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GRADUATE TRAINEE MODULAR COURSE
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LESSON 1; TYPES OF POWER GENERATION

LESSON 2; GENERATOR PARTS/COMPONENTS

LESSON 3; FREQUENCY AND VOLTAGE CONTROL

LESSON 4; POWER FACTOR

LESSON 5; SYNCHRONISATION OF GENERATOR

LESSON 6; LINE ELEMENTS & NETWORK CONFIGURATIONS

LESSON 7; TRANSFORMERS

LESSON 8; ENERGY TRANSPORTATION AND CONSIDERATION

LESSON 9; PROTECTIONS & MAINTENANCE OF POWER SYSTEMS

LESSON 10; GENERAL REVIEW

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Power generation (electrical) is the act of converting another form of energ into
electrical form. Literaril
it could be referred to as energ transformation from
one form to another. All other bulk forms of energ cannot be transported at real
time to the end users except electricall
these explains the importance of these
form of energ in the global world.

Existing methods of generating electrical power are;

c  c
 an 3 3

3
 c
3 is a device capable of either

deriving electrical energ from chemical reactions
or facilitating chemical
reactions through the introduction of electrical energ . A common example
of an electrochemical cell is a standard 1.5-volt "batter ".

An electrochemical cell consists of two half-cells. Each

 consists of
an electrode
and an electrol te. The two half-cells ma use the same
electrol te
or the ma use different electrol tes. The chemical reactions
in the cell ma involve the electrol te
the electrodes or an external
substance (as in fuel cells which ma use h drogen gas as a reactant).
uc  
c cSolar power is produced b collecting sunlight and
converting it into electricit . This is done b using solar panels
which are
large flat panels made up of man individual solar cells.

This can be direct as with photovoltaic (PV)
or indirect as with

concentrating solar power (CSP)
where the sun's energ is focused to boil
water which is then used to provide power .

A solar cell
or photovoltaic cell (PV)
is a device that converts light into
electric current using the photoelectric effect. This is based on the
discover b Alexander-Edmond ¬ecquerel who noticed that some
materials release electrons when hit with ra s of photons from light
which
produces an electrical current.

Concentrating Solar Power (CSP) s stems use lenses or mirrors and tracking
s stems to focus a large area of sunlight into a small beam. The
concentrated heat is then used as a heat source for a conventional power
plant.
 £c c c
 cWind is a form of solar energ . Winds are
caused b the uneven heating of the atmosphere b the sun
the
irregularities of the earth's surface
and rotation of the earth. Wind flow
patterns are modified b the earth's terrain
bodies of water
and
vegetation. Humans use this wind flow
or motion energ
for man
purposes: sailing
fl ing a kite
and even generating electricit .c

The terms wind energ or wind power describes the process b which the
wind is used to generate mechanical power or electricit . Wind turbines
convert the kinetic energ in the wind into mechanical power. A generator
converts this mechanical power into electricit .
c

This diagram shown above is a wind power plant with a group of wind
turbines generating electric energ for the utilit grid. The electricit is sent
through transmission and distribution lines to homes
businesses
schools

and so on.
 Ñc  c c
 cThis is the production of electrical power
through the use of the gravitational force of falling or flowing water. It isc

the most widel used form of renewable energ . Once a h droelectric

complex is constructed
the project produces no direct waste
and has a
considerabl lower output level of the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide (CO2)
than fossil fuel powered energ plants.c

Most h droelectric power comes from the potential energ of the dammed
water driving a water turbine and generator. In this case the energ
extracted from the water depends on the volume and on the difference in
height between the source and the water's outflow.

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 c In a ë3c  3c  

fuels (such as
petroleum
coal
or biomass) are burned to heat water which turns into
steam
which goes through a turbine
which spins... 
   



 

  
 
 

 

 

A 633 cpower plant is prett much a steam power plant
since what
comes out of the earth is steam. Rainwater soaks into the ground and goes
down
down
down...far enough until it reaches a region which is reall hot
(in Hawaii
that's about 6000 feet). A well is drilled
the steam comes out

goes through a heat exchanger
and spins a turbine...  
   



 

  
 
 

 

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the time the steam has gone through the heat exchanger
it has cooled off
and become warm water. It is then re-injected into the ground.

In a 6ëc
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fuels are burned to create hot gases which go
through a turbine
which spins... 
   

 

 

 
 

 

 

In a

3 power plant
nuclear reactions create heat to heat water

which turns into steam
which goes through a turbine
which spins... 
 
  

 

  
 
 

 


 
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An internal combustion engine is an engine that operates b burning its

fuel inside the engine. Our engines used in Flour mills of Nigeria plc are ICEs.
In contrast a steam engine burns its fuel outside the engine. The most
common internal combustion engine t pe is gasoline powered. Others include
those fueled b diesel
h drogen
methane
propane
etc. Engines t picall can
onl run on one t pe of fuel and require adaptations to adjust the air/fuel
ratio or mix to use other fuels.

In a gasoline engine
a mixture of gasoline and air is spra ed into a c linder.

This is compressed b a piston and at optimal point in the compression stroke;
a spark plug creates an electrical spark that ignites the fuel. The combustion of
the fuel results in the generation of heat
and the hot gases that are in the
c linder are then at a higher pressure than the fuel-air mixture and so drive
the piston back down. These combustion gases are vented and the fuel-air
mixture reintroduced to run a second stroke. The outward linear motion of
the piston is ordinaril harnessed b a crankshaft to produce circular motion.
Valves control the intake of air-fuel mixture and allow exhaust gasses to exit
at the appropriate times.

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The two-stroke t pe of internal combustion engine is t picall used in utilit or
recreational applications which require relativel small
inexpensive
and
mechanicall simple motors (chainsaws
jet skis
small motorc cles
etc).

The two-stroke engine is simple in construction
but complex d namics are

emplo ed in its operation. There are several features unique to a two-stroke
engine. First
there is a reed valve between the air-fuel intake and the
crankcase. Air-fuel mixture enters the crankcase and is trapped there b the
one-wa reed valve. Next
the c linder has no valves as in a conventional four
stroke engine. Intake and exhaust are accomplished b means of ports -
special holes cut into the c linder wall which allows fuel-air mixture to enter
from the crankcase
and exhaust to exit the engine. These ports are uncovered
when the piston is in the down position.

Air-fuel mixture is drawn into the crankcase from the carburetor or fuel
injection s stem through the reed valve. When the piston is forced down
the
exhaust port is uncovered first
and hot exhaust gases begin to leave the
c linder. As the piston is now in the down position
the crankcase becomes
pressurized
and when the intake port into the c linder is uncovered

pressurized air-fuel mixture enters the chamber. ¬oth the intake and exhaust
ports are open at the same time
which means the timing and air flow
d namics are critical to proper operation. As the piston begins to move up

the ports are closed off
and the air-fuel mixture compresses and is ignited;
the hot gases increase in pressure
pushing the piston down with great force
and creating work for the engine.

The major components of two-stroke engines are tuned so that optimum

airflow results. Intake and exhaust tubes are tuned so that resonances in
airflow give better flow than a straight tube. The c linder ports and piston top
are shaped so that the intake and exhaust flows do not mix.

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two-stroke engine 

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îour-stroke engine 

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The four-stroke internal combustion engine is the t pe most commonl used
for automotive and industrial purposes toda (cars and trucks
generators

etc). On the first (downward) stroke of the piston
fuel/air is drawn into the
c linder. The following (upward) stroke compresses the fuel-air mixture

which is then ignited - expanding exhaust gases then force the piston
downward for the third stroke
and the fourth and final (upward) stroke
evacuates the spent exhaust gasses from the c linder. The four-stroke c cle is
more efficient than the two-stroke c cle
but requires considerabl more
moving parts and manufacturing expertise. Diagram overleaf shows a four
stroke c cle anal sis.


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The term generator set refers to the alternator and its prime mover. With
emphasis on the generator sets in FMN plc
the domain of discussion will be on
ICE parts and the alternator parts on the electrical aspect.



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omprises thecICE and its associated working components i.e. turbo charger

governor
starting mechanism etc. Overleaf is the diagram of an ICE petrol engine
with its labeled components. c

The engine speed is monitored and controlled through a governor. The governor
ensures that the engine speed sta s high enough to idle at the right speed and
that the engine speed will not raise too high when full power is demanded. The
governor is a simple mechanical device which first appeared on steam engines. It
operates on a diesel engine as shown in the diagram below.
The governor consists of a rotating shaft
which is driven b the diesel engine. A
pair of fl weights is linked to the shaft and the rotate as it rotates. The
centrifugal force caused b the rotation causes the weights to be thrown
outwards as the speed of the shaft rises. If the speed falls the weights move
inwards.

The fl weights are linked to a collar fitted around the shaft b a pair of arms. As
the weights move out
so the collar rises on the shaft. If the weights move
inwards
the collar moves down the shaft. The movement of the collar is used to
operate the fuel rack lever controlling the amount of fuel supplied to the engine
b the injectors.

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3

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Ignition is a diesel engine is achieved b compressing air inside a c linder until it

gets ver hot (sa 400° C
almost 800° F) and then injecting a fine spra of fuel oil
to cause a miniature explosion. The explosion forces down the piston in the
c linder and this turns the crankshaft. To get the fine spra needed for successful
ignition the fuel has to be pumped into the c linder at high pressure. The fuel
pump is operated b a cam. In a petrol engine
the power is controlled b the
amount of fuel/air mixture applied to the c linder. The mixture is mixed outside
the c linder and then applied b a throttle valve. In a diesel engine the amount of
air applied to the c linder is constant so power is regulated b var ing the fuel
input. The fine spra of fuel injected into each c linder has to be regulated to
achieve the amount of power required. Regulation is achieved b var ing the fuel
sent b the fuel pumps to the injectors. The control arrangement is shown in the
diagram below. The fuel is pumped into an injector
which gives the fine spra of
fuel required in the c linder for combustion.

The amount of fuel being applied to the c linders is varied b altering the
effective deliver rate of the piston in the injector pumps. Each injector has its
own pump
operated b an engine-driven cam
and the pumps are aligned in a
row so that the can all be adjusted together. The adjustment is done b a
toothed rack (called the "fuel rack") acting on a toothed section of the pump
mechanism. As the fuel rack moves
so the toothed section of the pump rotates
and provides a drive to move the pump piston round inside the pump. Moving
the piston round alters the size of the channel available inside the pump for fuel
to pass through to the injector deliver pipe.

The fuel rack can be moved either b the driver operating the power controller in
the cab or b the governor. If the driver asks for more power
the control rod
moves the fuel rack to set the pump pistons to allow more fuel to the injectors.
The engine will increase power and the governor will monitor engine speed to
ensure it does not go above the predetermined limit. The limits are fixed b
springs (not shown) limiting the weight movement.


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So far we have seen a simple example of diesel engine control but the s stems
used toda are more sophisticated. To begin with
the drivers control was
combined with the governor and h draulic control was introduced. One t pe of
governor uses oil to control the fuel racks h draulicall and another uses the fuel
oil pumped b a gear pump driven b the engine. Some governors are also linked
to the turbo charging s stem to ensure that fuel does not increase before enough
turbocharged air is available. In the most modern s stems
the governor is
electronic and is part of a complete engine management s stem.

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The diesel engine provides the drive for the main alternator which
in turn

provides the generated power required. We can see from this therefore
that the
power required from the diesel engine is related to the electric power generated.
So
if we want more power from alternator
we must run faster to generate it.
Therefore
to get the optimum performance from the engine
we must link the
control of the diesel engine to the power demands being made on the alternator.

In the da s of generators
a complex electro-mechanical s stem was developed to

achieve the feedback required to regulate engine speed according to generator
demand. The core of the s stem was a load regulator
basicall a variable resistor
which was used to var the excitation of the generator so that its output matched
engine speed. The control sequence (simplified) was as follows:

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In alternators
the load regulation is done electronicall . Engine speed is

measured like modern speedometers
b counting the frequenc of the gear
teeth driven b the engine
in this case
the starter motor gearwheel. Electrical
control of the fuel injection is another improvement now adopted for modern
engines. Overheating can be controlled b electronic monitoring of coolant
temperature and regulating the engine power accordingl . Oil pressure can be
monitored and used to regulate the engine power in a similar wa .

 
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The diesel engine needs to work at an optimum temperature for best efficienc .
When it starts
it is too cold and
when working
it must not be allowed to get too
hot. To keep the temperature stable
a cooling s stem is provided. This consists
of a water-based coolant circulating around the engine block
the coolant being
kept cool b passing it through a radiator.

The coolant is pumped round the c linder block and the radiator b an electricall
or belt driven pump. The temperature is monitored b a thermostat and this
regulates the speed of the (electric or h draulic) radiator fan motor to adjust the
cooling rate. When starting
the coolant isn't circulated at all. After all
ou want
the temperature to rise as fast as possible when starting on a cold morning and
this will not happen if ou are blowing cold air into our radiator. Some radiators
are provided with shutters to help regulate the temperature in cold conditions.

The coolant pump is driven b a mechanical link or through a fluid coupling to

ensure that no damage is caused b sudden changes in engine speed. The pump
works such that coolant (H2O) is circulated through radiator(s) having cooling
fans. Air is blown b the fan to cool the water in the radiator. Some engines have
fans with an electricall or h drostaticall driven motor. A h draulic motor uses
oil under pressure which has to be contained in a special reservoir and pumped to
the motor. It has the advantage of providing an in-built fluid coupling.

A problem with engine cooling is cold weather. Water freezes at 0° C or 32° F and
frozen cooling water will quickl split a pipe or engine block due to the expansion
of the water as it freezes. Some s stems are "self draining" when the engine is
stopped and most in Europe are designed to use a mixture of anti-freeze
with
Gl col and some form of rust inhibitor. In cold weather
the engine pump/heater
arrangement is left running. Another reason for keeping diesel engines warm is
that the constant heating and cooling caused b shutdowns and restarts
causes
stresses in the block and pipes and tends to produce leaks.



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Diesel engine needs lubrication. In an arrangement similar to the engine cooling

s stem
lubricating oil is distributed around the engine to the c linders
crankshaft
and other moving parts. There is a reservoir of oil
usuall carried in the sump

which has to be kept topped up
and a pump to keep the oil circulating evenl
around the engine. The oil gets heated b its passage around the engine and has
to be kept cool
so it is passed through a radiator during its journe . The radiator
is sometimes designed as a heat exchanger
where the oil passes through pipes
encased in a water tank which is connected to the engine cooling s stem.

The oil has to be filtered to remove impurities and it has to be monitored for low
pressure. If oil pressure falls to a level which could cause the engine to seize up
a
"low oil pressure switch" will shut down the engine. There is also a high pressure
relief valve
to drain off excess oil back to the sump.

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A turbo charger is basicall a s stem of an exhaust gas driven air compressor

which is divided into its two basic parts
the exhaust gas driven turbine/housing

and the air compressor/housing joined together at the hip via a common shaft

the function of one impacts the function of the other. The turbine is powered b
hot expanding exhaust gas
a lot of hot expanding exhaust gas
the more and the
hotter the expanding exhaust gas the better.

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The exhaust turbine will not generate enough power to turn the air compressor
fast enough for it to work properl unless the engine is feeding the exhaust
turbine a lot of hot expanding exhaust gas
a condition that can onl be created
when the engine is under a load. There is where the selection of transmission
gear ratios and the ring and pinion ratio pla a critical part. The fact that the
engine must be under a load is the reason wh
no matter how high ou rev a
turbo charged engine with no load on it
ou will not see the boost gauge move.

Effectivel
a turbo charged engine is a normall aspirated engine until the turbine
and compressor spin up. To minimize turbo lag
it is imperative that the turbine
and the compressor are properl matched to the engine as well as the engine
being properl matched to the transmission gears
the ring and pinion gears
and
the tires.

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Diesel engine cannot start b itself directl
so it needs some form of transmission
s stem to multipl torque when starting. There are three methods of doing this

depending on the magnitude of the required starting torque: mechanical

h draulic or electric.

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An alternator is an electromechanical device that converts mechanical energ to
electrical energ in the form of alternating current. Most alternators use a
rotating magnetic field but linear alternators are occasionall used. In principle

an AC electrical generator can be called an alternator.



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Alternators generate electricit b the same principle as DC generators
namel

when the magnetic field around a conductor changes
a current is induced in the
conductor. T picall
a rotating magnet called the rotor turns within a stationar
set of conductors wound in coils on an iron core
called the stator. The field cuts

across the conductors
generating an induced +
as the mechanical input

causes the rotor to turn






 
 
 
 

 

   





 

The rotating magnetic field induces an AC voltage in the stator windings. Often
there are three sets of stator windings
ph sicall offset so that the rotating
magnetic field produces three phase currents
displaced b one-third of a period
with respect to each other.

The rotor magnetic field ma be produced b induction (in a "brushless"

alternator)
b permanent magnets (in ver small machines)
or b a rotor winding
energized with direct current through slip rings and brushes. The rotor magnetic
field ma even be provided b stationar field winding
with moving poles in the
rotor. Since the permanent magnet field is constant
the terminal voltage varies
directl with the speed of the generator. ¬rushless AC generators are usuall
larger machines.

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A brushless alternator is composed of two alternators built end-to-end on one
shaft. Smaller brushless alternators ma look like one unit but the two parts are
readil identifiable on the large versions. The larger of the two sections is the
main alternator and the smaller one is the exciter. The exciter has stationar field
coils and a rotating armature (power coils). The main alternator uses the opposite
configuration with a rotating field and stationar armature. A bridge rectifier

called the rotating rectifier assembl
is mounted on a plate attached to the rotor.
Neither brushes nor slip rings are used
which reduces the number of wearing
parts.

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The main alternator has a rotating field as described above and a stationar
armature (power generation windings).

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Var ing the amount of current through the stationar exciter field coils varies the
3-phase output from the exciter. This output is rectified b a rotating rectifier
assembl
mounted on the rotor
and the resultant DC supplies the rotating field
of the main alternator and hence alternator output. The result of all this is that a
small DC exciter current indirectl controls the output of the main alternator.

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An automatic voltage control device controls the field current to keep output
voltage constant

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The three-phase alternator
as the name implies
has three single-phase windings
spaced such that the voltage induced in an one phase is displaced b 120° from
the other two. A schematic diagram of a three-phase stator showing all the coils
becomes complex and it is difficult to see what is actuall happening. The
simplified schematics of figure 3-8
view A
shows all the windings of each phase
lumped together as one winding. The rotor is omitted for simplicit . The voltage
waveforms generated across each phase are drawn on a graph
phase-displaced
120° from each other. The three-phase alternator as shown in this schematic is
made up of three single-phase alternators whose generated voltages are out of
phase b 120°. The three phases are independent of each other.

Rather than having six leads coming out of the three-phase alternator
the same
leads from each phase ma be connected together to form a w e (Y) connection

as shown in figure 3-8
view ¬. It is called a w e connection because
without the
neutral
the windings appear as the letter Y
in this case sidewa s or upside down.

The neutral connection is brought out to a terminal when a single-phase load

must be supplied. Single-phase voltage is available from neutral to A
neutral to ¬

and neutral to C.

In a three-phase
Y-connected alternator
the total voltage
or line voltage
across

an two of the three line leads is the vector sum of the individual phase voltages.
Each line voltage is 1.73 times one of the phase voltages. ¬ecause the windings
form onl one path for current flow between phases
the line and phase currents
are the same (equal).
Figure 3-8. - Three-phase alternator connections.

A three-phase stator can also be connected so that the phases are connected
end-to-end; it is now delta connected (fig. 3-8
view C. Delta because it looks like
the Greek letter delta
&Delta). In the delta connection
line voltages are equal to
phase voltages
but each line current is equal to 1.73 times the phase current.
¬oth the w e and the delta connections are used in alternators.

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The output frequenc of alternator voltage depends upon the speed of rotation of
the rotor and the number of poles. When the speed is raised frequenc goes high
and the lower the speed
the lower the frequenc . The more poles there are on
the rotor
the higher the frequenc is for a given speed. c
When a rotor has rotated through an angle such that two adjacent rotor poles (a
north and a south pole) have passed one winding
the voltage induced in that
winding will have varied through one complete c cle. For a given frequenc
the
more pairs of poles there are
the lower the speed of rotation. This principle is
illustrated in figure 3-12; a two-pole generator must rotate at four times the
speed of an eight-pole generator to produce the same frequenc of generated
voltage. The frequenc of an ac generator in hertz (Hz)
which is the number of
c cles per second
is related to the number of poles and the speed of rotation
as
expressed b the equation

Where P is the number of poles
N is the speed of rotation in revolutions per

minute (rpm)
and 120 is a constant to allow for the conversion of minutes to
seconds and from poles to pairs of poles. For example
a 2-pole
3600-rpm
alternator has a frequenc of 60 Hz; determined as follows:

A 4-pole
1800-rpm generator also has a frequenc of 60 Hz. A 6-pole
500-rpm

generator has a frequenc of

A 12-pole
4000-rpm generator has a frequenc of

More fuel into the ICE for example gives more power from the prime mover and
consequentl more speed that leads to increased frequenc .

Figure 3-12. - Frequenc regulation.


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As we have said before
when the load on a generator is changed
the terminal
voltage varies (armature reaction/ internal drop). The amount of variation
depends on the design of the generator.

The voltage regulation of an alternator is the change of voltage from full load to
no load
expressed as a percentage of full-load volts
when the speed and dc field
current are held constant.

Assume the no-load voltage of an alternator is 250 volts and the full-load voltage
is 220 volts. The percent of regulation is
Remember
the lower the percent of regulation
the better it is in most
applications.

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In an alternator
an alternating voltage is induced in the armature windings when

magnetic fields of alternating polarit are passed across these windings. The
amount of voltage induced in the windings depends mainl on three things: (1)
the number of conductors in series per winding
(2) the speed (alternator rpm) at
which the magnetic field cuts the winding
and (3) the strength of the magnetic
field. An of these three factors could be used to control the amount of voltage
induced in the alternator windings.

The number of windings
of course
is fixed when the alternator is manufactured.

Also
if the output frequenc is required to be of a constant value
then the speed
of the rotating field must be held constant. This prevents the use of the alternator
rpm as a means of controlling the voltage output.

Thus
the onl practical method for obtaining voltage control is to control the
strength of the rotating magnetic field. The strength of this electromagnetic field
ma be varied b changing the amount of current flowing through the field coil.
This is accomplished b var ing the amount of voltage applied across the field
cod.
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Power factor is a concept applied to various machines and electrical devices in
industrial and commercial use. It is used to evaluate the reactive power
consumption of the electrical equipment in a given installation.

The power factor is the ratio of the active power ͚P͛ consumed in Watt to the
apparent power ͚S͛ imposed in VA
and it varies between zero and unit
depending on the equipment.

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A good power factor is a value close to unit (pf =1 implies no reactive power
consumption and therefore no penalties billed b the utilit if applicable). A poor
power factor is generall a value less than 0.92.


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Low power factor is caused b inductive loads (such as transformers
electric
motors
and high-intensit discharge lighting)
which are a major portion of the
power consumed in industrial complexes. Unlike resistive loads that create heat
b consuming kilowatts
inductive loads require the current to create a magnetic
field
and the magnetic field produces the desired work. The total or apparent
power required b an inductive device is a composite of the following:
ͻ Real power (measured in kilowatts ͚kW͛)
ͻ Reactive power
the nonworking power caused b the magnetizing current

required to operate the device (measured in kilovars ͚KVAR͛)

Reactive power required b inductive loads increases the amount of apparent

power (measured in kilovolt-amps ͚kVA͛) in our distribution s stem. The increase
in reactive and apparent power causes the power factor to decrease.

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Some of the benefits of improving our power factor are as follows:
ͻ Your utilit bill will be smaller. Low power factor requires an increase in the
electric utilit ͛s generation and transmission capacit to handle the reactive
power component caused b inductive loads. Utilities usuall charge a penalt fee
to customers with power factors less than 0.95. You can avoid this additional fee
b increasing our power factor.
ͻ Your electrical s stem͛s branch capacit will increase. Uncorrected power factor
will cause power losses in our distribution s stem. You ma experience voltage
drops as power losses increase. Excessive voltage drops can cause overheating
and premature failure of motors and other inductive equipment

 c c c
 c
Some strategies for correcting our power factor are:
ͻ Minimize operation of idling or lightl loaded motors.
ͻ Avoid operation of equipment above its rated voltage.
ͻ Replace standard motors as the burn out with energ -efficient motors.
Even with energ -efficient motors
however
the power factor is significantl
affected b variations in load. A motor must be operated near its rated capacit to
realize the benefits of a high power factor design.
ͻ Install capacitors in our AC circuit to decrease the magnitude of reactive
power.
Reactive power (measured in kVARs) caused b inductance alwa s acts at a 90°
angle to real power. Capacitors store kVARs and release energ opposing the
reactive energ caused b the inductor. This implies that inductance and
capacitance react 180° to each other. The presence of both in the same circuit
results in the continuous alternating transfer of energ between the capacitor and
the inductor
thereb reducing the current flow from the generator to the circuit.
When the circuit is balanced
all the energ released b the inductor is absorbed
b the capacitor. In the diagram below
the power triangle shows an initial 0.70
power factor for a 100-kW (real power) inductive load.

100KW
New VAR=33KVAR
New VA=105KVA Initial VAR=100KVAR

Initial VA=142KVA Capacitance VAR added=67KVAR

¬ +,0
0#, (  ( 

 +,0
0 $, -$ -$

The reactive power required b the load is 100 kW. ¬ installing a 67-KVAR
capacitor
the apparent power is reduced from 142 to 105 kVA
resulting in a 26%
reduction in current. Power factor is improved to 0.95. Capacitor suppliers and
engineering firms can provide the assistance ou ma need to determine the
optimum power correction factor and to correctl locate and install capacitors in
our electrical distribution s stem
  cèc
 
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Some of the benefits of placing multiple generators in parallel include increased
reliabilit
expandabilit
flexibilit
serviceabilit and cost effectiveness.
3   c
The redundanc inherent in parallel power generation provides significantl
greater reliabilit for critical loads. For example
if the reliabilit of a standb
generator is defined at 98%
an N+1 configuration has a reliabilit of 99.96% and
an N+2 configuration has a reliabilit of 99.999%. In a parallel configuration
if one
generator fails
the most critical loads are redistributed among the other units in
the s stem. Given t pical applications and load factors
the load requiring the
highest degree of reliabilit is often onl a fraction of the total generation
capacit . Redundanc is achieved without the addition of costl under-utilized
generators.
c
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  cc
When sizing generators
it is often difficult tocadequatel plan for anticipated load
growth. Ifcload projections are too aggressive
initial capitalcexpenditures ma be
higher than necessar . If loadcprojections are too low
the facilit ma be left
withoutcreliable standb power or ma require expensivecgenerator upgrades.
Generators are added as needed.c
 3"  c
Utilizing multiple smaller generators instead of a single large unit offers greater
location flexibilit . The abilit to distribute weight over a wider area makes
rooftop installations more feasible. A lower profile makes installation in parking
garages and other restricted areas possible.

3
3  c
With multiple generators available
individual units can be taken out of service for
repair or maintenance without losing standb power for critical circuits. This
feature enhances reliabilit and reduces the need to bring a backup rental
generator to the site. Though failures of standb generators are not common
the
built-in redundanc of a parallel s stem provides multiple la ers of protection for
critical circuits.



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In summar
alternators are connected in parallel to:

(1)cincrease the output capacit of a s stem be ond that of a single unit

(2)cserve as additional reserve power for expected demands
or

(3)cpermit shutting down one machine and cutting in a standb machine

without interrupting power distribution.

When alternators are of sufficient size
and are operating at different frequencies
and terminal voltages
severe damage ma result if the are suddenl connected
to each other through a common bus. To avoid this
machines must be
s nchronized as closel as possible before connecting them together. This ma be
accomplished b connecting one generator to the bus (referred to as bus
generator)
and then s nchronizing the other (incoming generator) to it before
closing the incoming generator͛s main power contactor. The generators are
s nchronized when the following conditions are met:

ñc Equal terminal voltages. This is obtained b adjustment of the incoming

generator͛s field strength.

ñc Equal frequenc . This is obtained b adjustment of the incoming

generator͛s prime-mover speed.

ñc Phase voltages in proper phase relation. It is enough for ou to know that

the above must be accomplished to prevent damage to the machines
it is
achieved during installation.

Each generator in the s stem will normall require four to six micro-controllers.
These controllers are a combination of analog and digital technolog . A t pical
two-generator s stem will have between nine and fourteen controllers (including
the master control section) to manage the speed governor
load-share controller

s nchronizer
voltage regulator
generator set controller
and protective rela .

33c
 c
Each generator in the s stem incorporates an electronic governor. The governor
controls engine speed and
as a result
generator frequenc in what is called
isochronous speed control. This works fine for a single engine generator.
However
when multiple generators are paralleled
the engine speed is locked
into the speed of the other generators in the s stem. Generators do not
inherentl share load.

c  


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Each generator incorporates a load-share controller that constantl adjusts the
governor͛s speed reference for its engine. This s stem balances load between the
generators butcfrom a control loop standpoint.





6c
The third controller is an auto s nchronizer. This controller matches the sine wave
of the generator with the sine wave of the generator bus and issues the command
to close the breaker t ing them together.

 


 

 63c36 
c
The fourth controller normall controls alternator voltage for a single generator.
However
when multiple alternators are paralleled
the voltage is locked into the
voltage of the other units in the s stem. An alternator with a slightl higher
voltage set point will integrate its excitation setting open until it is carr ing the
entire s stem͛s kVAR load. This s stem adjusts the voltage regulator references
using inputs from current transformers that are all connected in series.

3
3cë3c
 c3

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The fifth and sixth controllers are t picall the generator set controller and a
protective rela . The controller monitors various engine and alternator
parameters and provides alarm for the protective rela that t picall performs
s nchronizing check and other functions.


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 c
To enhance the reliabilit of parallel s stems
the panel boards are often wired
with a manual operation mode for when things go wrong. In manual mode
the
load share lines and cross current lines are opened and the control loops are
t picall placed in an inherentl more stable control mode (droop). It should be
noted that even in manual control mode
an given generator still requires four
mission critical controllers to function: governor
regulator
genset controller
and
protective rela .

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ëëë
or "high voltage electric transmission" is the bulk
transfer of electrical energ
from generating plant to substations located near to
population centers. This is distinct from the local wiring between high voltage
substations and customers
which is t picall referred to as electricit distribution.
Transmission lines
when interconnected with each other
become high voltage
transmission networks. Historicall
transmission and distribution lines were
owned b the same compan
but over the last decade or so man countries have
introduced market reforms that have led to the separation of the electricit
transmission business from the distribution business.

Transmission lines mostl use three phase alternating current (AC)
although
single phase AC is sometimes used.

Electricit is transmitted at high voltage (110 kV or above) to reduce the energ

lost in long distance transmission. Power is usuall transmitted through overhead
power lines. Underground power transmission has a significantl higher cost and
greater operational limitations but is sometimes used in urban areas or sensitive
locations.

A ke limitation in the distribution of electricit is that
with minor exceptions

electrical energ cannot be stored
and therefore it must be generated as it is
needed. A sophisticated s stem of control is therefore required to ensure electric
generation ver closel matches the demand. If suppl and demand are not in
balance
generation plants and transmission equipment can shut down which
in
the worst cases
can lead to a major regional blackout. To reduce the risk of such
failures
electric transmission networks are interconnected into regional
national
or continental wide networks thereb providing multiple redundant alternate
routes for power to flow should (weather or equipment) failures occur. Much
anal sis is done b transmission companies to determine the maximum reliable
capacit of each line which is mostl less than its ph sical or thermal limit
to
ensure spare capacit is available should there be an such failure in another part
of the network.

 $cc


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A device to open or close an electric power circuit either during normal power
s stem operation or during abnormal conditions. A circuit breaker serves in the
course of normal s stem operation to energize or de-energize loads. During
abnormal conditions
when excessive current develops
a circuit breaker opens to
protect equipment and surroundings from possible damage due to excess current.
These abnormal currents are usuall the result of short circuits created b
lightning
accidents
deterioration of equipment
or sustained overloads.

Formerl
all circuit breakers were electromechanical devices. In these breakers a

mechanism operates one or more pairs of contacts to make or break the circuit.
The mechanism is powered electromagneticall
pneumaticall
or h draulicall .
The contacts are located in a part termed the interrupter. When the contacts are
parted
opening the metallic conductive circuit
an electric arc is created between
the contacts. This arc is a high-temperature ionized gas with an electrical
conductivit comparable to graphite. Thus the current continues to flow through
the arc. The function of the interrupter is to extinguish the arc
completing circuit-
breaking action.

In oil circuit breakers
the arc is drawn in oil. The intense heat of the arc
decomposes the oil
generating high pressure that produces a fluid flow through
the arc to carr energ awa . At transmission voltages below 345 kV
oil breakers
used to be popular. The are increasingl losing ground to gas-blast circuit
breakers such as air-blast breakers and SF6 circuit breakers.

In air-blast circuit breakers
air is compressed to high pressures. When the

contacts part
a blast valve is opened to discharge the high-pressure air to
ambient
thus creating a ver -high-velocit flow near the arc to dissipate the
energ . In SF6 circuit breakers
the same principle is emplo ed
with SF6 as the
medium instead of air. In the ͞puffer͟ SF6 breaker
the motion of the contacts
compresses the gas and forces it to flow through an orifice into the neighborhood
of the arc. ¬oth t pes of SF6 breakers have been developed for EHV (extra high
voltage) transmission s stems.

Two other t pes of circuit breakers have been developed. The vacuum breaker

another electromechanical device
uses the rapid dielectric recover and high
dielectric strength of vacuum. A pair of contacts is hermeticall sealed in a
vacuum envelope. Actuating motion is transmitted through bellows to the
movable contact. When the contacts are parted
an arc is produced and
supported b metallic vapor boiled from the electrodes. Vapor particles expand
into the vacuum and condense on solid surfaces. At a natural current zero the
vapor particles disappear
and the arc is extinguished. Vacuum breakers of up to
242 kV have been built.

The other t pe of breaker uses a th ristor
a semiconductor device which in the

off state prevents current from flowing but which can be turned on with a small
electric current through a third electrode
the gate. At the natural current zero

conduction ceases
as it does in arc interrupters. This t pe of breaker does not
require a mechanism. Semiconductor breakers have been built to carr
continuous currents up to 10
000 A.

Other transmission equipments are; cable/wire
ring mains units (RMU)

transformers etc.

In FMN plc. ring network is adopted to increase the reliabilit of the network.
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A wide variet of transformer designs are used for different applications
though
the share several common features. Important common transformer t pes
include:


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An autotransformer has a single winding with two end terminals
and one or more
terminals at intermediate tap points. The primar voltage is applied across two of
the terminals
and the secondar voltage taken from two terminals
almost alwa s
having one terminal in common with the primar voltage. The primar and
secondar circuits therefore have a number of windings turns in common. Since
the volts-per-turn is the same in both windings
each develops a voltage in
proportion to its number of turns. In an autotransformer part of the current flows
directl from the input to the output
and onl part is transferred inductivel

allowing a smaller
lighter
cheaper core to be used as well as requiring onl a
single winding. However
a transformer with separate windings isolates the
primar from the secondar
which is safer when using mains voltages.

An adjustable autotransformer is made b exposing part of the winding coils and

making the secondar connection through a sliding brush
giving a variable turns
ratio. Such a device is often referred to as a variac.

Autotransformers are often used to step up or down between voltages in the 110-
117-120 volt range and voltages in the 220-230-240 volt range
e.g.
to output
either 110 or 120V (with taps) from 230V input
allowing equipment from a 100 or
120V region to be used in a 230V region.

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" 

  


For three-phase supplies
a bank of three individual single-phase transformers can
be used
or all three phases can be incorporated as a single three-phase
transformer. In this case
the magnetic circuits are connected together
the core
thus containing a three-phase flow of flux. A number of winding configurations
are possible
giving rise to different attributes and phase shifts. One particular
pol phase configuration is the zigzag transformer
used for grounding and in the
suppression of harmonic currents.

3 63c
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A leakage transformer
also called a stra -field transformer
has a significantl

higher leakage inductance than other transformers
sometimes increased b a
magnetic b pass or shunt in its core between primar and secondar
which is
sometimes adjustable with a set screw. This provides a transformer with an
inherent current limitation due to the loose coupling between its primar and the
secondar windings. The output and input currents are low enough to prevent
thermal overload under all load conditionsͶeven if the secondar is shorted.
Leakage transformers are used for arc welding and high voltage discharge lamps
(neon lamps and cold cathode fluorescent lamps
which are series-connected up
to 7.5 kV AC). It acts then both as a voltage transformer and as a magnetic ballast.


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Instrument transformers are used for measuring voltage and current in electrical
power s stems
and for power s stem protection and control. Where a voltage or
current is too large to be convenientl used b an instrument
it can be scaled
down to a standardized
low value. Instrument transformers isolate
measurement
protection and control circuitr from the high currents or voltages
present on the circuits being measured or controlled.

÷ 
   
 

 
 

A current transformer is a transformer designed to provide a current in its

secondar coil proportional to the current flowing in its primar coil.

Voltage transformers (VTs)
also referred to as "potential transformers" (PTs)
are

designed to have an accuratel known transformation ratio in both magnitude
and phase
over a range of measuring circuit impedances. A voltage transformer is
intended to present a negligible load to the suppl being measured. The low
secondar voltage allows protective rela equipment and measuring instruments
to be operated at a lower voltages.

¬oth current and voltage instrument transformers are designed to have

predictable characteristics on overloads. Proper operation of over-current
protection rela s requires that current transformers provide a predictable
transformation ratio even during a short-circuit.

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High-voltage overhead conductors are not covered b insulation. The conductor

material is nearl alwa s an aluminium allo
made into several strands and
possibl reinforced with steel strands. Copper was sometimes used for overhead
transmission but aluminium is lower in weight for equivalent performance
and
much lower in cost. Overhead conductors are a commodit supplied b several
companies worldwide. Improved conductor material and shapes are regularl
used to allow increased capacit and modernize transmission circuits. Conductor
sizes range from 12 mm2 to 750 mm2
with var ing resistance and current-carr ing
capacit . Thicker wires would lead to a relativel small increase in capacit due to
the skin effect
that causes most of the current to flow close to the surface of the
wire.

Toda
transmission-level voltages are usuall considered to be 110 kV and above.

Lower voltages such as 66 kV and 33 kV are usuall considered sub-transmission
voltages but are occasionall used on long lines with light loads. Voltages less
than 33 kV are usuall used for distribution. Voltages above 230 kV are
considered extra high voltage and require different designs compared to
equipment used at lower voltages.
Since overhead transmission lines are uninsulated
design of these lines requires
minimum clearances to be observed to maintain safet . Adverse weather
conditions of high wind and low temperatures can lead to power outages: wind
speeds as low as 23 knots (43 km/h) can permit conductors to encroach operating
clearances
resulting in a flashover and loss of suppl . Oscillator motion of the
ph sical line can be termed gallop or flutter depending on the frequenc and
amplitude of oscillation.

Y 
  

 

Electric power can also be transmitted b underground power cables instead of

overhead power lines. The can assist the transmission of power across:

ñc Densel populated urban areas

ñc Areas where land is unavailable or planning consent is difficult
ñc Rivers and other natural obstacles
ñc Land with outstanding natural or environmental heritage
ñc Areas of significant or prestigious infrastructural development
ñc Land whose value must be maintained for future urban expansion and rural
development

Some other advantages of underground power cables:

ñc Less subject to damage from severe weather conditions (mainl lightning

wind and freezing)
ñc Greatl reduced emission
into the surrounding area
of electromagnetic
fields (EMF). All electric currents generate EMF
but the shielding provided
 b the earth surrounding underground cables restricts their range and
power.
ñc Underground cables need a narrower surrounding strip of about 1ʹ10
meters to install
whereas an overhead line requires a surrounding strip of
about 20ʹ200 meters wide to be kept permanentl clear for safet

maintenance and repair.
ñc Underground cables pose no hazard to low fl ing aircraft or to wildlife
and
are significantl safer as the pose no shock hazard (except to the unwar
digger).
ñc Much less subject to conductor theft
illegal connections
sabotage
and
damage from armed conflict.

Some disadvantages of underground power cables:

ñc Undergrounding is more expensive
since the cost of bur ing cables at

transmission voltages is several times greater than overhead power lines

and the life-c cle cost of an underground power cable is two to four times
the cost of an overhead power line. Above ground lines cost around $10
per foot and underground lines cost in the range of $20 to $40 per foot.
ñc Whereas finding and repairing overhead wire breaks can be accomplished
in hours
underground repairs can take da s or weeks
and for this reason
redundant lines are run.
ñc Underground power cables
due to their proximit to earth
cannot be
maintained live
whereas overhead power cables can be.
 ñc Operations are more difficult since the high reactive power of underground
cables produces large charging currents and so makes voltage control more
difficult.

The advantages can in some cases outweigh the disadvantages of the higher
investment cost
and more expensive maintenance and management.

Most high voltage cables for power transmission that are currentl sold on the
market are insulated b a sheath of cross-linked pol eth lene (XLPE). Some cables
ma have a lead or aluminium jacket in conjunction with XLPE insulation to allow
for fiber optics to be seamlessl integrated within the cable.¬efore 1960

underground power cables were insulated with oil and paper and ran in a rigid
steel pipe
or a semi-rigid aluminium or lead jacket or sheath. The oil was kept
under pressure to prevent formation of voids that would allow partial discharges
within the cable insulation. There are still man of these oil-and-paper insulated
cables in use worldwide. ¬etween 1960 and 1990
pol mers became more widel
used at distribution voltages
mostl EPDM (eth lene prop lene diene M-class);
however
their relative unreliabilit
particularl earl XLPE
resulted in a slow
uptake at transmission voltages. While cables of 330 kV are commonl
constructed using XLPE
this has occurred onl in recent decades.

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The frequenc of failure in rotating machines is small
as a result of modern

design and improved materials. Yet failures do occur and can occur with serious
consequences of severe damage and long outages. Thus it is important that
abnormal conditions be recognized promptl and the trouble area isolated
quickl . Generators ma be subject to a number of abnormal conditions
some of
which are:

1.c Faults in the windings

2.c Overload
3.c Overheating (in windings or bearings)
4.c Over speed
5.c Loss of excitation (or loss of field)
6.c Loss of prime mover (or motoring of the generator)
7.c Unbalanced currents
8.c Loss of s nchronism (or out-of-step)
9.c Overvoltage and Under voltage
10.cOver- and Under frequenc
11.cSub s nchronous oscillations
Several of these conditions should not require automatic tripping of the machine

as the ma be corrected in a properl attended station while the machine
remains in service. Hence the protective devices will actuate alarms. Others
such
as faults
require fast removal of the generator from service.

In all cases
it is important to evaluate the cost (initial
operating and

maintenance) and degree of protection afforded. With the risk or danger
encountered if no protection is applied for the particular hazard. Engineering
judgment will determine how much protection to appl
and this amount will var
with the size and importance of the machine.


3
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The winding faults that occur in the generator are:

1.c Phase and ground faults in the stator and associated areas
2.c Ground faults in the rotor and loss of field excitation
The faults inside the generator generall develop as a ground fault in one of the
phase windings
and often develop or spread to involve more than one phase.
Phase faults seldom occur
but when the do occur
large fault currents can flow.

 

 

¬ far
the most effective protection for such faults is the 

 

 .
In a differential protection
the currents in each phase on either side of the
generator are compared in a differential circuit
and an unbalance or difference
current is used to operate an over current rela . This is shown below
where the
rela circuit for onl one phase is shown.

+
.
 

 
 
 

For normal operation or faults outside the two sets of current transformers
V 0½

entering the generator equals V u½leaving the machine in all phases (neglecting
the small internal losses and assuming perfect CTs). Consequentl
the secondar
currents V 0 and V u are almost equal
and the current through the rela ( V 0 } V u ) is
ver small to initiate operation. ¬ut when a fault occurs inside the generator
winding between the two sets of CTs
one of the currents V 0 and V u suddenl
increases
decreases or flows in the reverse direction. In an case
the fault
current V V 0 } V u now flows through the rela to operate it.
In actual fact
the CTs do not alwa s give exactl the same secondar current for
the same primar current
even if the are commerciall identical. This difference
is caused b variations in manufacturing and differences in secondar loading
i.e.

unequal lengths of leads to the rela and unequal burdens of meters or
instruments that ma be connected in one or both of the secondar windings.

  

 

Differential protection provides sensitive protection for generator phase faults

but ma not provide ground fault protection
depending on the grounding used.
And so the method of grounding affects the protection afforded b the
differential rela s. The higher the grounding impedance
the less the fault current
magnitude and the more difficult it is for the differential rela to detect light
ground faults.

A separate ground rela in the grounded neutral will provide sensitive protection

since it can best be set without regard to load current. As the grounding
impedance increases
it becomes difficult to appl a current-t pe rela . The lower
the rela pick-up current
the higher its burden on the Ct and the more difficult it
is to distinguish between ground faults and third harmonic unbalance which also
flows in the neutral. Third harmonic current ma be as high as 10 ʹ 15% of the
maximum generator output.

The
  ma operate for ground faults be ond the generator
and hence



 to coordinate with an other rela s it overlaps. A t pical
case is the generator connected directl to a bus with other circuits. A fault on
one of the other circuits should not trip the generator when the fault should be
cleared b the rela s on the faulted circuit. V



 
 
' 
 
 

   
 . The ma start as turn-to-turn faults (inter-turn
faults) and develop into ground faults
or start as ground faults initiall .


 

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S nchronous generators cannot withstand sustained unbalanced faults nearl as

well as the can withstand three-phase short circuits. The negative-sequence
currents which flow during those unbalanced faults induce high-frequenc
currents which tend to flow in the surface of the solid rotor and in the non-
magnetic rotor wedges and retaining rings. The V u Ê -loss quickl raises the
temperature
and if the unbalanced faults persist
can cause destruction of the
generator. m

   are used as protection for unbalanced fault
currents situation.

3 c3

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Current overload protection of generators is applied principall to provide back-

up protection for busbar or feeder faults rather than to protect the machine
directl . The AIEE standards specif that ͞a machine shall be capable of
withstanding without injur a 30-second three-phase short circuit at its terminals
when operating at rated kVA and power factor and with fixed excitation at 5%
overvoltage͟. c
¬ackup overcurrent protection with an    alone is difficult because
the s nchronous impedance ( 
00 c
c ) limits the fault current on

sustained faults to about the same or less than maximum or rated load current

making the fault current detection not eas . Thus 
   

 are used where the overcurrent unit cannot operate unless the voltage is
below a pre-determined value. Thus the overcurrent element can be set below
rated load
and will not operate until a fault reduces the voltage.

One hazard of all rela s that rel on voltage is the inadvertent loss of voltage
and
consequent incorrect tripping of the generator. This fact should be recognised
and proper precautions taken through good design and adequate maintenance of
the voltage suppl .

33
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Overheating of the generator windings can result from man causes. Ê

 
   Ê
which are temperature-resistance coils
are
embedded within the windings to provide indication. Man machines of 750 kW
and larger have these temperature detectors
which can be arranged to







  




 

 
.

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Overspeed protection is usuall provided on the prime mover. It consists of a

centrifugal device operating from the shaft which operates the prime mover
directl b mechanical means. An   / 
 can be used to supplement
this for overspeed protection.

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Faults in the s stem can result in a s stem break-up into islands
which leaves an
imbalance between available generation and the load. This results in either an
excess or insufficient power for the connected loads. An excess of power results
in over-frequenc with possible overvoltage from reduced load demand. The drop
in voltage causes the voltage regulator to increase the excitation.

The result is overheating in both the rotor and stator. At the same time
more
power is being demanded with the generator unable to suppl it at reduced
frequenc . For utilit generators
the 
       
'
  
    
 

or s stem 
  
 should adjust the load to
the available generation before a critical situation develops.   
   should also be set.

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It is important to keep the generator on the line as long as possible to suppl load

and particularl so where the machine represents a sizeable portion of the s stem
capacit . Thus an earl warning of low excitation would give the operator an
opportunit to restore field if possible and avoid tripping. Tripping and the
resultant loss of load output
when not necessar
can precipitate s stem
breakdown and a major outage. On the other hand
if the machine and s stem
are headed for





  0



then the generator
should be automaticall tripped. The trip rela has been designed with the above
objectives in mind. It is applicable to all t pes of machines and will protect against
var ing degrees of abnormall low excitation.

" 0


 
 will:

1.c alert the operator to an loss or low excitation which could damage the
generator or result in instabilit
2.c alert the operator as quickl as possible in the event of loss of field
so that
the operator would have maximum time to correct the condition
3.c trip the generator automaticall
in the event that there is danger of s stem
instabilit .
Loss of excitation results from:

ñc loss of field to the main exciter

ñc accidental tripping of the field breaker
ñc short circuits in the field circuits
ñc poor brush contact in the exciter
ñc latch failure of the field circuit breaker and
ñc operating errors
When loss of excitation (partial or complete) occurs on a s nchronous generator

reactive power flows from the s stem into the machine. It is important to
remember that active load output (MW) is controlled b the prime mover input

while reactive load output (MVAr) is controlled b the field or excitation.
If the power s stem is large enough to suppl the deficienc in excitation through
the armature (field windings)
then the s nchronous machine will operate as an
induction generator.

In order to operate as an induction generator
the generator must lose

s nchronism. Since the s nchronous machine is not designed for this t pe of
operation
the 
 



 as the rotor oscillates in an
attempt to lock into s nchronism.

This loss of s nchronism does not require immediate tripping
unless there is an
accompan ing decrease in the terminal voltage to a point where s stem
instabilit will occur. It generall takes a generator
 
   &   
 
.

A turbo-generator can safel run above s nchronous speed with zero excitation
for about 2 or 3 minutes.

Reduced excitation results in a drop in terminal voltage of the generator
causing

the generator to draw reactive power from the s stem
thus further reducing the
s stem voltage (and leading to voltage instabilit ). The abilit of the s stem to
maintain stabilit is primaril a function of the size of the generator with respect
to the s stem and the action of the voltage regulators.

à0


 protection to avoid 
 

  

  
 

 
 

 is ver important
and is applied for all
s nchronous machines. Such a protection is included in the excitation s stems
supplied with the machine
but additional protection is recommended to operate
independentl both as supplemental and back-up protection.


 
 are applied for this purpose. Furthermore
c 

   
 or a Ê 
connected to operate an inductive VAR from the
connected s stem
can be applied to detect loss of s nchronism.

3
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The protection against generator motoring is primaril for the prime mover or the
s stem rather than for the generator unit. If the prime-mover suppl is removed
while the generator is connected to the power s stem and the field excited
the
power s stem will drive the unit as a s nchronous motor. This is particularl
critical for steam and h dro units.

For steam turbines
it causes  
  


 and potential damage to the
turbine and turbine blades
and the protection is supplied b steam 
 

. With h dro turbines
low water flow can cause 



 of the blades
on the turbine. H draulic flow indication provides protection against cavitations
of the h dro turbine blades on low water flow. Similar t pes of devices are used
on gas turbines.

As stated
motoring of the generator occurs as a result of deficienc in the prime

mover input to the AC generator. When this input cannot suppl all the losses

then the deficienc is supplied b absorbing real power from the s stem. As the
field excitation should remain the same
the same reactive power would flow as
before motoring. Thus during motoring
the real power will be into the machine

while the reactive power ma be either inductive (positive) or capacitive
(negative). Usuall
the reactive power would be positive
as machines are not
generall operating with leading power factor.

T pical values of the reverse power required to motor a generator at s nchronous

speed when the prime mover power input is lost
are as follows (given in
percentage of the nameplate kilowatts):

Steam turbines
condensing t pe : 1 ʹ 3%

Steam turbines
non-condensing t pe : 3+ %

H dro turbines : 0.2 ʹ 2+%

Diesel engines : 25%

Gas turbines : 50+%

Various detection means are provided as part of the generator and control
but a
supplementar   is recommended to provide added safet and
back-up protection. The   


 
 is connected to operate when
real power flows
 the generator.

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When loss of excitation
either partial or complete
occurs on a s nchronous

generator
reactive power will flow from the s stem into the machine
and the
machine will operate as an induction generator. In order to operate as an
induction generator
the machine must first  
. a 


in the s stem can also cause the generator to lose s nchronism. And so for man
generators
being out-of-step is mostl a s stem problem with the electrical or
load centre out in the transmission area.

The loss of s nchronism or out-of-step protection is not generall applied to

rotating equipment
except to:

c s nchronous frequenc changer sets interconnecting two s stems
and to

c s nchronous motors or motor-generator sets where severe dips can cause
the machine to lose s nchronism.
Where loss of s nchronism or out-of-step protection is required


 
  are used
which count the succession of power reversals (following
loss of excitation)
and if a given number occurs within a specified time interval

the rela sound an alarm or trips the machine off.

3 63c
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Generators and transformers must not be subject to overvoltage
except for short
or transient excursions. With normal operation near the knee of the iron
saturation curve

  
 
 



 0

   


   
 0
 0 



 
 0 
 


 . These can cause severe and extensive damage.

The field excitation current at rated output is greater than that required at no-
load
and so it is important that the excitation be reduced correspondingl as load
is reduced. Normall
this is accomplished b the  

 
but incorrect
voltage signals or other failures in the s stem can result in high overvoltage.
Generator voltage is proportional to frequenc and the magnetic flux
and so
overvoltage protection should have a constant pickup as a function of the ratio of
voltage to frequenc .

ë


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The application of 
 


 in long EHV transmission lines provides
increased power transmission and stabilit
but 
 
  



. This ma also occur for a generator connected to a HVDC
transmission line.

The natural frequenc of a s stem with 
capacitive reactance and  

inductive reactance is given as:



 Â


Where  is the s nchronous or normal s stem frequenc . Since 
is less than


the natural frequenc is  . This results in problems in the

s stem
particularl in the generators. The rotor rotating at s nchronous
frequenc is turning faster than the magnetic field produced b the sub-harmonic
frequenc . This results in 

 
 and negative resistance effect
with the
generator tending to operate as an induction generator.

Another      /
    


   / in the
generator
with additional transient torques occasioned b switching and faults in
the s stem network. There is the 
   
    / 
    


.
 
 
 have been developed to   

. One
t pe measures torsional motion
another       
 
 

 .

The REF protection method is a t pe of "unit protection" applied to transformers

or generators and is more sensitive than the method known as differential
protection.

An REF rela works b measuring the actual current flowing to earth from the
frame of the unit. If that current exceeds a certain preset maximum value of
milliamps (mA) then the rela will trip to cut off the power suppl to the unit.

Differential protection can also be used to protect the windings of a transformer

b comparing the current in the power suppl 's neutral wire with the current in
the phase wire. If the currents are equal then the differential protection rela will
not operate. If there is a current imbalance then the differential protection rela
operates.

REF protection is applied on transformers in order to detect ground faults on a

given winding more sensitivel than differential protection.

 c  cc

p
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 c
Transformers are a critical and expensive component of the power s stem. Due to
the long lead time for repair of and replacement of transformers
a major goal of
transformer protection is limiting the damage to a faulted transformer. Some
protection functions
such as over excitation protection and temperature-based
protection ma aid this goal b identif ing operating conditions that ma cause
transformer failure.
c

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c 33
The t pe of protection for the transformers varies depending on the application
and the importance of the transformer. Transformers are protected primaril
against faults and overloads. The t pe of protection used should minimize the
time of disconnection for faults within the transformer and to reduce the risk of
catastrophic failure to simplif eventual repair. An extended operation of the
transformer under abnormal condition such as faults or overloads compromises
the life of the transformer
which means adequate protection should be provided
for quicker isolation of the transformer under such condition.


ë3c 3ë
Failures in transformers can be classified into
ͻ winding failures due to short circuits (turn-turn faults
phase-phase faults

phase-ground
open winding)
ͻ core faults (core insulation failure
shorted laminations)
ͻ terminal failures (open leads
loose connections
short circuits)
ͻ on-load tap changer failures (mechanical
electrical
short circuit
overheating)
ͻ abnormal operating conditions (overfluxing
overloading
overvoltage)
ͻ external faults



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3

Winding Phase-Phase
Differential (87T)
overcurrent (51
51N)
Phase-Ground faults Restricted ground fault protection (87RGF)

Winding inter-turn faults Differential (87T)
¬uchholz rela

Core insulation failure
Differential (87T)
¬uchholz rela
sudden

shorted laminations pressure rela

Tank faults Differential (87T)
¬uchholz rela and tank-

ground protection

Overfluxing Volts/Hz (24)

"3

Overloads Thermal (49)

Overvoltage Overvoltage (59)

Overfluxing Volts/Hz (24)

External s stem short circuits Time overcurrent (51
51G)
Instantaneous
overcurrent (50
50G)

33
 c
3ë

The major operating challenge to transformer differential protection is
maintaining securit during CT saturation for external faults while maintaining
sensitivit to detect low magnitude internal faults. CT saturation reduces the
secondar output current from the CT
and causes a false differential current to
appear to the rela . Differential rela s meet this challenge in the following wa s:
c
ͻ the restraint current is based on the maximum measured winding current
as
opposed to the traditional magnitude sum of the currents. This ensures ideal
restraint for the actual fault condition
balancing sensitivit and securit .
ͻ the differential element uses a dual slope-dual breakpoint characteristic. The
differential element can be set to account for both DC and AC saturation of the
CTs
ensuring securit
while maintaining sensitivit .
c
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36

The transformer energization resembles the condition of an internal fault. If no
inhibiting mechanism is provided
the differential element will trip. The
magnetizing inrush current has significant 2nd harmonic content. The level of 2nd
harmonic current can be used to differentiate between inrush and a fault
condition. Good transformer rela (s) use two different 2nd harmonic modes to
inhibit the differential element for inrush.
u
c 

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6c ʹ 2nd harmonic restraint responds to the ratio of the
magnitudes of the 2nd harmonic and the fundamental frequenc currents.

3cu
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6ʹ The adaptive 2nd harmonic blocking responds
to both magnitudes and phase angles of the 2nd harmonic and the fundamental
frequenc currents. The differential element correctl distinguishes between
faults and transformer energization
when the 2nd harmonic current is less than
the entered 2nd harmonic setting. While levels of 2nd harmonic during inrush
often do not go below 20%
man transformers are susceptible of generating
lower 2nd harmonic current during energization. Setting the 2nd harmonic
restraint below 20% ma result in incorrect inhibit of the differential element
during some internal fault events. The adaptive 2nd harmonic blocking allows
settings in the traditional 20% range
while maintaining the securit of the
differential element against inrush.
An alternative method for inrush inhibit is also available
where either current

voltage
or breaker status is used to indicate a de-energized transformer. The
threshold can be lowered during energization of the transformer as indicated
either b breaker contact
current or voltage sensing
and will last for a settable
time dela . This allows settings of less than 20% for inrush inhibit during
transformer energization.
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Differential and overcurrent protection do not provide adequate protection for
w e-connected windings with grounded neutrals. Faults close to the neutral
produce less fault current (as shown b the current distribution curve). The
restricted ground fault function can be used to provide differential protection for
such ground faults
down to faults at 5% of the transformer winding. Restricted
ground fault protection can be a low impedance differential function or a high
impedance differential function. The low impedance function has the advantage
to being able to precisel set the sensitivit to meet the application requirement.
This sensitive protection limits the damage to the transformer to allow quicker
repair. The restricted ground fault element uses adaptive restraint based on
s mmetrical components to provide securit during external phase faults with
significant CT error. This permits the function to maximize sensitivit without an
time dela .
c
3 "c3

c
Transformer over-fluxing can be a result of
ͻ Overvoltage
ͻ Low s stem frequenc
A transformer is designed to operate at or below a maximum magnetic flux
densit in the transformer core. Above this design limit the edd currents in the
core and nearb conductive components cause overheating which within a ver
short time ma cause severe damage. The magnetic flux in the core is
proportional to the voltage applied to the winding divided b the impedance of
the winding. The flux in the core increases with either increasing voltage or
decreasing frequenc . During startup or shutdown of generator-connected
transformers
or following a load rejection
the transformer ma experience an
excessive ratio of volts to hertz
that is
become overexcited. When a transformer
core is overexcited
the core is operating in a non-linear magnetic region
and
creates harmonic components in the exciting current. A significant amount of
current at the 5th harmonic is characteristic of over-excitation.
c


6cëc333c3


The transformer winding hot-spot temperature is another quantit that should be

used for protection of transformers. Protection based on winding hot-spot
temperature can potentiall prevent short circuits and catastrophic transformer
failure
as excessive winding hot-spot temperatures cause degradation and
eventual failure of the winding insulation. The ambient temperature
transformer
loading
and transformer design determine the winding temperature.
Temperature based protection functions alarm or trip when certain temperature
conditions are met.
Good rela s use compliant thermal models to calculate the winding hot-spot
temperature and the loss of life of the winding insulation. The top-oil
temperature ma be directl measured
or calculated from the ambient
temperature
load current
and transformer characteristics. In addition
the
calculations ma use a monthl model of ambient temperature
eliminating the
need for external connections to the transformer and rela . This winding hot-spot
temperature and transformer loss of life information is used in thermal overload
protection to provide alarming or tripping when unacceptable degradation of the
transformer winding insulation is occurring.
c
c
 

c 3ë
In addition
these rela s are designed for both new and retrofit installations. New
installations t picall use w e-connected CTs
and internall compensate for the
measured currents for the phase shift of the protected transformer. Traditional
installations ma use delta-connected or w e-connected CTs that externall
compensate the measured currents for the phase shift of the protected
transformer.
c
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Phase shift transformers purposel introduce a variable phase shift between the
primar and secondar voltage. This phase shift is not a multiple of 30 degree
but
is adjustable in small increments
to allow operators to change the phase angle
between parts of the power s stem to control power flow in the s stem.

c

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In the field of electric power distribution and transmission
a 
 c3 
is a
safet device mounted on some oil-filled power transformer and reactors

equipped with an external overhead oil reservoir called a  
 . The
¬uchholz Rela is used as a protective device sensitive to the effects of dielectric
failure inside the equipment.

Depending on the model
the rela has multiple methods to detect a failing
transformer. On a slow accumulation of gas
due perhaps to slight overload
gas
produced b decomposition of insulating oil accumulates in the top of the rela
and forces the oil level down. A float switch in the rela is used to initiate an
alarm signal. Depending on design
a second float ma also serves to detect slow
oil leaks.

c
 c
c

If an arc forms
gas accumulation is rapid
and oil flows rapidl into the
conservator. This flow of oil operates a switch attached to a vane located in the
path of the moving oil. This switch normall will operate a circuit breaker to
isolate the apparatus before the fault causes additional damage. ¬uchholz rela s
have a test port to allow the accumulated gas to be withdrawn for testing.
Flammable gas found in the rela indicates some internal fault such as
overheating or arcing
whereas air found in the rela ma onl indicate low oil
level or a leak.

¬uchholz rela s have been applied to large power transformers at least since the
1940's. The rela was first developed b Max ¬uchholz (1875-1956) in 1921