (KISR) grant number
(2008,1401,01). Acknowledgments extended to Mr. Ashok Kuwait for their support with
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meteorological data from Kuwait National Meteorological Network at KISR.

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Highlights

• The photovoltaic (PV) cells are not the most suitable energy source for Kuwait due to
certain environmental challenges
• The solar power efficiency was highly affected by environmental challenges.
• The wind energy production records exceed the industry average.

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• The potential sites for wind farm establishment were identified.

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