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conclusions it will, for the sake of simplicity, be taken to in a structure, nor even the magnitude of the highest stre55
apply throughout this paper. levels: it should nevertheless be useful in dealing with the
Consider now a range of non-linear elastic materials large class of problems for which solution consists of the
whose stress-strain laws for pure tension/compression are estimation of the gross deformation of structures under
expressed non-dimensionally as follows: specified loading conditions. In the present paper the
(3 = (;)n . . . * (3)
authors set out first to explain the theorem in non-specialist
terms with reference to a statically determinate structure,
and secondly to present some illuminating examples of its
This equation is plotted in Fig. 1. For n = 1 the equation application to redundant structures.
reduces to Hooke's Law (linear elasticity). For larger values
of n the strain becomes more sensitive to stress as stress STATICALLY DETERMINATE
increases. In the limit as n + co no strain is possible except ILLUSTRATION
when a = ;,a at this stress the strain is not Uniquely The structure shown in Fig. 2, which is made of material
determined, and additional stress cannot be borne: that is, obeying the stress-strain law of equation (3), consists of
(as far as loading is concerned) the material is rigid- two equal straight bars of cross-sectional area A and length
perfectly plastic, with yield stress ur = am. L, pin-jointed to each other and to the rigid foundation.
The structure supports loads X and Y at the central pin,
BRACKETING OF ANSWERS
as shown.
Experimental work shows that, for a large variety of Let us define the function D as follows
materials in common use the range of values of n is bounded,
roughly, by 1 and 9. Analytical solutions to all but the most D = a€
trivial structural problems for values of n within this range (In the analogous steady creep problem D represents the
are notoriously difficult-even if n is restricted to integral energy dissipation rate per unit volume.) Let us now
values. It is interesting to examine therefore, in the light consider those combinations of X and Y which make the
of Fig. 1, how existing (or, at worst, readily obtainable) mean value of D (which we shall denote DAVG)throughout
solutions to problems involving specified relevant geometry the structure equal to D,, where
and loading conditions (1) in linear elasticity (n = 1) and D,, = a,€, . . . . -
(4)
(2) in perfect plasticity (n+ CQ) may be used most con- an and E , being quantities which enable equation (2) to be
veniently to 'bracket' solutions for intermediate values of n. cast in the non-dimensional form (3). Let W be the tension
A recent theorem (3) shows one way in which this in a bar of the structure, and let subscripts b and c refer to
bracketing may be performed. The theorem is concerned bars b and c respectively (Fig. 2). By equilibrium of the
not with complete solutions to structural problems (in- central pin
volving the determination of stress and strain throughout
structures) but with partial solutions for deflection of w6 = (x+Y)/d2
structures at the points of application of loads in the therefore Ob = Y)/1/2A (x+
direction of the loads. It offers no help in determining, for and € b = %[(X+ Y)/d2Aonln
example, the position of the most severely stressed material from equation (3). Consequently
Similarly
D, = uccc = anen [(Y--X)/1/2A~,]n+l
}
Db = Ubcb = U , E , [ ( X + Y ) / ~ / ~ A u , ] " + '
(5)
5 = (.E)n
En
locate F,, over a wide region of load-space with sufficient Example (I): A pin-jointed frame-work
accuracy. Consider the statically indeterminate structure shown in
For example, F1 and F, are readily established for the Fig. 6. As only one joint moves it seems most convenient
structure shown in Fig. 2. The fact that these two curves to derive the F-curves by geometrical construction from
touch at four points immediately locates four points on F,, the more easily obtainable U-curves. We determine U as
for all values of n. If but a single point on F,, can be located follows. Imposing a deflection (x, y ) on the central joint,
in the region of greatest separation of Fl and F, (in this we find the strains in each bar by the use of simple
case, of course, the exercise is trivial) a guess for the whole ' geometry :
of F,, may be made with some confidence. The touching of
all F,, in this example at the points corresponding to X = (X+Y)/L\/~Y €, = (y-x)/L1/2~ =yfL1/2
and Y acting independently is due to the fact that, for these Substitution in equation (3) gives the stress in each bar;
special loading conditions, all the material in the structure hence we may find
has the same absolute value of stress. This is precisely the
condition for 'minimum-weight' design of the structure
jv OE d V = u E "Iv Ie/lq,,l(n+l)/n dV
under the specified loading (5). When a structure satisfies l€&,,p+l)/nAL+ l€J€,,1("+W"AL
= On€,,[
this minimum-weight criterion for a given set of loads, all
the surfaces F,, coincide at the corresponding point in +
I€&, I(n+*)/nAL1/2]
load-space. Minimum weight is both a necessary and a for the structure in terms of x and y. Setting this quantity
sufficient condition for the exact coincidence of all F,,. As equal to (volume of structure) x D,, i.e. to (2+ 1/2)ALu,,~,,
will be shown later, however, curves for different values of we find values of x and y defining U.
n may lie very close to each other in spite of wide departure It is necessary, for purposes of application of the theorem,
from the minimum-weight condition. to work either in reduced or in non-dimensional load and
If F, and F, are widely spaced, it will probably be deflection space: it is convenient to work in non-dimensional
necessary to locate several points on F,, before the complete space.
curve may be sketched with assurance. For structures of Setting, for example
this sort, it may be possible to devise semi-empirical rules xyl = X/€,L1/2, y' = Y/PJ1/2 . (9)
to help in the process of interpolation between F-surfaces ( L d 2 being a convenient length) the equation of U
for different values of n.
becomes
Ix'+Y' I(n+l)/n+ Iy' I (n+l)/n+ 1/21y ' l ( n + 1 ) / n = 2+ .,,9
--XI
y:Y'
or
I
I
3c Plastic collapse of the frame takes place when (7)
F,
5
Fol
XL
=4y ~
For n -+ 03, M , equals the full plastic moment of the bar, Example (3): A ilat isotropic circular disc with a
Mp, while for n = 1, equation (12) is equivalent to concentric circular hole, loaded by axi-symmetric
radial edge tractions (Fig.23)
K = M/EI
A specific but more general form of the stress-strain law
EZ being the 'flexural rigidity' of the bar; thus of equation (3) is required for this problem in plane stress.
MI/Ki = EI Consider an element of material stressed in perpendicular
For the frame of constant cross-section shown in Fig. 11, directions by a, and a,. In uniaxial tension in any direction,
conventional linear-elastic theory gives we suppose that the stress-strain law is
K 1 yL3
Y = - '15
- MI
x=-.-
7 at
K' XL3
96 MI
Hence Fl is given by
I
I
I
0 A
-
Oe
On
I
I REGION (ii)
From this equation DAVG/Dnmay be computed for the
REGION (iii) disc for any known set of values of a,/o, c,/cn, ub/U,y q , / E n
and bla.
The scale factor f is given byf”+l = D,/DAv, and the
corresponding point on F is (fua/u,, fub/u,) in reduced
load-space. The normal vector to F represents (-2na*t~,/e,,
2rrb2tcb/cn)for a point on F, and the scalar product of this
vector and the corresponding load vector (a,/a,, ub/a,) is
equal to V (= n(b2-a2)t).
For the perfectly plastic analysis (giving F,) the
equilibrium and yield equations are solved simultaneously
for a disc with large b/u ratio, and solutions are culled as
before. Points on F, represent combinations of u,/u,, and
u b / u y for plastic collapse of the disc (uy being the yield
stress in pure tension).
FlyF3 and F, are shown in Fig. 16 for a disc having
b/u = 3. The straight portions of F, parallel to the ub/u,
axis represent collapse states in which the inner edge of
Fig. 15. Stress-strain relation for Tresca hexagon the disc is yielding plastically, while the outer edge, where
the material is not stressed to the yield point, is rigid. In
conditions for such a disc are required for a coverage of all parts of (u,/a,, q,/u,) space Fl and F, lie very close to each
regions of stress-space-one in which a, has the same sign other, while in other parts they are widely separated. In
at a and by the other in which a, has opposite signs at the those regions where F1 and F, are close to each other F3
two edges. It is relatively easy to ‘cut out’ from this disc a lies closer to F, than to Flywhereas in those regions where
set of discs of a specified b/a ratio covering all possibilities the separation of F1 and F, is considerable, F3 lies closer
of the ratio of radial stresses at the two edges, and having to Fl than to F,. The curves coincide at u,/a,, = q/a,
known corresponding values of cg. All that is now required where, as all the material is in equal biaxial tension, the
to associate each of these culled solutions with a point on minimum-weight condition is satisfied. Where the curves
F or U is a factor f by which the stresses must be increased are close to each other, however, the stress systems are not
throughout the disc to make DAVG = D,. Let u,, c, and necessarily similar for different values of n. Fig. 17 shows,
,, cg at radii a and b respectively. At radius b
u b y Eb denote a
for example, the radial distribution of the ‘equivalent’stress
the ‘working’ displacement associated with the stress is a* in the disc for different values of n when u, = 0;
equal to 2nb2tcb( t is the thickness of the disc), and at radius equivalent stress being defined by
a the corresponding displacement is equal to -2n-a2tra.
Applying equation ( 7 ) and dividing throughout by u,c,,:
-2
_L
-
(I
REAL MATERIALS
Application of the theorem to practical structures made of 1 Ni-Cr-Mo 500 1.3
2 Ni-Cr-Mo 500 2.7
real materials requires the assignment of definite values to 3 0.3 per cent C,
u, and E,. Referring to equations (2) and (3) we see that 1.4 per cent Mo 450 4.7
e,/a,* = &; that is, (u,~, E , ) may represent any point on 3 0.39 per cent C 400 8.6
I
the stress-strain curve (or for secondary creep, any point
on the stress-strain rate curve). Fig. 18. The reference point a,,, inmay be selected
Thus for each value of n in a set of real materials the arbitrarily
values of utland E, which are required to 'reduce' the loads
and deflections, and which appear in the definition of the feasible, therefore, to use a single structural model made of
standard dissipation-rate density D,, are fixed once the such a material
reference point on the stress-strain curve for the particular
value of n has been decided. Fig. 18 (derived from Table 11, (1) to investigate the linear-elastic load-deflection
p. 215 of reference (2)) shows secondary creep rate-stress response of the structure, and hence to obtain F1, and
curves (plotted logarithmically) for four different steels at (2) to investigate the plastic collapse behaviour of the
appropriate working temperatures, with arbitrarily selected structure, and hence to obtain part, at least, of F,.
reference points. (Compare Figs 18 and 1.) The freedom The creep properties of the material and the relative
of choice of the reference state of stress and strain afforded location of F1 and F, should give at least a guide as to the
by the theorem as presented in this paper is most advantage- necessity for performing an actual creep test on a structure
ous when materials of vastly different strengths at working of the real material at the working temperature.
temperatures (e.g. aluminium alloys and creep-resistant
steels) are being compared. The absolute size of the F- and ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
U-surfaces in reduced load and deflection space is of course Professor Drucker gratefully acknowledges the support of
independent of the choice of reference point on the stress- Brown University and the John Simon Guggenheim
strain curve. Memorial Foundation during the sabbatical leave in which
this work was done.
AN EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
Finally, it is appropriate to point out a direct application APPENDIX
of the theorem to experimental work. Some materials
REFERENCES
(mild steel, and 6061 T 6 aluminium alloy, for example)
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h a t e analysis of structures in the presence of moderately
stress-strain behaviour is linear, and yet give structural large creep deformations'.
behaviour in the plastic range which agrees well with (2) MARIN,J. 1942 'Mechanical properties of materials and
predictions based on perfectly plastic theory. It seems design' (McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York).
JOURNAL MECHANICAL E N G I N E E R I N G SCIENCE Vo14 No I 1962
(3) CALLADINE, C. R. and DRUCKER, D. C. 1962 Quart. uppl. (6) DURELL,C. V. 1948 ‘Projective geometry’ (Macmillan and
Maths., vol. 20, to be published, ‘Nesting surfaces of Co.Ltd, London).
constant rate of energy dissipation in creep’. (7) BAKER, J. F., HORNE,M. R. and HEYMAN, J. 1956 ‘The
(4) DRUCKER,D. C. 19593. uppl. Mech., vol. 26; Truns. Amer. Steel Skeleton’, vol. 2 (Cambridge University Press).
Soc. mech. Engrs, vol. 81, p. 101, ‘A definition of stable (8) ODQUIST,F. K. G. 1934 Proc. Fourth Int. Congr. uppl.
inelastic material’. Mech., Cambridge, England, p. 228, ‘Creep stresses in a
(5) DRUCKER, D. C. and SHIELD,R. T. 1957 Quart. uppl. rotating disc’.
Maths., vol. 15, p. 269, ‘Bounds on minimum weight ( 9 ) HILL,R. 1950 ‘The mathematical theory of plasticity’
design’. (Oxford University Press).