101

The KodalyMethod and its Musical Basis

( 1970)

In our so-called technical age, when it would appear that every problemis
surmountable by precise application of technical processes, one who deals
with people in any way can easily become envious of those who possess the
methods which would guarantee the desired results. Even though we are aware
that the laws of matter are not applicable to the mind or the spirit, we
nevertheless are inclined to believe that we can discover infallible methods in
the humanistic sciences, in the arts and in the education of human beings.
Success would then perhaps depend on nothing more than the precise and
conscientious application of the above method.
Without question there are elements in music education that are matters of
lesser skill which canbe implanted into the child by systematic practice and the
application of carefully considered methods. For example, the reading of music
is largely a matter of reflex action, and as a result, mastering it canbe facilitated
by ingenious methods and pedagogical techniques. Since true education is al­
ways directed at the whole personwho is not merely a sumof partial abilities or
reflexes, but a self-contained whole or a microcosm (i.e. ‘personality’), these
elements mentioned above are ameans, which provide onlytechnical conditions
for what we intheendwishtoachieve withinthe child.
The means maybe approached through precise application of a method, a
‘manufacturing process’. However, in a human being the means do not lead
automatically tothe end. The application of the means may be faultless and yet
we may still fall far short of the end. To achieve this end we have to be in
constant contact with that end itself. We have to understand it perfectly, we
have to make it our own. We must have a special insight or intuition if we are
tomake the very most ofthe means at our disposal.
Anyone who believes that Kodaly evolved a pedagogical system or
‘manufacturing process’ by which the ideal music education infallibly comes
about, has no idea of Kodaly’s way of thinking and is in for a big disappoint­
ment. There are, indeed, some elements in what is called the Kodaly method
which can be drilled intothe pupil with more or less certainty. But what exactly
is drilled this way? They are no more than the means without which the end is
unattainable. Behind the so-called Kodaly method there is, however, a basic
educational train of thought, an idea, and if we do not perceive this, then we are
followingawell troddenpath, but inthewrongdirection.
Here is a relevant quotation fromMaritain. ‘If someone likes and cultivates
the means only because of the perfection of the means themselves, the peda­
gogical art completely loses its significance. An endless multiplying process
begins where the various means aimlessly develop and growrampant and the
effectiveness of teaching is lost... The educational devices of our time are not
bad. Indeed they are generally much better than those of the older pedagogical
era. The unfortunate thing is that they are indeed so very good that they blind
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our eyes to the ends. This is the explanation for the surprising lack of vigour in
education today, the reason being that whilst we insist on perfecting modern
educational means and methods, we neglect to direct these towards some
end...’1
Nothing would be further from Kodaly than to recommend any method
which would spoil the teacher by persuading him to amass pedagogical
gimmicks or techniques, instead of working with the pupil to reach the heart of
music so that music reaches the heart of the pupil. If we read Kodaly’s
writings we discover that it was certain fundamental ideas, fundamental value-
experiences that turned his intelligence and emotions in the direction of
education. All his practical advice stemmed fromthis, and this canbe our only
point of reference. It would seemnecessary to gain at least an outline of these
basic principles, so that it may become easier to discover the comprehensive
ideabehind the details.
I. Relativesolmization andtonal experience
Visitors to singing lessons in Hungarian schools are struck by the colour­
fulness of the lessons, the variety of activity, the diversity of demonstrations,
games and movements and, above all, by the use of relative solmization like a
connecting thread. This seemed so important that some identified the Kodaly
method with the use of relative solfa. This is, however, contradicted by the fact
that it was only relatively late, in the thirties, after he had been interested in
education for sometime, that Kodaly took over and began emphatically to
recommend solmization. The most essential elements of his educational
concept had already evolved by that time. He sawit as a means to bring about
an already perceived ideal. First of all we must investigate which threads con­
nect relative solmization to the fundamental idea and why it roused Kodaly’s
interest to sucha great extent.
In one of his articles Kodaly writes of the English solmization systemthat
‘this has done more for the popularization of musical culture than any music
school’.2‘It is generally experienced’, he writes elsewhere ‘that countries and
schools using solmization sing with better intonation’.3Howcan this be so? ‘If
we give a note a name with relative solfa, we are also saying what its function
is... With the giving of the name we are determining its function in the
tonality.’ The final argument is ‘Solmization, through play, implants in the
pupil the foundations of musical thinking’.4Howcan we develop this thought,
composed here merely as a formula?
The ‘emotional’ significance of musical content is realized in sounds. There
is no content independent of the sounds, which has priority over the sounds.
‘The intellectual content of a musical work can only be understood through the
language ofmusic.’5
Amore significant factor than the absolute pitch of the sounds is their func­
tion and the relationships between them. Connections and contrasts, closer and
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more distant interdependences areformedbetween them, frequentlyvaryingfrom

style to style, and always with subtle shading. This systemof relationships valid
for particular styles or particular pieces is what we call tonality. Thus in this
sense tonality does not simply mean a scale but also includes the behaviour pat­
terns of individual notes.6Howcan we best perceive ‘tonality’ if we interpret it
in this way? By the melodic progressions, patterns, typical phrases and idioms
characteristic of the work, the type ofmelodyor the style.
Inthe musical perception of a sound two elements come together. First, the
clear perception of individual notes extracted fromthe continuity of vibration-
frequencies (i.e. separated from the glissando) defines the sound from the
acoustic side. Second, the function of the sound in relation to the other sounds
(relation, contrast, reference, approach, etc.) imbues the sound experience with
emotional force. Where acoustics andemotion inseparablyunite is where musical
perception comes intobeing. Thus finding one’swaymusically, musical orien­
tation, or, as Kodaly put it, clear musical thinking is created under the stimu­
lating effect of the tonal sound-experience. The note is sounded and touches us
according to the value and shade attributed to it by tonality which is insepa­
rable acoustically and emotionally at the same time.
Howthen do the sounds become separable, comprehensible and ‘tangible’ in
their own purelymusical sense? No matter hownatural a thing music is, there is
no other art of which the material, the building blocks are so incorporeal. How
does this become real and perceptible? How can we ensure the unity of the
acoustic and emotional sound-experience? We have already mentioned the
characteristic functionof melodic patterns and typical phrases inestablishing the
tonality. It is these that so lastingly engrave in our minds the position and mu­
sical sense and interrelationships ofthe individual sounds.
What aid is offered by relative solmization in the development of musical
thinking? It fixes easily intelligible associations to the individual sounds, or
rather, in ideal teaching, to certain typical intervals and melodic patterns, in the
form of syllables of varying tonal colour. It thus provides possibilities for
differentiation and denotation. It brings about familiarity with the degrees of the
scale, while it activates anarea inour consciousness related tosound perception.
This role could not be filled so effectively by the theoretical definition of
the tonal function of the note. By relative solmization we fix our experience of
the function of the various sounds while making music, and the association is
thus not connected to theoretical statements before or after actual music
making, but to the musical impressions we have obtained fromthe sound. The
solfa syllables associate the musical experience, the acoustic and emotional
characteristics of the sounds, and conversely they themselves evoke them. The
solmization syllable is almost incorporated into the process of practical
musical performance.
Fromwhat has been saidthus far it is clear that teachingthrough relative sol­
mization will have better results if we try to fix the solmization not to separate
degrees ofscales, but tomelodic patterns, typical phrases andtonal functions.
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This broader musical foundation explains the obvious advantages of solmiza-

tionwhich Kodalyreferredtoon several occasions. For example if a sufficiently
strongassociation exists between the syllable andthe sound-experience, thenthe
syllable will evoke the sound-experience thus helping intonation, clear singing,
inner hearing. On the other hand, the sound-experience evokes, or canevoke, the
syllables, thus helping us to ‘decode’ those melodies which we have heard and
whichwe shouldlike to make a note ofor write down. Withrelative solmization
we are no longer slaves to intervals. There is nonecessity to augment our areaof
movement, interval by interval. Amongthe notes fixedbythe alreadyintroduced
solmization, every interval is at once at our service though naturally onlywithin
the framework of typical phrases. We can escape, therefore, fromthe ‘Cmajor
ladder-method’. As Kodaly mentions elsewhere7with the use of solmization we
canavoid disturbance ofthe tonalityof awhole piece by a single falsely intoned
note. This faulty tone remains isolated and the following note is not calculated
fromthe faulty one but always by relating it to the whole tonality. Solmization
opens the finest and most appropriate way towards music culture even for the
average pupil. Hearing and clear musical thinking, cannot be adequately
replacedby reading books, or listening to lectures about music or other accepted
ways and means of musical popularization, which were frequently considered
misleadingbyKodaly.8
Why have we expounded on these issues, why do we find it necessary that
the practising teacher should be familiar with the fundamental principles hidden
behind the teaching method? However, there is a danger of mechanical applica­
tion, and supremacy of routine inthis relative solmization system. If this occurs
then the ends cannot be achieved. There is no doubt that for the connection be­
tween the notes and the solmization syllables to come into existence, practice
and automatic recall are at the outset necessary. After a while, the direct contact
with the sound, the acoustic-emotional sound-experience and freshness of per­
ception can be spoilt if this recollection becomes mechanical. Precisely on ac­
count of its excellent qualities, solmization can make both teacher and pupil too
comfortable. The sound canbe so naturallyevoked to the syllable that the vitali­
tyof discoveryand contact is lost. The area of inner hearing and theoperation of
musical imagination may disappear and the pupil is not compelled towards
musical contemplation or discovery of the tonal function. This is not helped by
our generally making a performance ‘fresher’, ‘truer to life’. In musical perfor­
mance andconception the innermost experience of the individual sounds and the
relationships between the sounds and the emotional and aesthetic experience
stemming fromthis are important. Theatmosphere above the sounds and the en­
thusiasmreplacingspiritual contact onlyshowsuperficiality.
The danger can onlybe averted ifteachers have a thorough understanding of
the fundamental musical idea behind relative solmization and also if they keep
tonal sensitivity alive in themselves. They are not content with the apparent
results of virtuosic solfa singing but pay attention to the actual processes taking
place inthe pupil’s inner hearing and innerbeing during teaching.
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What should be done in cases when the use of relative solmization meets
with difficulties because of some kind of special circumstances? For example,
what if the peculiarities of a country’s folk music make its use difficult or if,
within a musical culture the solmization syllable-names have been traditionally
used for denoting absolute pitch and it appears inappropriate to oppose this
custom? Moreover, if a pupil has already reached a higher musical level
without solmization, would it then seemsensible to put himback to a lower
practising level? In such cases can education drawamoral fromthe practice of
relative solmization, or rather fromthe basic Kodaly thought behind it? Of this
possibility Kodaly quite understandably says nothing, for he wanted to em­
phasize with all his strength: children, keep solmizing!9I believe, however,
that it is just the understanding of Kodaly’s basic principle that makes it
possible to approach the end through the most suitable means. The basic
principle is that pupils should arrive at a purely musical perception of the
sounds in such away that our starting point is always the experiencing of tonal
relationships of sounds. Let me refer to some other means besides relative
solfa that help achieve this goal. For example, by allowing inner hearing to
assist inrecalling a central note after agroup of notes have been removed from
this note in the melodic line; by allowing our inner hearing to perceive the
identity of notes of the same pitch; by making conscious the relationship or
contrasting character of sounds; by relating individual notes not to the
preceding melodic note inour inner hearing but to its relation to a central tone;
by paying attention to the agogics adjusting itself to the connection between
the sounds. With means such as these, which cannot be neglected even when
solmization is being used, a good teacher can also stimulate the pupil towards
the development of musical thinking, activating the sense of tonality. From
what has been said it is clear that careful selection of the musical material, the
succession of phrases displaying similar tonal thinking, melodic patterns,
stylistic areas, each strengthening the other, give us the greatest help.
Various kinds of illustrations, drawings or a whole assortment of games are
usually used in connection with relative solmization, partly to make the
lessons more lively and partly to reinforce the already gained aural images
with further associations. These do not originate from Kodaly and cannot
strictly be considereda component part of the Kodaly educational concept.10If
one of these games or devices can be proved to strengthen, fix and preserve a
musical idea or image (for example hand signs), then its moderate use cannot
be objected to, especially with groups in the lower age ranges. However, the
further they lead fromclear musical thinking and the more they stand between
the pupil and music, becoming like a laborious machine, the more they come
into opposition with the basic Kodalyian idea. Let every teacher use these aids
alongside the ‘Kodaly method’ according to his own ingenuity and talents but
he should take care that these pedagogical devices do not hinder the
establishment of an intimate relationship between the pupil and the music. He
must not forget that the goal is for music to attract the pupils through its own
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power. It may be mentioned here that the rhythmduration syllables which did
not originate fromKodaly, inour opinion, donot followanymusical rule since
the associative connection between tonal colour and temporal proportion
cannot be established.
To summarize, Kodaly’s educational concept was essentially complete
before relative solmization was incorporated, but solmization fitted into the
plan as a whole, it was able to become a particularly effective means in the
development of tonal hearing and musical thinking, inner hearing and pure
intonation, particularly inthe teaching ofmasses.
2. Folksongandmusical value
Although it was mainly the afore mentionedprinciples that decided infavour
of the introduction of relative solmization, Kodaly on one occasion indicates
another factor: ‘the old methodborrowed fromabroad’, built on the successive
steps of the major scale and on the calculation of intervals, ‘was not suitable
for Hungarian melodies. To avoid a contradiction it would have been
necessary to dispense with precisely the most original and most characteristic
melodies’." It is true that anyone familiar with Hungarian folksongs and
children’s songs knows that one of the characteristic features is a melodic
structure sometimes employing only two or three notes. Typical phrases are
put together in this manner. This makes themvirtually unapproachable with
the old scale-attitude, but it directly asks for the use of relative solmization
which fixes motifs and central notes. Strictly speaking it was the fortunate
meeting between relative solmization and the basic nature of the folksong and
children’s song which was Kodaly’s real innovation making a sort of method­
ical development possible.
The most frequently recurring motif in Kodaly’s pedagogical philosophy is
the establishment of Hungarian folksong and children’s song, as the foundation
of music education. ‘Our folk music is not simply peasant music or village mu­
sic. It does not represent only one social stratumof Hungarian culture’, Kodaly
emphasized his scientific recognition and its practical consequences. ‘The folk­
song is Hungarian classical music par excellence.’12It is the remains of an an­
cient, and universal Hungarian culture. It was for this reason that hejustified its
use as the basis of the whole nation’s musical culture and above all of music
teaching.13
It is general knowledge that in the earlier stages of European societies folk
music and art music were not sharply separated. For example, no matter how
many fashionable melodies were current in the Hungarian musical culture of
either the peasants or the more cultured upper class, in the late Middle Ages,
there were nevertheless very many common elements in the material of every­
day musical life. The natural development of Hungarian culture was modified
in a peculiar way fromthe sixteenth century onwards by Turkish and Habsburg
 107

oppression. The intensity of the permanent link between art music and folk
music diminished and the development of art music stopped short. It was the
Hungarian village that preserved most of our folk music in its classical ancient
condition, with all its monumental vestiges. When, at the beginning of the
twentieth century Bartok and Kodaly uncovered the values of Hungarian folk
music through systematic work, they discovered a melodic culture of truly
classical value, with many ancient features, that were melodically rich, and
free of all banality. It was a treasure to be used, but also a task of which
Hungarian culture had to prove itself worthy. Another reason was because at
the beginning of the century general knowledge ofthis high-level, monophonic
culture was on the wane even inthe villages. The most valuable melodies were
known by fewer and fewer people, and the villages were being further and
further penetrated by a Hood of mediocre urban mass-music. It could not be
expected that this priceless ancient music would keep itself alive or that it
would live and have an effect in the natural process of life. It was necessary to
take up the cause of this tradition consciously, and as Kodaly says, be a part of
it in ourselves.14It was the cultured people who had to recognize its value and
tohave it further acknowledged through the schools.
Here we have to dispel a fallacy which dangerously threatens the foreign
onlooker or imitator. Kodaly did not intend this folksongs beginning as an
educational device. He was not influenced merely by the fact that it was from
‘generally known’melodies, fromthe naturally used ‘mother tongue’, thorough­
ly familiar to the child, that one extracted various kinds of musical knowledge.
The Hungarian folksong is in that sense no longer a mother tongue. If the
majority of Hungarian children brought this knowledge into the kindergarten or
school by some natural legacy, we could then use this knowledge to teach them
howtoreadmusic. Here we consider the mother tongue inadifferent sense. It is
our task to establish this musical mother tongue. Kodaly wanted to make the
folksong the mother tongue; the natural musical expression closest to the child.
He would have wanted to do this even if not one single child had showed any
familiaritywith these melodies when he came to the school or kindergarten.
Why is the above mentioned fallacy harmful? Because it makes one forget
that Kodaly was attracted to the folksong by the fact that in its simple
monophony it carries a high aesthetic and national value. If we fail to make
this recognition conscious, we are threatened by the danger that we may turn
the function and dignity of the folksong over to popular music merely because
we consider this to be our ‘mother tongue’ and because on these well known
melodies are easier to use as components of pedagogical cliches. We make
musical education a servant to the demands of music reading or musical
technique. Our main point will be to explain the so-do interval through an
easily learned or already familiar tune.
If we want to say briefly why Kodaly wished to make the Hungarian folk­
song the basis of Hungarian music education, we could say that the folksong is
simple, and it possesses a formwhich even a child can followand it compiuni-
108

cates artistic andnational cultural valueofthe highest order. As Kodalywrites in

several places, it is quite obvious that he had no intention to take a stand against
foreign, European, or artistic music. ‘Ourpurpose cannot betoplunge the schools
suddenly to the opposite extreme by using one-sided folk material’;15‘we have
to become familiar with as large a slice ofthe world as possible’;16‘we have to
open the gates towards the great foreignmasters, nomatter what nationality they
are’.17What has to be thrown out completely is not the great ones so often
mentioned by Kodaly, not the Shakespeares and Michelangelos of music,18not
Gregorian music, Palestrina, Bach or Mozart, but the pedagogical study-compo­
sitions andshoddylittle songs invading the schools.19
If the selected musical material is a familiar tune, but is not of that enduring
musical value containing artistic discipline and seriousness which Kodaly found
in our folksongs, then it is, only in appearances that we have followed the
Kodalyian example. By speedy work and superficial gathering of information
we shall not discover that layer ofmusic onwhichwe canbuild securely.
3. Singingandmusical imagination
The third pillar of Kodaly’s educational concept is the role of singing in
musical education as a whole. This is self-evident for all those who teach in
ordinary schools as in this respect it is rather in the content of the singing
lessons that the appearance of Kodaly brought newthings. The emphasizing of
this was a more revolutionary matter in the area of instrumental teaching.
‘Deeper musical culture has developed only where singing was its basis...’
wrote Kodaly.20‘The roots of music are insinging.’21
Why was Kodaly so determined to strengthen the leading role of singing?
One reason was that in this way he wanted to bring into the foreground the
leading role and the development of hearing. ‘The enhancement of inner
hearing is the final aimof all professional music study’, he writes.22 ‘Every
musical manifestation must be led by an inner conception, hearing and
imagination, and this is trained by singing. Unaccompanied singing is the true
and profound school of musical abilities.’23It is for this reason that he empha­
sized that a child should not be allowed to touch an instrument until his hearing
has been trained through singing for at least a year. Alongside instrumental
study, independent hearing and imagination must continue tobe developed and
solfege courses must therefore accompany instrumental study throughout.
‘Solfege is the alpha and omega of musical understanding.’24It is thus under­
standable that ‘the head should control the fingers’25since ‘music is the princi­
pal subject, the instrument merely the principal secondary subject’.26
Here we have once more to establish clearly the relationship between
means and ends. Beautiful singing obviously has its own particular beauty and
developing strength but inwhat Kodalyemphasizes here even singing is onlya
means. If it were not so, then the child with less talent in singing or the city
pupil, who at the outset sings with awkwardness, would not have much chance
 109

in music. If we really consider singing to be the educational means towards

hearing and imagination, then striving in the direction of fully efficient musical
expression is the essential. Singing is where inner imagination manifests itself,
and in turn, it has an effect on the conception itself, that is on the whole
musicality. We could quote innumerable examples where real aural sensitivity,
imaginative power of expression, a sense of form, and the will for soundquality
do not evolve even if a vigorous singingroutine is inoperation, when we do not
direct the singing towards the development of these. Our attention is further
drawn to this by various music-psychological investigations. For example,
Martienssen demonstrates that apparent hearing can evolve purely on the basis
of a vocal chord routine; he also warns, as has been noticed by the majority of
music teachers, that the vocal realization of the inner conception frequently
has no effect at all on instrumental application. There, inner hearing and ima­
gination must of course be present, though not automatically using the results
already achieved in singing but directing themcompletely towards the possi­
bilities ofexpression and tone peculiar tothe instrument concerned. Singing and
playing on an instrument are motorically different. It is not singing that helps in
playing on an instrument but thevigorous aural activitywhich occurs insinging.
This experience strictly speakingjustifies Kodaly, whoviewedsingingprimarily
fromthe aspect ofaural education. It gives a warning, however, to all those who
claimthat merely byrepeated practice in singing they have done their dutywith
regard to the realization of the Kodalyian thought. What is actually to be done?
If the teacher possesses an inner sensitivity, a secure sense of form, a lively and
demanding sense of sound and an active and well controlled inner hearing and
imagination, these can then be introduced to the pupil. In effect, during singing
or some other musical activity, the pupil will awaken and develop in himself
these inner stimuli. Naturally, the same must be done by the teacher and by the
pupil ininstrumental playingas well.
It would appear that so far we have spoken of the role of singing only from
the point of viewof the instrumental music student. What is its significance for
the others or for the masses? It was Kodiily’s conviction that we can only
achieve a true musical culture by active music-making. ‘Music is so much a
sui generis manifestation of the human soul that to interpret it in another
language is not possible.’27He considers it invidious if in the course of study
programme music and conceptual knowledge gain too dominant a position.
‘The pupil pays attention to the elements outside the music; he believes that he
understands it, but meanwhile the music itself is gliding past himunnoticed.’28
What is the solution, if he can trust so little in the customary means used in so-
called general music knowledge? ‘Music only enters into us and lives in us if
we prepare our souls for it through work, that is practical music making.’29
Thus, if we can reach music only in this way, with pure musicality and if only
practical music making leads us to an understanding of it, then how can the
road to music open up for the multitude of people who do not study an instru­
ment? It can be opened through singing. ‘The human voice, the free and yet the
110

most beautiful instalment, available toeveryone, canbe the fertile soil for music
culture extending to the general masses.’30According to this it is obvious that
the school singing lesson is only a preparation. Apreparation in that it is an
introductiontochoral life. What chamber music is to instrumentalists, especially
non-pianists, choral singing is to the non-instrumentalist: Choral singing gives
access to the greatest treasures of musical culture. ‘The Hungarian child can be
ledto anunderstanding of the polyphonic masterpieces of the sixteenth century.
This road leads more certainlytotruemusical culture.’31
In our opinion there arise fromthis certain serious issues to be considered.
First of all, the singing lesson must not be allowed to stray into the labyrinth of
virtuosic exercises and ingenious games. Fromthe first moment it is necessary
to strive towards the goal of artistic expression, sound quality and artistic in­
terpretation of music. Atrue like life quality must characterize the progress,
appropriate tothe age of the pupils.
The second conclusion is that eventhough it was agreat mistake that musical
culture in Hungary was structured fromthe top downwards, where below, relia­
ble music education was entirely lackinginkindergartens and schools, theoppo­
sitewouldbejust as great amistake. The systemofworld-famous singingschools
is ineffective if it lacks a sparkling musical life including concert life of high
standardas well as chamber music andchoral life.
The third point is of secondary importance but it must be mentioned. Choral
activityonlyanswers toKodaly’s demands if it leads tothehighest levels ofmu­
sic culture. This is partly amatter of qualityrepertoire and partly depends on the
musical culture of the choir leader. Hungarian experience shows that certain
dangers must be guarded against in both areas. Asectarian scale of values of
popular choral works andchoral composers frequentlyevolves, andthis has very
little to do with the scale of values of true contemporary musical culture. There
is likewise some danger inthe fact that sincethechoir leader does not apparently
require such professional knowledge as an instrumental performing artist, he
relies onhis instincts, whichare not always dependable andfrequently he cannot
be distinguishedfromthedilettante. Though this question does not strictly belong
to education, it must be discussed, since it is inseparable fromthe Kodalyian
ideals and goals, and because the schools must establish intensive chamber
music andchoral lifewhich maythenbedeveloped inadult life.
The central role of singing is thus anessential element inKodaly’s pedagogy
partly in order to focus on the role of inner imagination and hearing through
solfege alongside instrumental teaching. On the other hand, by singing every­
body can participate in an active music-making which is the only way towards
musical culture. We have pointed out that singing leads to these ends only if we
encourage the pupils’ inner contact with music and if we teach the masterpieces
oftruemusical culture.
 Ill

4. School andhumanistic education

After what has been said so far it is unnecessary to prove howessential a
healthy democracy is in Kodaly’s educational system. ‘Let music be
everyone’s’, or in another quote32 ‘making available for everyone the means
towards musical education’.33 He also blames the past. ‘We brought up a
musical elite, but we forgot to bring up a public for it.’34Fromthe present he
demands that what the people have already won legally on paper should now
become true in real life. ‘There is no sense in having the right to education if
one has not got the possibility...’35‘If we do not inoculate the people against
the plague of bad music as soon as possible, then it will irrevocably be the
victimof it.’36
We have mentioned healthy democracy as we wish to distinguish it sharply
from that with which it is frequently confused today. Here it is a matter of
having everyone reach the magnetic field ofvalues onthe highest level, i.e. the
true, the beautiful and the good. This often is confused with the reduction of
values, the spread or toleration of ‘the plague ofbad music’, and ofevery other
kindof plague under the pretext of democracy and popular demand. Respect for
the educated manifests itself, ‘maxima puero reverentia’,37 in our placing the
criterion as highas possible andour refusal of ‘watered downart-substitutes’.38
Is this ambition realistic? Can the masses indeed be raised to a culture of
this nature and standard? For culture is an ascent and the road leading to it is
tiring and demands sacrifices. ‘I have become increasingly aware’, confesses
Kodaly, ‘that it is scarcely possible to do anything about adults. This is why I
went lower and lower down. The bad taste of grown-ups can hardly be
improved; on the other hand an early developed good taste can not easily be
spoiled’.39 A high-level culture, which nevertheless touches on broad areas,
can only be attained through the schools. ‘I turned my attention towards the
primary schools. In the twenties it became obvious to me that it is only from
there that musical mass-education can start.’40It is not necessary to narrate in
detail the fight lasting several decades which Kodaly waged for the musicality
of Hungarian schools, for more time to be given to music and for better
curricula and better teachers.
Is it possible to ask all this from the schools? In the twenties even the
authorities regarded Kodaly’s aspirations with disapproval, claiming that the
primary school is not a music school.41 In reply Kodaly established an even
more basic point. ‘Music is unconditionally necessary to the development of a
human being... not some dispensable article of amusement.’42And with that
we are bound to be reminded of a very similar sentence which fits Kodaly’s
conception appropriately: ‘Sine musica nulls disciplina potest esse perfecta.’43
(No education can be perfect without music.) This sentence is none other than
the medieval school’s principle, continuing the tradition of the schooling of
Antiquity and a basis of one-time classical European education. ‘It was not in
vain that Mousike was the central subject inthe Greek school’, writes Kodaly.44
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‘Sofar it is Greekeducation that best achievedharmony inphysical and spiritual

civilization. In this music occupied a central position.’45With muchjoy Kodaly
learnedfromresearch that intensive workwith music stimulated the spirit of the
pupils inother subjects as well.
When Kodaly won the battle for the music primary school and wished to
put it into general practice he was not led by professional prejudice. Essen­
tially what he did was to reach back to the educational concept which was the
foundation of European culture and which made it great. The essence of this
concept was that the standard of education was not measured in terms of the
quantity of knowledge. It was measured by howcapable it was of stimulating
the basic forces of the human spirit to life and shifting themin a worthy direc­
tion. Basic subjects, which could later be extended in several directions, were
grammar, music and mathematics. This concept which was deeply founded
both psychologically and philosophically, was the basis of European education
until the rigid spirit of the ‘enlightenment’ (Aufklarung) and the domination of
the specialized sciences imposed themselves on schools. The Kodalyian
school-concept is not absolutismbut the continuation of a deep tradition. It is a
cry for the right toeducation ina true humanistic spirit.
Whether music can regain its positioninthe educational systemdepends only
partly on the music teacher. But whether it is worthy and deserving depends
very much on music education. Kodaly would certainly have fought more suc­
cessfully for increasing the number of school singing lessons if these had had
greater prestige. If music teaching is just one more routine occupation among
the rest; if it is not incorporated into the unity of spiritual life; if it does not
contribute significantly to the development of the pupil’s true culture, then it
does not deserve a more respected position. Perhaps an important task for
theoretically minded educationists and other scholars would be to investigate
andreport indetail onthe historical, psychological, educational and philosoph­
ical interrelationships briefly outlinedhere.
5. Cultureandpersonality
We can therefore see that Kodaly views the question of music education
within the framework of human education and universal culture. This will to
educate the nation is the ultimate motive and what has been previously dis­
cussed is merelythe means.
Culture is naturally not just the sumtotal of all the information which has
been gathered fromthe various channels of learning. Culture comes into being
in man. Today we sometimes consider man living in traditional communities,
uneducated but he was able to assimilate the elements of his life into a culture
while modern man can still remain uncultured in spite of his tremendous
knowledge. In Kodaly’s view, three things are necessary for culture. They are
tradition, tasteandspiritual integrity. Herearejust afewsentences as reminders.
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‘The crown of the tree grows only as high as its roots penetrate deep into
the ground.’46 Continuity and durability is necessary for tradition so that
generations can take over the basic truths and values, and perfect them, expe­
rience themand live them. ‘Everyone must sharepersonally in the tradition.’47
How is it possible that it was precisely the conservatively inclined48Kodaly
who brought about the greatest Hungarian educational revolution of the centu­
ry? We believe that every true revolution comes about in this manner as it is
only inthis waythat it canhave a foundation intruth.
As far as taste is concerned, Kodaly says: ‘Anyone who cannot distinguish
between good and bad is illiterate.’49What a great need there is for this ability
today since ‘the majority of what we hear every day throughout the world -
the music of every day, weekdays, human mediocrity - does not even deserve
the name of music’.50‘Badmusic shakes one’s faith inmoral laws.’51
In the last analysis, culture works in man, bringing about a kind of inner
unity and inner discipline. For this reason culture can only be transferred from
person to person or as Kodaly writes: ‘fromliving being to living being, by
meeting face to face.’52
Let us make a quick summary of the basic features of the Kodalyian educa­
tional concept. Aural culture, musical sensitivity and imagination expressed in
singing; broad musical culture without lowering the standard; national tradition;
simple yet high-standard musical material; and the integration of music culture
into general human education. Avisitor fromabroad quite spontaneously said:
this is not a methodbut aphilosophy. It wouldseemhewas right.
What is newin this? Firs, Kodaly pointed in the direction of several means
which today lead more quickly to the end. Second, more importantly, Kodaly
was a phenomenon and a personality, who took these seemingly commonplace
ideals, and made themauthentic, exciting and timely.
What canwe learn fromthis great personality?
That music education can only be regarded within the unity of music
culture and general human culture. Above all we educators must aspire to a
culture which we have with heart and soul made our own. The composer or
musicologist does not become smaller by bending down towards the problems
of the young. There is roomfor quiet humour beside the greatest heroism; the
human spirit can even today overcome the apparent destiny of history.

Notes
1. J. Maritain, Education at thecross-roads. Yale University Press, p. 3.
2. Z. Kodaly, Londoni rddionyilalkozat. (Radio statement made in London). (In citing Kodaly
the page numbers ofVisszatekintes” (“InRetrospect”)- have been quoted, edited by Ferenc
Bonis, published bythe ZcnemukiadoVallalat. Budapest, 1964.)
3. Enekeljunk tisztdn. (Let us singtruly.) 1941. 1. 85.
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4. „Otfoku zene II. ”Utoszo. (“Pcntaton Music II.” Postscript. 1947. I. 68. (Cf. “Solmization
comprises, and then replaces, the indication sound degrees bynumbers.”) “Bicinia Hunga­
rica” I. 2.1. 69. and ibid. I. 68. Reflexiok azeneoktatas reformtervezetehez. (Reflection on
the reformplan for music education.) 1952.1. 253.
5. Beethoven halalanak evfordulojan - Megnyito a zeneakadenriai diszhangversenyen. (On
the anniversary of Beethoven’s death. Opening address at the gala concert at the
Hungarian AcademyofMusic.) 1952. II. 396.
6. These mayin awider sense be called “functions”.
7. A „333 olvasogyakorlathoz". (To the “333 ReadingExercises”.) 1943. I. 128.
8. Megjegyzesek az uj tantervhez. (Remarks onthe newcurriculum.) 1961. 1.331.
9. Azenekedveldijjusaghoz. (Tomusic-lovingyouth.) 1950. I. 222.
10. E.g. “If such drawings have any sense at all...” The author’s remarks to criticismof the
school singingbook “So-Mi”. 1943.1. 145.
11. Zenei kdzneveles. (Public music education.) 1945. I. 165.
12. A magyar nepdal miiveszi jelentosege. (The artistic significance of the Hungarian folk­
songs.) 1929. I. 35.
13. Szazeves terv. (A hundred-year plan.) 1947. I. 288-9. Magyar nepzene. (Hungarian folk
music.) 1944. II. 135. Zene az ovodaban. (Music inthe kindergarten.) 1941.1. 95.
14. Neprajz es zenetdrtenet. (Ethnology and music history.) 1933. II. 232.
15. Megjegyzesek a “Szo-Mi” nepiskolai enektankonyv biraloinak viszontvalaszdra.
(Remarks in reply to the reviewers ofthe “So-Mi” school singing book.) 1943. I. 152. Cf.
I. 137and 144.
16. Szazegy magyar nepdal. - Eloszo. (One hundred and one Hungarian folksongs -
Foreword. 1929.1. 47.
17. A magyar karenek utja. (The way of the Hungarian choral singing.) 1935.1. 53.
18. Mi amagyar azeneben? (What is Hungarian inmusic?) 1939. I. 72.
19. Szombalhely; vdlasz a polgarmester iidvozlo szavaira. (Szombathely, answer to the
mayor’s words of welcome.) 1943. I. 122. Tizenot ketszolamu enekgyakorlat. Eloszo.
(Fifteen two-part singing exercises - Foreword.) 1941. I. 88. Bartok Bela, az ember.
(Bela Bartok the man.) 1946. 445. etc. Iskolai enekgyujtemeny (School Song Collection.)
1943.1.133.
20. Eneklo ijjusdg. Bevezeto eloa.das. (Singing youth. Introductory article.) 1941.1. 117.
21. Zenei nevelesiink reformjarol. (On the reformofour music education.) 1954.1. 287.
22. Ibid. 1954.1.291.
23. A komoly zene nepszeriisltese. Eloadas NewYorkban. (The popularization of serious mu­
sic. Lecture inNewYork.) 1946.1. 199.
24. Beszed a Zenemuveszeti Foiskola 1956-57-es lanevzdro iinnepsegen. (Address at the
closing of the 1956-57 academic year, Academyof Music.) 1957. I. 313.
25. Zenei nevelesiinkreformjarol. (On thereformof our music education.) 1954. I. 291.
26. Ki ajo zenesz? (Who is agood musician?) 1953.1. 280.
27. Ki az igazi zeneerto? (Who reallyunderstands music?) 1956.1. 299.
28. Megjegyzesek az uj tantervhez. (Remarks onthe newcurriculum.) 1961. I. 331.
29. Mire vald a zenei onkepzokorl (What are the musical school groups good for?) 1944. I.
156.
30. Eneklo ijjusdg. (Singingyouth.) 1941.1. 117.
31. Bicinia Hungarica1. Utoszo. (Bicinia Hungarica 1. Postscript.) 1937. I. 65.
32. Eloszo. (Foreword.) I. 7.
33. Magyarzenei neveles. (Hungarian music education.) 1945.1. 177.
34. Videki varoszenei elete. (Musical life in aprovincial town.) 1937. I. 74.
35. Taniigyi bacsik...! (Daddies ofpublic education...!) 1956. I. 306-7.
36. Ibid. 1. 307.
37. Zene az ovodaban. (Music inthe kindergarten.) 1941. I. 111.
38. Gyermekkarok. (Children’s choirs.) 1929. 1. 41. (Choose from flawless masterpieces
only!) Ibid. I. 42.
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39. Nyilalkozat Baldzs Bela helilapjaban. (Statement in Bela Balazs’s weekly.) 1945. I. 171.
A komoly zene nepszerusitese. Eloadas New Yorkban. (The popularization of serious
music. Lecture inNewYork.) 1946.1. 198.
40. Gyermekkarok. (Children’s choirs.) 1929.1. 41.
41. Reflexidk a zeneoktatds reformtervezelehez. (Reflections on the planned reform of music
education.) 1952.1. 254.
42. Megnehemyszo a tantervrol. (Some more words on the curriculum.) 1961. I. 334.
43. Cf. L. Mczey, Deaksag es Europa. (The literates in Hungary and Europe.) Budapest,
1979.
44. Meg nehdny szo a tantervrol. (Some more words on the curriculum.) 1961. I. 334. Egy
zenepedagogiai folyoirat meginduldsdhoz. (On the launching of a music education
periodical.) 1958.1. 316.
45. Taniigyi bdesik...! (Daddies ofpublic education.,.!) 1956. I. 306-7.
46. Amagyar karenek utja. (The way of Hungarian choral singing.) 1935. I. 55.
47. Neprajz eszenetortenet. (Ethnography andmusic history.) 1933. II. 232.
48. Hungarian conservatism grown upon world culture. Tizenhdrom fiatal zeneszerzo.
(Thirteen young composers.) 1925. II. 393.
49. Eneklo ijjitsdg. (Singingyouth.) 1941.1. 118.
50. Mire valo a zenei onkepzdkor? (What arc the musical school groups good for?) 1944. I.
157.
51. Taniigyi bdesik...! (Daddies ofpublic education...!) 1956. I. 306.
52. Neprajz eszenetortenet. (Ethnography andmusic history.) 1933. II. 232.