PROJECT REPORT

ELECTRICAL NETWORK ANALYSIS

(EL-212)

(LINE FOLLOWING ROBOT)

GROUP MEMBERS:

MUHAMMAD IBAD (17B-005-TE)

HEMAYAT ALI (17B-017-TE)
MUHAMMAD OWAIS (17B-022-TE)
MOIZ ULLAH SHAREEF (17B-032-TE)
 ABSTRACT:
Line Follower robot is a machine that follows a line, either a black line on white surface
or vise-versa. Nowadays, every robot is done with the help of the microcontroller, and
hence the circuit is too big and tough to understand and makes it costly. For these
reasons, in this project we have developed an intelligent Line follower robot with a
simple concept with simple circuitry. Basically there are two types of line follower
robots: one is black line follower which follows black line and second is white line
follower which follows white line. Here we have designed the first one. Line follower
actually senses the line and run over it. Concept of working of line follower is related to
light, wherever it will sense the dark line or black line on light surface it will follow that
path. The robot will follow those lines through two IR sensors attached on it. It is used in
industries, offices, military to deliver things from one place to another within a building
or area. It can be used for running autonomous vehicles on the streets. This is a prototype
but we can use this technique in many ways of improving and helping humans.

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

ABSTRACT: ............................................................................................................................................... 1
TABLE OF FIGURES: .............................................................................................................................. 2
1) INTRODUCTION TO A ROBOT: ................................................................................................... 3
1-1) Sensing: ............................................................................................................................................ 3
1-2) Movement: ........................................................................................................................................ 3
1-3) Energy:.............................................................................................................................................. 3
1-4) Intelligence: ...................................................................................................................................... 3
2) HISTORY AND BACKGROUND: ................................................................................................... 3
3) LINE FOLLOWING ROBOT:.......................................................................................................... 4
4) CONSTRUCTION:............................................................................................................................. 5
4-1) IR PROXIMITY SENSOR: .............................................................................................................. 5
4-2) 9 VOLTS BATTERY: ....................................................................................................................... 6
4-3) L293D IC: ......................................................................................................................................... 6
4-4) BO MOTORS: .................................................................................................................................. 6
4-5) LED: ................................................................................................................................................. 7
5) CIRCUIT DIAGRAM: ....................................................................................................................... 8
6) WORKING:......................................................................................................................................... 8
7) USES: ................................................................................................................................................... 9
8) CONCLUSION: .................................................................................................................................. 9
9) REFERENCES: ................................................................................................................................ 10

TABLE OF FIGURES:
Figure 1: Line Follower Robot using IR sensor.______________________________________ 5
Figure 2: IR Proximity Sensor.___________________________________________________ 6
Figure 3: PIN Diagram of L293D IC.________________________________________________ 6
Figure 4: BO Motors.___________________________________________________________ 7
Figure 5: LED Diagram.________________________________________________________ 7
Figure 6: Circuit Diagram of Line Follower Robot.___________________________________ 8

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 1) INTRODUCTION TO A ROBOT:
A robot can be defined as a machine which works on its own i.e. it starts on its own, decides its
own way of work and stops on its own (or on the command of human). It is actually a replica of
human being, which has been designed to ease human burden. It can be controlled pneumatically
or using hydraulic ways or using the simple electronic control ways. The first industrial robot
was built by George Devol and Joe Engelberger in the late 50’s and early 60’s.
Any robot is built on 3 basic laws defined by the Russian Science fiction author Isaac Asimov:
-A robot should not harm the human being directly or indirectly.
-A robot should obey human orders unless and until it violates the first law.
-A robot should protect its own existence provided the 1st two laws are not violated.

A robot has these essential characteristics:

1-1) Sensing:
First of all, your robot would have to be able to sense its surroundings. It would do this in ways
that are not similar to the way that you sense your surroundings. Giving your robot sensors: light
sensors (eyes), touch and pressure sensors (hands), chemical sensors (nose), hearing and sonar
sensors (ears), and taste sensors (tongue) will give your robot awareness of its environment.
1-2) Movement:
A robot needs to be able to move around its environment. Whether rolling on wheels, walking on
legs or propelling by thrusters a robot needs to be able to move. To count as a robot either the
whole robot moves, like the Sojourner or just parts of the robot moves, like the Canada Arm.
1-3) Energy:
A robot needs to be able to power itself. A robot might be solar powered, electrically powered,
battery powered. The way your robot gets its energy will depend on what your robot needs to do.
1-4) Intelligence:
A robot needs some kind of "smarts." This is where programming enters the pictures. A
programmer is the person who gives the robot its 'smarts.' The robot will have to have some way
to receive the program so that it knows what it is to do.

2) HISTORY AND BACKGROUND:

During World War II the first mobile robots emerged as a result of technical advances on a
number of relatively new research fields like computer science and cybernetics. They were
mostly flying bombs. Examples are smart bombs that only detonate within a certain range of the
target, the use of guiding systems and radar control.

In the year 1970, The Stanford Cart line follower was a mobile robot that was able to follow a

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white line, using a camera to see. It was radio linked to a large mainframe that made the
calculations.
At about the same time (1966–1972) the Stanford Research Institute is building and doing
research on Shakey the Robot, a robot named after its jerky motion. Shakey had a camera, a
rangefinder, bump sensors and a radio link. Shakey was the first robot that could reason about its
actions. This means that Shakey could be given very general commands, and that the robot
would figure out the necessary steps to accomplish the given task.
In the year 1995, one of Ernst Dickmanns' robot cars (with robot-controlled throttle and brakes)
drove more than 1000 miles from Munich to Copenhagen and back, in traffic, at up to 120 mph,
occasionally executing maneuvers to pass other cars (only in a few critical situations a safety
driver took over). Active vision was used to deal with rapidly changing street scenes.

3) LINE FOLLOWING ROBOT:

A line following robot is a mobile machine employed to sense and follow the black lines that are
drawn on the white surface. As this robot is developed using a Vero board, it will be very simple
to construct. This technique can be incorporated into the Automated Guided Vehicles (AGV) for
providing the easy way of operation. Generally, the AGV is integrated with the microprocessor
and computers for controlling its system. It also uses a position feedback system for traveling in
the desired path. In addition, the electric signals and RF communication are needed for
communicating with the vehicle and system controller. Such awkward functions are completely
not required in this line following robot, and it just uses the IR sensors to travel on the black
lines. Unlike room-exploration robots that often get stuck against chairs and carpet edges, you
don’t have to chase after a well-designed line-following robot. Most line-following robots have
two motors, two front sensors, and a basic electronic circuit for autonomous control. But, a great
thing about this type of robot is that it easy to make small changes for added complexity. Simple
improvement is to install the robot in a decorative container, along with colorful LEDs. More
advanced designs add various sensors and a programmable microcontroller for faster speed,
smoother turning, or maze-solving.

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 Figure 1: Line Follower Robot using IR sensor

4) CONSTRUCTION:
Following are the components used in making of this line following robot:
1. IR Proximity sensor.
2. Resistors.
3. 9 Volts Battery.
4. L293D IC.
5. BO Motors (60 rpm).
6. Switches.
7. Connecting wires.
8. Pin Headers.
9. LEDs.
10. Vero Board.

4-1) IR PROXIMITY SENSOR:

A proximity sensor is a sensor able to detect the presence of nearby objects without any physical
contact. It often emits an electromagnetic field or a beam of electromagnetic radiation (infrared,
for instance), and looks for changes in the field or return signal. Proximity sensors can have a
high reliability and long functional life because of the absence of mechanical parts and lack of
physical contact between the sensor and the sensed object.

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 Figure 2: IR Proximity Sensor.

4-2) 9 VOLTS BATTERY:

The nine-volt battery, or 9-volt battery, is a common size of battery that was introduced for the
early transistor radios. It has a rectangular prism shape with rounded edges and a polarized snap
connector at the top.
4-3) L293D IC:
L293D is a dual H-bridge motor driver integrated circuit (IC). Motor drivers act as current
amplifiers since they take a low-current control signal and provide a higher-current signal. This
higher current signal is used to drive the motors.

Figure 3: PIN Diagram of L293D IC

4-4) BO MOTORS:
DC motor (BO) Battery Operation. Dc motor converts electrical energy into mechanical energy.
Why DC gear motor used in robot Motor control circuit. DC MOTOR concept is where gears
reduce the speed of the vehicle but increase its torque is known as gear reduction.

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 Figure 4: BO Motors.

4-5) LED:
A light-emitting diode (LED) is a two-lead semiconductor light source. It is a p–n junction diode,
which emits light when activated.

Figure 5: LED Diagram

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 5) CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Figure 6: Circuit Diagram of Line Follower Robot

6) WORKING:
Concept of working of line follower is related to light. We use here the behavior of light at black
and white surface. When light fall on a white surface it is almost full reflected and in case of
black surface light is completely absorbed. This behavior of light is used in building a line
follower robot.

Here in this project we are using two IR sensor modules namely left sensor and right sensor.
 When both left and right sensor senses white then robot move forward.
 If left sensor comes on black line, then robot turn left side.
 If right sensor sense black line, then robot turn right side until both sensor comes at white
surface. When white surface comes robot starts moving on forward again.
 If both sensors come on black line, robot stops.

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 7) USES:
 Line followers can be used to deliver mail within an office building
 It can be used to deliver medications in a hospital.
 The technology has been suggested for running buses and other mass transit systems ,
and may end up as part of autonomous cars navigating the freeway.
 The line follower can be used in guidance system for industrial robots moving on shop
floor. An example might be in a warehouse where the robots follow 'tracks' to and from
the shelves they stock and retrieve from.
 A line follower robot can be used in military as spy kids or in many other applications.

8) CONCLUSION:
In this project, we have designed a line following robot. This robot does not need any remote
controller or any controller like Bluetooth, Wi-Fi, GSM, driver etc. It will run automatically with
following a line. We have not used any microcontroller. This robot is very low cost but very
effective for various purposes. Our project can be used in various sectors like in medicine
delivering in hospitals, delivering products in any places, spying, and surveillance and so on. In
future we can add several sensors, cameras etc. to get more features.

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 9) REFERENCES:
1. https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/5380235
2. https://www.elprocus.com/line-follower-robot-basics-controlling/
3. https://www.engineergarage.com
4. https://easyeda.com/TapendraMandal/Line_Following_Robot-
a1bb40b34cd14a9186ca10b7a76df764

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