SCHOOL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

UNIVERSITI SAINS MALAYSIA

ENGINEERING CAMPUS

EAA 206/2

STRUCTURAL, CONCRETE AND FLUID MECHANICS

ENGINEERING LABORATORY

FLUID MECHANICS LABORATORY MANUAL

1
 LIST OF EXPERIMENTS

Code of Name of Experiments Page

Experiment

EXPERIMENT 1 : REYNOLDS 1-9

H1
NUMBER TEST

EXPERIMENT 2 : FLOW THROUGH 10-18

ORIFICE

EXPERIMENT 3 : CALIBRATION OF 19-26

RECTANGULAR AND TRIANGULAR
H2
NOTCH

EXPERIMENT 4 : BOURDON 27-30

PRESSURE GAUGE

H3 EXPERIMENT 5 : FLOW THROUGH A 31-41

VENTURI METER

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 SCHOOL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
UNIVERSITI SAINS MALAYSIA
ENGINEERING CAMPUS

EXPERIMENT 1 : REYNOLDS NUMBER TEST

1.0 OBJECTIVES

 To demonstrate laminar, transitional and turbulent flow.

 To calculate Reynolds number for each flow.

1.1 INTRODUCTION

When a fluid flows next to a solid boundary the nature of the flow depends on the
velocity relative to that boundary. At low velocities the layers of fluid move smoothly over
one another and this is termed “laminar” flow. However, as the velocity is increased small
disturbances cause eddies which “mix-up” the layers of fluid and produce a different
pattern of flow which is termed “turbulent”. This change has a marked effect on the forces
acting between the fluid and the solid boundary and an understanding of the behaviour is
of fundamental importance in the study of hydraulics and fluid mechanics. The nature of
flow over an aircraft wing affects the drag and hence determines the power required to
propel the aircraft forwards. Similarly, when fluid flows along a pipe the nature of the flow
determines the pressure loss and hence the power required to pump the fluid along the pipe.

Before the advent of high speed transport, the most important application of fluid
mechanics was in the study of flow in pipes. Many engineers and scientists investigated
the behaviour of flow in pipes but it was a British physicist named Osborne Reynolds
(1842-1912) who first identified the variables controlling the flow and produced a rational
means of predicting the nature of flow. Reynolds showed that the behaviour depends on

3
the balance between inertia and viscous forces in the fluid. This led to the definition of a
non-dimensional parameter, now called Reynolds Number, which expresses the ratio of
inertia to viscous, forces and can be used to identify the conditions under which the flow
changes from laminar to turbulent. By experiment it was found that the change always
occurred at a similar value of Reynolds Number irrespective of the fluid and the size of
pipe.

The Reynolds Number and Transitional Flow Demonstration Apparatus has been
designed to demonstrated the kind of experiment which was conducted to show the
dependence of flow on Reynolds Number. The apparatus enables the nature of the flow in
a pipe to be studied by observing the behaviour of a filament of dye injected into the fluid.
The flow rate can be varied and the changed or “transition” between laminar and turbulent
flow can be clearly demonstrated. The effect of viscosity on the behaviour can be
demonstrated by varying the temperature using an optional temperature control module, or
by using different fluids.

1.2 THEORY

Consider the case of a fluid moving along a fixed surface such as the wall of a pipe.
At some distance y from the surface the fluid has a velocity u relative to the surface. The
relative movement causes a shear stress  which tends to slow down the motion so that
the velocity close to the wall is reduced below u. It can be shown that the shear stress
produces a velocity gradient du/dy which is proportional to the applied stress. The constant
of proportionality is the coefficient of viscosity and the equation is usually written :-
du
  …………………..(1)
dy

The above equation is derived in most text books and represents a model of a
situation in which layers of fluid move smoothly over one another. This is termed “viscous”
or “laminar” flow. For such conditions experiments show that Equation (1) is valid and
that  is a constant for a given fluid at a given temperature. It may be noted that the shear
stress and the velocity gradient have a fixed relationship which is determined only by the
viscosity of the fluid. However, experiments also show that this only applies at low
viscosities. If the velocity is increased above a certain value, small disturbances produce

4
eddies in the flows which cause mixing between the high energy and low energy layers of
fluid. This is called turbulent flow and under these conditions it is found that the
relationship between shear stress and velocity gradient varies depending on many factors
in addition to the viscosity of the fluid. The nature of the flow is entirely different since the
interchange of energy between the layers now depends on the strength of the eddies (and
thus on the inertia of the fluid) rather then simply on the viscosity. Equation (1) still applies
but the coefficient  no longer represents the viscosity of the fluid. It is now called the
‘Eddy Viscosity” and is no longer constant for a given fluid and temperature. Its value
depends on the upstream conditions in the flow and is much greater than the coefficient of
viscosity for the fluid. It may be noted that this implies an increase in shear stress for a
given velocity and so the losses in the flow are much greater than for laminar conditions.

We have seen that laminar flow is the result of viscous forces and that turbulent
flow is in some way related to inertia forces. This was realized by Reynolds who postulated
that the nature of flow depends on the ratio of inertia to viscous forces. This led to the
derivation of a non-dimensional variable, now called Reynolds Number, Re which
expresses this ratio. On physical grounds we may say that inertia forces are proportional
to mass times velocity change divided by time. Since mass divided by time is the mass
flow rate and this is equal to density ρ times cross – sectional area times velocity, ν we may
write:-

Inertia forces α d 2u.u ………………………………………(2)

Where d is the diameter of the pipe.

Similarly the viscous forces are given by shear stress times area so, using Equation (1), we
may write :-

du 2
Viscous forces α  d
dy

u 2
α  d …………………………………..(3)
d

Dividing the inertia forces by the viscous forces we obtain Reynolds Number as :-

5
 d 2u 2 du
Re   …………………………………….. (4)
d 

The term is called the kinematic viscosity ν and it is often convenient to write Equation

(4) as :-

ud
Re  …………………………………………..(5)


It may be noted that the above equations can also be derived by dimensional analysis but
in either case it should be remembered that Re represents the ratio of inertia to viscous
forces.

1.3 PROCEDURE

1. The apparatus is free-standing and can be mounted on any suitable bench or

working surface. A water supply and drain are required so a convenient position
should be chosen where these services are available.
2. A bag of glass beads is supplied and this should be used to fill the lower part of the
constant head tank. The level of beads should be 10-15 mm below the top of the
bell-mouth and should be as flat as possible.
3. Fit the injector tube to the dye reservoir (if not already fitted) and position the
mounting plate on the top of the tank such that the injector tube is in the centre of
the bell-mouth.
4. Turn the dye control valve to off and pour suitable dye (e.g water soluble tank) into
the dye reservoir.
5. Stand the thermometer such that the bulb is resting on the stilling bed.
6. Turn on the water supply, and partly open the discharge valve at the base of the
apparatus.
7. Adjust the water supply until the level in the constant head tank is just above the
overflow pipe and is maintained at this level by a small flow down the overflow
pipe. This is the condition required for all tests and at different flow rates through

6
 the tube – the supply will need to be adjusted to maintain it. At any given condition
the overflow should only be just sufficient to maintain a constant head in the tank.
8. Open the adjust dye injector valve to obtain a fine filament of dye in the flow down
the glass tube. If the dye is dispersed in the tube, reduce the water flow rate by
closing the discharge valve and adjusting the supply as necessary to maintain the
constant head. A laminar flow condition should be achieved in which the filament
of dye passes down the complete length of the tube without disturbance.
9. Slowly increase the flow rate by opening the discharge valve until disturbance of
the dye filament. This can be regarded as the starting point of transition of turbulent
flow. Increase the water supply as required maintaining constant head conditions.
10. Record the temperature of the water using the thermometer, then measure the flow
rate by timing the collection of a known quantity of water from the discharge pipe.
11. Further increase the flow rate as described above until the disturbances increase
such that the dye filament becomes rapidly diffused. Small eddies will be noted just
above the point where the dye filament completely breaks down. This can be
regarded as the onset of fully turbulent flow. Record the temperature and flow rate
as in step 10.
12. Now decrease the flow rate slowly until the dye just returns to a steady filament
representing laminar flow and again record the temperature and flow rate.

7
Figure 1.1 : Schematic diagram of the Reynolds Number apparatus

8
Figure 1.2 : Typical flow patterns at various flow
conditions

9
Figure 1.3: Variation of some properties of water with temperature

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1.4 RESULT

Initial water temperature =

Final water temperature =
Mean water temperature =
Kinematic viscosity of water at above temperature,  =
Diameter of pipe, dp =
Cross sectional area of pipe, Ap =

Table 1.1: Result for different type of flows

No. Type of Time for Velocity, Flow rate Kinematic Re
flow 200 ml (u) (Q) viscosity
(υ)
(s) (m/s) (x 10-6 (x 10-6
m3/s) m2/s)
1 Laminar
2 Transition
3 Turbulent
4 Laminar

1.5 PRESENTATION OF RESULTS

1. From Table 1.1, determine the R e for each type of flow.

QUESTION FOR FURTHER DISCUSSION

1. What suggestions do you have to improve the apparatus?

11
 SCHOOL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
UNIVERSITI SAINS MALAYSIA
ENGINEERING CAMPUS

EXPERIMENT 2 : FLOW THROUGH ORIFICE

2.0 OBJECTIVE
 To determine Cd , Cc and Cv for orifice.

2.1 INTRODUCTION

It often happens that when a fluid passes through a constriction, such as through a
sharp-edged hole or over a weir, the discharge is considerably less than the amount
calculated on the assumption that the energy is conserved and that the flow through the
constriction is uniform and parallel. This reduction in flow is normally due to a contraction
of the stream which takes place through the restriction and continues for some distance
down-stream of it, rather than to a considerable energy loss.

In this experiment, arrangements are made to measure the extent to the reduction in flow,
contraction of the stream and energy loss, as water discharges into the atmosphere from a
sharp-edged orifice in the base of a tank (Figure 2.1).

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 Figure 2.1: Arrangement of apparatus

2.2 THEORY

Figure 2.2 shows the essential features of flow through the orifice. The tank is
assumed to be sufficiently large for the velocity of flow in it to be negligibly small except
close to the orifice. In the vicinity of the orifice, the fluid accelerates towards the centre of
the hole, so that as the jet emerges it suffers a reduction of area due to the curvature of the
streamlines, as typified by the streamline MN indicated on the figure. The reduction of area
due to this local curvature may be taken to be complete at about half the orifice diameter
downstream of the plane of the orifice; the reduced section is usually referred to as the vena
contracta.

The pressure everywhere on the surface of the jet is atmospheric; but within the jet pressure
does not fall to atmospheric until the acceleration is complete, i.e. until the vena contracta
is reached.

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Consider now the total head of the water at points M and N of a typical stream-line, M
being in the surface and N being in the plane of the vena contracta.

Figure 2.2: Diagrammatic sketch of flow through orifice

2
Vm P
From Bernoulli, the total head at M is  m  zm
2g w
2
Vn P
and at N is  n  zm
2g w
so that, if the energy were conserved, ie., if there were no loss of total head:

2 2
Vm P V P
 m  zm  n  n  zn ………(1)
2g w 2g w

In this equation, Pm and Pn are equal (both being atmospheric) and U m is negligibly small
according to our assumption. Moreover,
zm  zn  H o ………(2)

So that, from Equation (1) and (2), the ideal velocity at N is given by

14
 2
Vn
 Ho ………(3)
2g

This result applies to all points in the plane of the vena contracta, so changing the notation
to let Vo be the ideal velocity in the plane of the vena contracta, which would occur if there
was no energy loss.

2
Vo
 Ho ….……(4)
2g

Because of the energy loss, which in fact takes place as the water passes down to the tank
and through the office, the actual velocity Vc in the plane of the vena contracta will be less

than Vo , and may be calculated from the Pilot tube reading by the equation :

2
Vc
H c ..…….(5)
2g

It is clear that H o  H c  represent the energy loss. The ratio of actual velocity Vc and ideal

velocity Vo is often referred to as the coefficient of velocity Cv of the orifice. From the
Equation (4) and (5), we obtain :

Vc Hc
Cv   ..…….(6)
Vo Ho

In a similar sense, the coefficient of contraction Cc is defined as the ratio of cross-section

of the vena contracta Ac , to the cross –section of the orifice Ao ,

Ac
Cc  ……..(7)
Ao

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Finally, the coefficient of discharge Cd is defined as the ratio of the actual discharge to
that which would take place if the jet discharged at the ideal velocity without reduction of
area. The actual discharge Q is given y:

Q  Vc Ac ………(8)

and if the jet discharged at the ideal velocity Vo over the orifice area Ao the discharge Qo
would be :

Qo  Vo Ao  Ao 2 gH o ……….(9)

So, from the definition of the coefficient of discharge,

Q Vc Ac
Cd   .………(10)
Qo Vo Ao

or in terms of quantities measured experimentally,

Q
Cd  .……….(11)
Ao 2 gH o

From Equations (6), (7) and (10) it follows immediately :

Cd  CvCc ………..(12)

2.3 PROCEDURE

1. The experiment may be divided into two parts, firstly, the measurement of Cd , Cv ,

and Cc at a single constant value of H o , and secondly, measurement of discharge

at a number of different values of H o .

2. The equipment is set on the bench and leveled so that the base of the tank is
horizontal.
3. The flexible supply pipe from the bench control valve is connected to the inlet pipe
of the apparatus which is positioned to discharge directly back to the weigh tank
and the overflow of the apparatus is directed onto the bench top. To obtain the

16
 steadiest readings the vertical position of the inlet pipe should be adjusted to be just
submerged. The diameter of the sharp-edged orifice is noted.
4. In the first part of the experiment, water is admitted to the tank to allow it to fill to
the height of the overflow pipe and the inflow is regulated so that a small steady
discharge is obtained from the overflow. This ensures that the level in the tank
remains constant while the measurements are made.
5. To measure Cd the discharge is obtained by collection of a known weight of water

from the orifice in the weighing tank, and recording the value of head H o on the
orifice.
6. To measure C v , the Pitot tube is inserted into the emerging jet close to the underside

of the tank, and the values of Pitot head, H c and head, H o on the orifice are noted.

7. To measure Cc , it is necessary to find the diameter of the jet at the vena contracta.
8. This is done by utilizing the sharp-edged blade attached to the head of the Pitot
tube, the plane of the blade being normal to the direction of traverse of the tube.
9. The blade is brought to each edge of the jet in turn, just below the tank, and the
positions of the tube as read on the lead screw and graduated nut read in each case.
The difference of the readings represents the diameter of the jet.
10. In the second part of the experiment the inflow to the tank is reduced to lower the
level in the tank in stages, the discharge from the orifice being measured at each
stage.
11. Care should be taken to allow the level to settle to a steady value after the inflow to
the tank has been changed, and it is advisable to read this level several times while
the discharge is being collected and to record the mean value over the time interval.
12. About 6-8 different flow rates should be sufficient to establish the relationship
between discharge and head on the orifice.

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2.4 RESULT

Diameter of orifice, do = 0.013 m

d2
Area of orifice, Ao = 
4

= m2

dc = Diameter of jet

Ac = Area of jet

Cc = Coefficient of contraction

Table 2.1 : Data recorded and the calculations of flow rate, Q.

Stop watch reading Volumetric tank reading Q Coefficient

No. Initial End Time Initial End Volume =V/t dj = dc of
3 3
(s) (s) (s) (m ) (m ) (m3) x 104 (mm) contraction,
(m3/s) A
Cc  c
Ao
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8

Average Value of Cc =

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 Table 2.2: Data recorded and the estimation of Cv .

No. Head of tank Head of pitot tube Coefficient

of velocity,
Ho Ho Hc Hc
(m) (m1/2) (m) (m1/2) Hc
Cv 
Ho
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8

Average Value of Cv =

Table 2.3 : Calculation of Cd , Cc and Cv for orifice

Q Ho Qo  Ao 2 gH o Cd 
Q
Cc 
Cd
No. x10-4 Cv Qo Cv
(m1/2) x 10-4
(m3/s)
(m3/s)
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Average

Average Value of Cv =
Average Value of Cd =
Average Value of Cc =

19
2.5 PRESENTATION OF RESULTS

1. Plot graph Q versus H o . The flow rate through the orifice is stated as:
QK H where K  Cd A 2 g .
The plotted gradient line will represent K value while Cd can be computed using
the equation below:

Cd  K / A 2 g

The above equation represent the Cd value of the orifice.

2.6 QUESTIONS FOR FURTHER DISCUSSION

1. What suggestions do you have to improve the apparatus?

20
 SCHOOL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
UNIVERSITI SAINS MALAYSIA
ENGINEERING CAMPUS

EXPERIMENT 3 : CALIBRATION OF RECTANGULAR

AND TRIANGULAR NOTCH

3.0 OBJECTIVE

 To calibrate the rectangular and triangular notch by using the hydraulic bench and
panel

3.1 INTRODUCTION

Weirs are commonly used to regulate flow in rivers and in other open channels. The
purpose is often to maintain water depth for some purpose such as navigation, but a weir
may also be used to measure the flow rate.

In many cases, the rate of flow over the weir depends solely on the water level just
upstream of the weir (the relationship between flow rate and water level being sometimes
known as the “rating curve”). However, the water level downstream of the weir may rise
sufficiently as to affect the conditions of flow, so that the flow rate now becomes a function
not only of the upstream water level but also of the water level downstream. The weir is
then referred to as being “suppressed” or “drowned”.

The cross-section of a weir is usually determined by considerations of strength and

stability in relation to the conditions of the site, and availability of materials. The crest is
frequently rounded or broad as shown in Figure 3.1 (a) and (b). For such weirs, the flow
usually remains attached to the downstream surface. In the case of the sharp crested weir
shown in Fig 3.1 (c), however, the flow separates at the crest to form a curved jet which
plunges into the downstream pool. In plan view, the weir may be straight or curved to suit
site condition, or on grounds of aesthetics. Frequently, the crest level is not uniform along

21
 the whole of the length. For instance, just part of the whole length may used to carry normal
flow, the reminder of the weir having a higher crest, so that it comes into use only at higher
flow rates.

d crested b) Broad crested

c) Sharp edged

Fig 3.1 Examples of various weir profiles

A form of weir, particularly suitable for flow measurement, is the “notch”, so called
because it comprises a sharp edged notch cut out of a metal plate. The cut out may of course
be of any shape, but rectangular and V-shaped notches.

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3.2 THEORY

Rectangular Notch Panel

L
Peak level

Figure 3.2 : Front and side view of a rectangular notch

The relationship for the flow rate (Q) of a rectangular notch is :

2 𝑛𝐻
Q = 3 𝐶𝑑 √2𝑔 (𝐿 − 10
) 𝐻3/2 ………………. (1)

Where : n = number of end contractions (= 2 for this case)

L = width of the crest
H = head over the weir

If end contraction is negligible, then:

2
Q = 3 𝐶𝑑 √2𝑔 𝐿𝐻3/2 ………………………….. (2)

or

Q = 𝑘1 𝐻3/2 ….....…………………….. (3)

Equation (2) and (3) shows that the value of Q and H3/2 should be plotted in a graph as a
straight line. The gradient of the graph will represent ‘k1’ value. 𝐶𝑑 can be obtained using
the equation below :

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 3𝑘1
𝐶𝑑 = …………………………… (4)
2 √2𝑔 𝐿

Equation (2) also can be expressed as :

Q  k1 2 g LH 3 / 2 …………………………….(5)

H
k1  0.4  0.05 
 P

 3   H 
Cd    * 0.4  0.05  …………….……………(6)
2   P 

Where :

P is the height of the weir crest above from the base of the tank. Equation 6 is only valid
for H/P values up to 10 as long as the weir is well ventilated.

Triangular Notch Panel

θ
Peak level

Figure 3.3 : Front and side view of triangular notch (V-Notch) panel

The relationship for the flow rate (Q) of a triangular notch is :

24
  8   
Q   Cd tan  2 g H 5 / 2 ………………………(7)
 15  2

or

Q  k2 H 5 / 2 ……………………….(8)

The above equations shows that the value of Q and H5/2 should be plotted in a graph as a
straight line. The gradient of the graph will represent ‘k 2’ value. 𝐶𝑑 can be obtained using
the equation below :

15𝑘2
𝐶𝑑 = 𝜃 …………………………. (9)
8 √2𝑔 tan( )
2

3.3 PROCEDURE

1. The apparatus is first connected to the supply and then leveled.

2. When the correct level has been obtained, the point gauge is also brought exactly
to the water surface, and the calibrated dial either read or, if adjustment is possible,
set to zero.
3. Sets of measurements of discharge rate and head are taken for each notch in turn,
the flow being regulated by the bench supply valve.
4. It is recommended that the first reading be taken at maximum flow rate, and
subsequent values with roughly equal decrements in head.
5. Reading should be discontinued when the level has fallen to the condition at which
the stream ceases to spring clear of the notch plate; this is likely to occur when the
head is reduced to about 10 mm for the rectangular notch and about 30 mm for V
notch.
6. As it takes a little time for the water level to stabilize after changing the flow rate,
care should be taken to ensure that condition have settled completely before starting
to measure the discharge.
7. The rate of flow is found by timing the collection of a known amount of water in
the weighing tank.
8. About 6-8 experimental points for each notch should be sufficient.

25
3.4 RESULT

RECTANGULAR NOTCH

Width of the crest, L (m) = 0.030 m

Height of the crest, P (m) =
Number of end contractions, n = 2

Table 3.1: Data recorded and the calculation of the flow rate, Q
Serial Time taken Volume recorded
Number Initial End Time Start End Volume Q =V/t
(s) (s) (s) (m3) (m3) (m3) (m3/s)
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8

Table 3.2 : Reading of point gauge for water level and calculation for Cd
Serial Discharge Reading of point gauge Discharge coefficient
Number Q (m) H3/2 (L- ‘Cd’
(m3/s) Crest Level Head, 0.2H) Eq. Eq. Eq.
H (m) (1) (4) (6)
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8

26
TRIANGULAR NOTCH

Angle of V notch, θ = 30º

Depth of V notch from base, P (m) =

Table 3.3 : Data recorded and the calculation of the flow rate, Q
Serial Time taken Volume recorded
Number Initial End Time Start End Volume Q =V/t
(s) (s) (s) (m3) (m 3)
(m3) (m3/s)
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8

Table 3.4: Reading of point gauge for water level and calculation for Cd
Serial Discharge Reading of point gauge Discharge coefficient ‘Cd’
Number Q (m) H5/2
(m3/s) Crest Level Head, Eq.(7) Eq.(9)
H
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8

27
3.5 PRESENTATION OF RESULTS

1. From Table 3.2, plot graph Q versus H3/2 for rectangular notch. The plotted gradient
line will represent k1 value. Cd can be computed using Equation (1), Equation (4)
and Equation (6).

2. From Table 3.4, plot graph Q versus H5/2 for triangular notch. The plotted gradient
line will represent k2 value. Cd can be computed using Equation (7) and Equation
(9).

3.6 QUESTION FOR FURTHER DISCUSSION

1. What suggestions do you have to improve the apparatus?

1. Discuss the importance of weir or notch concept in water resources.

28
 SCHOOL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
UNIVERSITI SAINS MALAYSIA
ENGINEERING CAMPUS

EXPERIMENT 4 : BOURDON PRESSURE GAUGE

4.0 OBJECTIVE
 To calibrate the Bourdon Pressure Gauge

4.1 INTRODUCTION

The pressure gauge fitted to the tester is of a type known as the Bourdon Gauge,
which is used to a very great extent in engineering practice.

Figure 4.1 : Bourdon pressure gauge

The mechanism of the gauge may be seen through the transparent dial of the
instrument (Figure 4.1). A tube having a thin wall of oval cross-section is bent to a circular
encompassing about 270 degrees. It is rigidly held at one end where the pressure is

29
admitted to the tube and is free to move at the other end, which is sealed. When pressured
is admitted, the tube tends to straighten, and the movement at the free end operates a
mechanical system which moves a pointer round the graduated scale, the movement of the
pointer being proportional to the pressure applied. The sensitivity of the gauge depends on
the material and dimensions of the Bourdon tube; gauges with a very wide selection of
pressure ranges are commercially available.

When it is desired to check the accuracy of a Bourdon gauge, the usual procedure
is to load it with known pressures by a dead weight tester using oil to transmit the pressure.
The present experiment, however, works satisfactorily with water instead of oil.

4.2 INSTALLATION PROCEDURE

Remove the piston from the unit. The piston is delivered lightly oiled and should
be wiped only when the unit is to be used. Fill the cylinder with water, and remove air
trapped in the transparent tube by tilting and gently tapping the unit. A small amount of
air left in the system will not affect the experiment. Top up with water and insert piston
into cylinder, allowing air and excess water to escape through the top hole in the side of
the cylinder. Allow the piston to settle.

4.3 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE

1. Ensure the cylinder is vertical.

2. Masses are added in approximately eight increments up to a maximum of 5.2 kg.
On no account should more than the supplied masses be loaded.
3. Always load the masses gradually, do not drop them onto the platform.
4. The pressure gauge reading should be recorded at each increment of loading.
5. To prevent the piston sticking, rotate the piston gently as each mass is added.
6. Reverse the above procedure, taking readings as the masses are removed.
7. The cross-sectional area and the mass of the piston should be noted.

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4.4 RESULTS

The actual hydrostatic pressure (P) in the system due to mass of M kg (including the
piston mass) applied to the given by :-

P = M x 9.81 x 10-3 kN/m2

A

Mass of piston, m = 1.0 kg

Cross section area of piston, A = 315 mm2

Increasing Pressure Decreasing Pressure

Mass Total mass Actual Gauge Gauge Gauge Gauge
added to on piston pressure reading error reading error
piston (M) (P)
kg kg kN/m2 kN/m2 kN/m2 kN/m2 kN/m2
0 1.0
0.5 1.5
0.5 2.0
0.5 2.5
0.5 3.0
0.5 3.5
0.5 4.0
0.5 4.5
0.5 5.0
0.2 5.2

Table 4.1: Result for increasing and decreasing pressure

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4.5 PRESENTATION OF RESULTS

1. Present the results obtained based on Table 4.1 in a graph suitable to compare the
obtained results. Discuss.

4.6 QUESTIONS FOR FURTHER DISCUSSION

1. What suggestions do you have to improve the apparatus?

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 SCHOOL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
UNIVERSITI SAINS MALAYSIA
ENGINEERING CAMPUS

EXPERIMENT 5 : FLOW THROUGH A VENTURI METER

5.0 OBJECTIVES

 To validate Bernoulli’s Theorem

 To calculate the value of C d by using venturi meter

5.1 INTRODUCTION

The Venturi tube is a device which has been used over many years for measuring
the flow rate along a pipe. As seen from Figure 5.1, it consists of a tapering contraction
section, along which the fluid accelerates towards a short cylindrical throat, followed by a
section which diverges gently back to the original diameter. (The slowly diverging section
is frequently referred to as a diffuser). As the velocity increases from the inlet section to
the throat, there is a fall in pressure, the magnitude of which depends on the flow rate. The
flow rate may therefore be inferred from the difference in pressure, measured by
piezometers placed upstream and at the throat. Such a unit is referred to as a Venturi flow
meter.

Another way of metering the flow would be to insert a sharp edged orifice into the
pipe; whereby the differential pressure produced by flow through the orifice may similarly
be used to infer the flow rate. An orifice meter has the advantages of simplicity and
cheapness. In comparison with the Venturi meter however, an orifice causes a bigger head
loss than a corresponding venturi tube. This is because in the venture tube, much of the
head loss is recovered as the fluid decelerates in the diffuser. The differential piezometric
head from inlet to the throat can be several times greater than the total head loss across the
whole device.

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 Although piezometer tappings are needed only at the upstream section and at the
throat to infer the flow rate, it is instructive in a laboratory experiment to insert numerous
further tappings to show the distribution of piezometer head along the whole length of the
Venturi tube. Therefore, it is possible to calculate the distribution of pressure along the
tube. Comparison with measurements will then show where the losses occur in the unit.

Figure 5.1 : Arrangement of venturi meter apparatus

5.2 THEORY

Bernoulli’s Theorem stated that

v2 P
  Z  cons tan t . ………………(1)
2g 
(velocity head) + (pressure head) + (elevation head) = constant

Equation (1) can be expressed as:

2 2
v1 P v P
 1  Z1  2  2  Z 2 …………….(2)
2g  2g 

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Consider flow of an incompressible, inviscid fluid through the convergent-divergent
Venturi tube shown in Figure 5.2. The cross sectional area at the upstream section 1 is A1,
at the throat section 2 is A2, and at any other arbitrary section n is An. Piezometer tubes at
these sections register h1, h2 and hn above the arbitrary datum shown. Note that, although
the tube may have any inclination, it is necessary for the datum to always be horizontal.
So, the elevation head, z = z1=z2=z3=………zn. Pressure can be expressed in piezometer
head form: h1 , h2 , …… hn where it can replace P1/ γ, P2 /γ ……..Pn / γ

Figure 5.2: Ideal conditions in a venturi meter

Equation (2) can be expressed as:

2 2
v1 v
 h1  2  h2 ….. ………..(3)
2g 2g
The continuity equation is:

v1 A1  v2 A2  v3 A3  .......... .......... ...vn An

or
A 
v1  v 2  2 
 A1 

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Substituting in Equation (3), gives :

2 g (h1  h2 )
v2 
1  ( A2 / A1 ) 2

or
2 g (h1  h2 )
Q  A2 …………...(4)
1  ( A2 / A1 ) 2

This is the ideal flow rate, obtained by assuming inviscid, one-dimensional flow. In
practice, there is some loss of head between sections 1 and 2. Also, the velocity is not
absolutely constant across either of these sections. As a result, the actual values of Q fall a
little smaller of those given by Equation (5).

2 g (h1  h2
Q  C d A2 ..……….(5)
1  ( A2 / A1 ) 2

In which Cd known as the coefficient of flow rate in venturi meter. Its value, which usually
lies between 0.92 - 0.99 is established by experiment.

Equation (5) can be expressed as :

Q  K (h1  h2) …………………(6)

The above equation shows that when the graph Q versus h1 h2 is plotted, it will form a

straight line which represent the gradient of the graph, K. Cd can be computed by the
equation below :

K 1  ( A2 / A1 ) 2
Cd  ……………(7)
A2 2 g

To validate the Bernoulli’s Theorem, Equation (3) can be expressed as:

36
 hn  h1 v1  v n
2 2

 ……………...(8)
v 22 / 2 g v 22

The continuity equation gives v1 / v2  ( A2 / A1 ) and vn / v2  ( A2 / An )

Equation (8) can be replaced with

2 2
hn  h1  A2   A2 
     ………….(9)
v 22 / 2 g  A1   An 

hn  h1
Equation (9) gives the value of 2
for inviscid fluid.
v2 / 2 g

For the existing apparatus, the ideal values are tabulated in Table 5.1. The values will be
plotted against the distance from the inlet. The results are compared with the value of
hn  h1
2
which is calculated from the observation.
v2 / 2 g

v 22
By expressing piezometric changes hn  h1 as a fraction of the velocity head at the
2g
throat, results at different discharges become directly comparable, and it is seen that the
experimental values follow the ideal curve quite well up to the throat, after which a steadily
increasing loss of energy becomes apparent. The dimensions of the meter and the position
of the piezometer tappings are shown in Figure 5.3.

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 (1) (2)

Diameter
(mm)

Distance from
entrance (mm)

Figure 5.3 : Dimensions of venturi meter and positions of

piezometer tubes

5.3 PROCEDURES

1. The apparatus is first levelled. This is done by opening both the bench supply valve
and the control valve downstream of the meter, so as to allow water to flow for a
few seconds to clear air pockets from the supply hose.
2. The control valve is then gradually closed, subjecting the venture tube to a gradual
increase in pressure, which causes water to rise up the tubes of the manometer,
thereby compressing the air contained in the manifold.

38
3. When the water levels have risen to a convenient height, the bench valve is also
closed gradually, so that when both valves are finally shut off, the meter is left
containing static water at moderate pressure, and the water level in the manometer
tubes stands at a convenient height. The adjusting screws are then operated to give
identical readings for all of the tubes across the whole width of the manometer
board. The board should also be reasonably vertical when viewed from the end.
4. To establish the meter coefficient, measurements are made of a set of differential
heads (h2-h1) and flow rates Q. The first reading should be taken with the maximum
possible value of (h2-h1), i.e with h1 close to the top of the scale and h2 near to the
bottom. This condition is obtained by gradually opening both the bench valve and
the control valve in turn.
5. Note all piezometer reading (from A to L) in Table 5.3. The rate of flow is found
by timing the collection of a known amount of water in the weighing tank (Table
5.2), whilst values of h1 and h2 are noted from the manometer scale.
6. Readings are then taken over a series of reducing values of (h2-h1), equally spread
over the available range from 250 mm to zero (Table 5.5). About 7-8 readings
should be sufficient.

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5.4 RESULT

Experiment 1 : To validate Bernoulli’s Theorem

Table 5.1 : The distribution of ideal pressure as a fraction of velocity head at throat

Piezometer Diameter d2 / dn ( A2 / An ) 2 ( A2 / A1 ) 2  ( A2 / An ) 2
tube dn
No. ‘n’ (mm)
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)
A (1)
B
C
D(2)
E
F
G
H
J
K
L

Table 5.2: Flow rate

Volume, V (liter) Time, t Flow rate, Q
Initial Final Total (s) (m3/s)

Data required
Flow rate (Q) = m3/s
Velocity at throat section v2  Q / A2 = m/s
2
Velocity head at throat (v2 / 2 g ) = m

40
 Table 5.3 : Pressure along the venturi meter.
Serial Piezometer hn ( hn  h1 ) / 1000 (hn  h1 ) / 1000
Number (mm) (m) 2
v2 / 2 g
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)
1 A (1)
2 B
3 C
4 D (2)
5 E
6 F
7 G
8 H
9 J
10 K
11 L
* Notes : n change from A to L

Table 5.4 : Comparison between ideal values and measured values

Ideal values Measured values

( A2 / A1 ) 2  ( A2 / An ) 2 (hn  h1 ) / 1000
2
v2 / 2 g

41
Experiment 2 : To calibrate venturi meter and determine C d value

Diameter at inlet (d1) = mm

Cross sectional area at inlet (A1) = m2
Diameter at throat (d2) = mm
Cross sectional area at throat (A2) = m2

Table 5.5 : Determination of Cd

V t (s) Q = (V/1000t) h1 h2 h1-h2 (h1-h2)1/2 Cd
S (litre)
(m3/s) (mm) (mm) (m) (m)1/2
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Average of Cd

Notes : h1 = Reading at piezometer A

h2 = Reading at piezometer D

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5.5 PRESENTATION OF RESULTS

Based on the data obtained, present some of these results:

i. Water height distribution across the venturi tube.
ii. Velocity distribution across the venturi tube.
iii. Total pressure across the venturi tube.
iv. Energy distribution across the venturi tube.

5.6 DISCUSSIONS

1) Based on all of the results obtained, discuss the measured and ideal pressure
distribution along a venturi meter. Discuss also the relations between diameter
of the venture tube, mean velocity, pressure.
2) Compare the computed total head with measured total head, and discuss if any
difference occurs.
3) Discuss if Bernoulli Equation has been verified using a venturi meter.

5.7 QUESTION FOR FURTHER DISCUSSION

1) Discuss the importance of Bernoulli’s Equation and its application in real-life.

2) Discuss how the experiment could be further improved.

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