2018 Hands-On Relay School

In-Service Testing
Bryan Focht
Paul Luther

March 12 – 16, 2018

Washington State University
Pullman, Washington
 Outline
• Philosophy of • Common Problems &
In-Service Testing Troubleshooting

• Polarity & Metering • Precautions

Conventions • Electromechanical Relays
• Verifying Currents

• Verifying Voltages
 Philosophy of In-Service Testing
• Testing Methods Prior to Energization
• Following Energization of New Equipment
– Final step of commissioning testing
– Not a substitute for CT / PT circuit testing
• Routine Preventative Maintenance
– Verify CTs, PTs and associated circuitry are healthy
– NERC PRC-005 mandates specific verifications of
BES (Bulk Electric System) components
• Alarming on CT & PT Failure
• Microprocessor vs. Electromechanical
 Testing Methods Prior to Energization
Primary Current Injection
– Inject current through circuit breakers or power transformers & verify
resulting secondary values
– Verifies CT polarity, ratio, and secondary circuit
– Verifying polarity requires a common reference

IP = Primary Current
IS1 = Secondary Current (CT1)
IS2 = Secondary Current (CT2)

IS2
A CTR1 > CTR2 A
IS1 = IP / CTR1 IS2 = IP / CTR2

Ip Ip
IS1
 Testing Methods Prior to Energization
Standard tests using CT tester should catch most errors
during commissioning

– Polarity Test: Verifies

relationship of primary
polarity to secondary polarity.

– Ratio Test: Verifies

turns on each CT tap
matches manufacturer
specification.
 Testing Methods Prior to Energization
Millivolt Drop
– Small battery and load connected at CT secondary terminals
– Measure successive voltage drops in expected order to prove
circuit layout against schematics
Secondary Injection
– Lift CT secondaries and inject 3-phase current with test set
– Verify current in each device in CT circuit
Voltage measurements take
with respect to ground Control House

3V Flashlight
(load in series)
600 mV 500 mV + 400 mV 300 mV + 200 mV

0 mV 100 mV

Terminal Blocks
+
Relay or Meter
Following Energization of New Equipment
– Testing done prior to energization should catch most errors but subsequent activities may
compromise the installation, such as:
• CT shorting screws left in place
• Test switches or isolating terminal blocks left open
• Blown PT fuses
• Extra CT grounds
– Routine verification of current, voltage, and relay-calculated quantities is final proof of proper
commissioning.
– Saving microprocessor-based relay metering screen records is valuable evidence in PRC-005
audits.

BLLK-V62-11A, S/N 1160150005 Date: 11/23/2016 Time: 15:30:54.056

BLUE LAKE Serial Number: 1160150005

Phase Currents
IA IB IC
I MAG (A) 401.038 399.660 403.567
I ANG (DEG) -175.14 65.05 -56.52

Phase Voltages Phase-Phase Voltages

VA VB VC VAB VBC VCA
V MAG (kV) 138.154 139.222 138.809 240.227 241.236 239.390
V ANG (DEG) 0.13 -119.88 119.74 30.25 -90.12 149.86

Sequence Currents (A) Sequence Voltages (kV)

I1 3I2 3I0 V1 3V2 3V0
MAG 401.392 10.154 11.765 138.728 1.850 0.132
ANG (DEG) -175.54 -0.29 -135.67 0.00 153.37 121.05

A B C 3P
P (MW) -55.22 -55.44 -55.90 -166.55
Q (MVAR) 4.57 4.78 3.65 13.00
S (MVA) 55.41 55.64 56.02 167.06
POWER FACTOR 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
LEAD LEAD LEAD LEAD

FREQ (Hz) 59.98 VDC1(V) 132.76 VDC2(V) 133.07

 Routine Preventative Maintenance
Current and voltage verifications prove CTs and PTs are
still performing within specifications and circuitry is not
compromised.

NERC PRC-005
mandates specific
verifications of
BES components.
 Alarming on CT & PT Failure
PT Failure
– Some relays have loss-of-potential (LOP) algorithm suitable for
alarming on compromised PT or secondary circuitry.
– Under- or over-voltage elements combined with current
detectors minimize nuisance alarming for deenergized PT. (27
AND 50LC)
– High negative sequence voltage may indicate rolled phases or
reverse rotation. (3V2 >> )
– Alarm for a standing ground on ungrounded or impedance-
grounded systems. (3V0 >> )
CT Failure
– High differential current indicates a problematic condition. May
be used to alarm and/or desensitize an 87 element to prevent
misoperation. (87OP >> )
– High negative sequence current without corresponding negative
sequence voltage may indicate loss of phase or rolled phases.
(3I2 >> 3V2)
 Microprocessor vs. Electromechanical
Microprocessor-Based Relays
– Built in HMI and metering screens allow for observation of
live metering and phasor values.
– Typically a backup relay is installed, facilitating isolation of
a relay on a live system.
Electromechanical Relays
– Requires external test equipment connected at the relay’s
interface (e.g., test paddle and 3-phase power analyzer).
– Often requires removing CT & PT inputs, compromising
relay functionality.
– Utilizing meters installed alongside the relays in
conjunction with clamp-on ammeters used at the relay’s
terminals is a means to avoid compromising protection.
 Polarity & Metering Conventions
• CT Polarity & Ratio
– Dot convention
– Primary orientation of bushing and freestanding CTs
– CT ratio designations and connections
• PT Polarity & Ratio
– Dot convention
– Primary connections
– PT ratio designations and connections
• Vector & Phasor Diagrams
– Vector diagram & CT/PT connection equivalencies
• Metering Conventions
– Current/Load Angle
– Power Factor
 CT Polarity
Primary Polarity (H1)
– Bushing CT: Orientation of core within the bushing
• Standard convention has primary facing away from breaker or transformer
– Bar CT: Terminal into which the primary conductor enters
– Window CT: Side into which the primary conductor enters
Secondary Polarity (X1)
– Determined by conductor or terminal with X1 marking
Secondary Non-Polarity (X0)
– Determined by conductor or terminal with X1 marking
 CT Polarity
Dot Convention
– The “dot” indicates the polarity
side or terminal In one dot
– Primary polarity mark indicates and out the
which direction the CT is facing other
– Secondary polarity mark
indicates which direction
secondary current flows relative
to primary IP IP

– Important with polarity IS IS

sensitive relays
• Directional
• Distance
IP IP
• Differential
IS IS
Transformer Nameplate CT Polarity Example

High-side
bushing

Secondary
Polarity
Mark
Primary
Polarity
Mark
 CT Ratio
CTs are single-ratio (SRCT) or multi-ratio (MRCT)
Example
–
– Ratio tables are available on nameplates of transformers,
circuit breakers, and standalone CTs
– Ratio provided in terms of nominal secondary current Connected X2 – X3
rating (actual thermal rating is higher)
• 5A secondary is common in substation equipment
CTR = 300 / 5 = 300 : 5 = 60
• 1A secondary is used in some applications Is = Ip / CTR
– 5 taps is common (X1 – X2 – X3 – X4 – X5)
– Full ratio provides best CT performance but small Is = 300 Aprim / 60 turns = 3 Asec
secondary values may go outside of meter or relay
accuracy range

One Line Designation

Full Ratio 2000-5A
CT Type MRBCT
Connected Tap 600-5A
 PT Polarity Note: PT and VT are
equivalent terms.

Dot Convention
– The “dot” indicates the polarity terminal
– Primary (H1) and secondary (X1) polarity terminals are in phase
– Non-polarity terminal is 180° out of phase
– H0 or X0 reserved for neutral in a 3-phase wye connected PT
 PT Ratio

PTR = PT Ratio

Vsec = Vprim / PTR

PTR = Vprim / Vsec

 Phasor Diagrams

Phasor Diagrams
f = frequency (60 Hz) • Length of phasor = RMS magnitude
(Note the animated sine wave above is scaled down by
Φ = Current Angle 𝑽𝑽 = 𝑉𝑉𝑟𝑟𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 ∠0° factor of 2 for illustrative purposes)
pf = cos(Φ) • Rotates counter-clockwise at power
system frequency (60 Hz)
Lagging = Inductive • Drawn at time = 0
Leading = Capacitive 𝑰𝑰 = 𝐼𝐼𝑟𝑟𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 ∠𝜙𝜙 • Shows phase and magnitude
= 𝐼𝐼𝑟𝑟𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 ∠ − 45° relationships
• Add, subtract, multiply and divide
using vector arithmetic
 PT Wiring – Vector Diagram
Broken Delta Example Broken Delta Connection
1. Begin with power system (Secondary)
reference
2. Primary winding connected
grounded-wye with non-
polarity terminals grounded
3. Piece together the secondary
winding vector diagram with
the equivalent primary
winding vectors

Wye Connection
Power System
(Primary)
Reference
 CT Wiring – DAB Vector Diagram
DAB Connection
– Shifts currents by 30° (leads) Power System Reference
Used with traditional differential relays on the wye
–
winding of a Delta-Wye power transformers where B
wye side lags by 30° (typical distribution
transformer)
– Resulting currents are scaled by 3, which must be
accounted for with relay tap setting
A
– Filters out zero sequence current needed for correct
differential operation
C

B B
B
A +
A
Ia = Ia-ct – Ib-ct
Ib = Ib-ct – Ic-ct
Resulting currents
to relays larger by
B √3 and lead 30° in
Ic = Ic-ct – Ia-ct a balanced system

B +
B
A
Leading 30°

C +
C
C
C

A A C A C
 CT Wiring – DAC Vector Diagram
DAC Connection Power System Reference
– Shifts currents by -30° (lags)
– Used with traditional differential relays on the wye B
winding of a Delta-Wye power transformers where
wye side leads by 30° (typical GSU transformer)
Resulting currents are scaled by 3, which must be
–
accounted for with relay tap setting A
– Filters out zero sequence current needed for correct
differential operation
C

A
A A B A
+
A B
B
B
A Lagging
B +
B 30°

Ia = Ia-ct – Ic-ct Resulting currents

C +
C
C
Ib = Ib-ct – Ia-ct
to relays larger by
√3 and lag 30° in a
Ic = Ic-ct – Ib-ct balanced system
C

C C
 Metering Conventions
Power Quantities
𝑺𝑺 = 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉, 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 − 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴
• IEEE defines positive power polarity as leaving a source bus 𝑸𝑸 = 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉, 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 − 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅
towards a load. 𝑷𝑷 = 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 (𝑊𝑊, 𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊)
• Note that angle 𝜙𝜙 in a PQ triangle and angle 𝜙𝜙𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 in a 𝜙𝜙 = 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 = 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 = 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹
Voltage/Current plot are complex conjugates (flipped about the 𝜙𝜙𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 (sometimes called load angle,
but leading or lagging must be indicated)
real axis per the example below)
Single-Phase Power Equations
𝑉𝑉 2
𝑆𝑆 = 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 = 𝑃𝑃2 + 𝑄𝑄2 = = 𝐼𝐼2 𝑍𝑍
𝑍𝑍
𝑃𝑃 = 𝑆𝑆 2 − 𝑄𝑄2 = 𝑆𝑆 cos 𝜙𝜙 = 𝑆𝑆 cos 𝜙𝜙𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 cos 𝜙𝜙 = 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 cos 𝜙𝜙𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = 𝑆𝑆 ∙
𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
𝑄𝑄 = 𝑆𝑆 2 − 𝑃𝑃 2 = 𝑆𝑆 sin 𝜙𝜙 = −𝑆𝑆 sin 𝜙𝜙𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
𝑃𝑃 𝑃𝑃
𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = = = cos 𝜙𝜙 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝜙𝜙𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 (𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙/𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙)
𝑆𝑆 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉

𝜙𝜙𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = 𝜙𝜙 ∗ = −𝜙𝜙 (𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 − 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏

− 1 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 − 90° 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 90°)
𝑄𝑄 𝑄𝑄 𝑃𝑃
𝜙𝜙 = tan−1 = sin−1 = cos −1
𝑃𝑃 𝑆𝑆 𝑆𝑆

Three-Phase Power Equations

2
3𝑉𝑉𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿
𝑆𝑆3𝜙𝜙 = 3𝑉𝑉𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 𝐼𝐼𝜙𝜙 = 𝑃𝑃2 + 𝑄𝑄2 = = 3𝐼𝐼𝜙𝜙 2 𝑍𝑍
𝑍𝑍
𝑃𝑃3𝜙𝜙 = 𝑆𝑆3𝜙𝜙 2 − 𝑄𝑄3𝜙𝜙 2 = 𝑆𝑆3𝜙𝜙 cos 𝜙𝜙 = 3𝑉𝑉𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 𝐼𝐼𝜙𝜙 cos 𝜙𝜙 = 𝑆𝑆 ∙ 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝

𝑄𝑄3𝜙𝜙 = 𝑆𝑆3𝜙𝜙 2 − 𝑃𝑃3𝜙𝜙 2 = 𝑆𝑆3𝜙𝜙 sin 𝜙𝜙

𝑃𝑃 𝑃𝑃
𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = = = cos 𝜙𝜙 (𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙/𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙)
𝑆𝑆 3𝑉𝑉𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 𝐼𝐼𝜙𝜙
𝑄𝑄 𝑄𝑄 𝑃𝑃
𝜙𝜙 = tan−1 = sin−1 = cos −1
𝑃𝑃 𝑆𝑆 𝑆𝑆
 Verifying Currents
• Relay Accuracy Limits at Low Loading
• Methods of Current Verification
– Additional CTs of the Same Equipment
• Relays
• Meters
• Clamp-on ammeter measuring other wiring
– MW/MVAR Summation Across a Bus (zero sum)
– Remote End of Transmission Line
• Tapped Load Consideration
• Line Charging Consideration
– Hot-Stick Ammeter
 Relay Accuracy Limits at Low Loading
• Relays tend to be the limiting factory in terms
of accuracy rather than CTs
• Guaranteed Accuracy Examples (5 A Relays)
– Basler BE1-851: 1% @ 0.5 A
– SEL-751A: 2% @ 2A
– SEL-411L: 0.2% @ 0.5 A
• Microprocessor metering accuracy is
reasonable below these specified values but
discretion should be exercised at low loading
 Methods of Current Verification
Additional CTs on the Same Equipment
This meter connected to the
same CT does not prove accurate
current is being delivered from
the CT. An error will show up in
both devices.

Clamp-on ammeter here

to prove accurate current.
Must compare in terms of
primary current due to
mismatched CT ratios.

To summed bus
differential circuit
 Methods of Current Verification
Differential Relays Verify both CTs RUBY-WR1-87T1
13:01:47.407
Date: 02/19/2015 Time:

– Differential Operate Current WR1 TRANSF DIFF Time Source: External

Less than about 0.03 per unit IAW1 IBW1 ICW1 IGW1 3I2W1 IAVW1
Wdg1 Mag (A pri.) 13.2 13.5 13.6 0.4 0.9 13.4
– Current Magnitudes Wdg1 Angle (deg) 121.2 4.0 -117.8 36.1 -21.1 0.0
ILV = IHV * Transformer Ratio IAW2 IBW2 ICW2 IGW2 3I2W2 IAVW2
Wdg2 Mag (A pri.) 133.6 134.0 136.0 1.7 4.1 134.5
ILV = IHV * (VHV / VLV) Wdg2 Angle (deg) -89.8 151.0 31.2 106.3 165.5 0.0

– Current Angles
HV and LV winding currents
IOP1 IOP2 IOP3
Operate (pu) 0.01 0.01 0.00
offset 180° (CT polarity) plus
30° (delta leading) = 210° IRT1 IRT2 IRT3

total expected angle

Restraint (pu) 0.14 0.14 0.14

difference
– Be mindful of deenergized
(no-load) tap and LTC tap
positions that affect the
transformer ratio. Use
measured bus voltages if
available.

Transformer Ratio

𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
1 − 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 %
𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛
 Methods of Current Verification
Hot Stick Ammeter
 Methods of Current Verification
MW/MVAR Summation Across a Bus
– Sum MW of all positions on a bus
– Sum MVAR if a cap bank or reactor is present
– Positive power defined flowing from source to load
– Note the transformer value must be subtracted based on its
CT connection
MW
9.3 MW

Position MW
Bkr 1 3.2
Bkr 2 1.8
Bkr 3 4.1
XFMR -9.3 11 11 11

Net MW -0.2 3.2 MW 1.8 MW 4.1 MW

% Error 1.1%

1 2 3
 Methods of Current Verification
Remote End of Transmission Line
– Suitable for shorter lines and subtransmission or distribution voltage - Charging current losses due to line shunt
capacitance becomes significant at higher voltage and long lines
– May compare current or MW values
– Any tapped distribution load must be accounted for

368 A ∠ 1.7° 364 A ∠ -170.7°

CTR = 400 CTR = 400

Ia pu = 0.184 A Ia pu = 0.182 A

Line Charging
Current
Local Terminal
IA IB IC I1 3I2 3I0
MAG (pu) 0.184 0.191 0.187 0.187 0.017 0.005
ANG (DEG) 1.73 -119.61 117.89 0.00 135.83 67.59
THROUGH (pu) 0.184 0.187 0.184 0.020 0.010
CC MAG (pu) 0.008 0.008 0.008
CC ANG (DEG) -96.67 143.44 22.90

Remote Terminal 1
IA IB IC I1 3I2 3I0
MAG (pu) 0.182 0.191 0.188 0.187 0.020 0.005
ANG (DEG) -170.68 68.80 -54.67 -172.19 -21.70 -110.69
THROUGH (pu) 0.184 0.194 0.185 0.017 0.000

Differential
IA IB IC 3I2 3I0
MAG (pu) 0.024 0.028 0.024 0.008 0.000
ANG (DEG) -79.58 155.09 29.71 35.58 -11.10

Alpha Plane
87LA 87LB 87LC 87LQ 87LG
k 1.000* 1.000* 1.000* 1.000* 1.000*
alpha (DEG) 180.00* 180.00* 180.00* 180.00* 180.00*
 Verifying Voltages
• Phase Rotation
• 120° Offset
• Electrically-Connected Buses
• Across Power Transformers
– Expected Angle Shift
– Deenergized and LTC Tap Considerations
• Opposing Ends of Transmission Lines
 Voltage Phase Rotation and 120° Offset
• Grid-connected systems are ABC rotation
– ABC = Counter-clockwise phasor rotation
– Phase rotation meters may indicate clockwise (know your
measurement device’s convention)
– ACB systems must swap 2 phases before connecting to ABC system
• Voltage phase separation should not vary significantly
from 120° V = V ∠120°
c

Va = V ∠0°

Vb = V ∠-120°
 Common Problems and
Troubleshooting
• CT Tap
• CT Polarity
• CT Secondary Connections (Wye-DAB-DAC)
• Extra CT Grounds
• Full or Partial Current Shunting
• PT Tap
• PT Primary and Secondary Connections
• PT Polarity
 Common Problems and Troubleshooting
CT Tap
– Determining secondary tap is typically derived from a
setting sheet or other engineering overview document.
– Tap/Ratio availability is typically determined during
commissioning.
– Shorting screws left in, improper wiring (wrong ratio), and
loose wiring hardware are common trouble items.
– Improper understanding of CT rating may lead to improper
tap selection. An expected 2000:5 CT that is actually a
3000:5 is an example of this.
 Common Problems and Troubleshooting
CT Polarity
– Unexpected metering values are a good way of determining
improper secondary polarity on non-differential circuits.
– Improper differential secondary polarity will result in an
unexpected trip when an external fault occurs, and possibly
even load current.
– Primary polarity should be determined during commissioning.
Many methods are available to prove primary CT polarity.
• What is your expected polarity?
• Does the company have a standard polarity that is specified in particular
devices?
• Is this depicted on a drawing or in a standard manual?
• If incorrect, typically the repair is invasive and requires factory assistance.
 Common Problems and Troubleshooting
CT Secondary Connections (Wye-DAB-DAC)
– Secondary wiring configurations should be depicted on
drawings.
– Proper jumper installation is critical to the correct
configuration being utilized.
– Extra scrutiny should be applied to delta connected CT
secondary circuits as polarity and phasing are not as
simple to determine as a wye connected circuit.
 Common Problems and Troubleshooting
Extra CT Grounds
– A single ground should be present on a CT circuit.
– Testing during commissioning should determine if multiple
grounds exist. Do this by lifting the known ground then
Megger the CT circuit to ground.
– Typically company standards will determine the preferred
location of the ground. It should also be depicted on a
drawing.
– Multiple grounds on CT circuits will sometimes cause
significant errant current flow, depending on the location.
– This reduces operating current in overcurrent and distance
relays and introduces differential current error.
 Common Problems and Troubleshooting
Full or Partial Current Shunting
– Full or partial current shunting around a relay should have
been caught during commissioning, but may be caused by
wiring problems, or testing methods.
– Beware of wiring alternations in CT circuits - the circuit
should be retested after any changes have been made.
 Common Problems and Troubleshooting
PT Tap
– Most VTs offer multiple secondary windings and taps.
Multiple secondary windings allows for some redundancy
between primary and secondary protective relays.
– Multiple secondary tap choices allows for different ratios
to be utilized at the designers will.
– Proper secondary ratios and destinations would be proved
during commissioning but improper metering values may
indicate a ratio problem.
 Common Problems and Troubleshooting
PT Connections
– Proper secondary circuit configuration should be
determined from a drawing and/or engineering request.
– Extra care should be exercised when checking out delta
connected secondary wiring as phasing and jumpers are
common mistakes.
 Common Problems and Troubleshooting
PT Polarity
– Primary and secondary polarity should be determined by
factory markings on the PT.
– Extra caution should be used if primary polarity is not
determined on double bushing style PTs.
– Secondary polarity should be determined during
commissioning with some type of voltage injection testing
on secondary conductors. Continuity testing works as well.
 Precautions
Affecting Differential Circuits – Inserting &
Removing Test Paddles
– Protective relay current circuits connected in series with
differential relays, particularly relays connected electrically
upstream from the differential relays have caused
inadvertent operations when a test block, dressed with
test leads, has been inserted into the upstream relay test
switch.
– The action of inserting the test block, with leads
connected, diverts just enough current to ground to
activate the differential. This has led to procedural changes
at many companies, requiring no test leads connected to
test blocks upon insertion to test switches.
 Precautions
Removing Voltages on Distance and Voltage-
Polarized Relays
– The removal of voltages from distance electromechanical relays
that use that voltage to provide restraint can be an issue.
• The tripping contacts for most of these style relays should be adjusted to fall
towards the non-trip direction but a misadjusted contact will fall towards the
trip direction when restraint is lost.
• Without the restraint holding the contact steady, the relay is vulnerable to
vibration as well.
– The loss of voltage to a microprocessor relay will cause the
distance elements to resort to non-directional overcurrent
elements when configured. This may result in system
miscoordination.
– The loss of potential to a voltage polarized relay will result in a
non-trip for a fault located on the protected line, as no torque
will be created to operate the instantaneous or time-
overcurrent elements of the relay.
 Electromechanical Relays
Stabbing and Measuring with Phase Angle Meter
(e.g., Arbiter)
– In-service readings taken from electromechanical relays are
done two different ways depending on which manufacturer is
being tested.
– Westinghouse/ABB utilizes a Type FT test switch built into the relay case.
• Connecting a phase angle meter in series with the test jack will provide a
means of measuring the current in the relay. The test jack can be inserted
directly into the type FT switch without disrupting protection.
• A voltage connection to the phase angle meter will allow watts and vars to be
measured.
• Care must be taken to not disconnect the test jack from the phase angle meter
before removing the test jack from the relay as this will open the CT circuit.
– GE in service current readings are taken utilizing the GE test block.
• The test block must be prepared before it is inserted into the relay. The GE
relay paddle is removed and the test block is inserted.
• The current circuits are temporarily shunted around the relay while the paddle
is removed.
• Care must be taken while preparing the test block to insure continuity of the
CT circuit. The test leads must be connected to the phase angle meter before
insertion into the relay to insure CT circuit continuity.
• A voltage connection will allow the meter to read watts and vars.
 Electromechanical Relays
Red/Green Light Trip Circuit
– Trip circuit monitoring is cumbersome with
electromechanical relay installations.
– There are manufactured red lights with built in circuit
monitors that can be remotely reported.