THE 3 R’s OF ARCHITECTURE i

Sunderdeep College of Architecture

Ghaziabad

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the Dissertation titled “THE 3 R’s of ARCHITECTURE”

submitted by “YAMAN AL TAJ” as a part of 5 years Undergraduate Program
in Architecture at SUNDERDEEP COLLEGE OF ARCHITECTURE is a record
of bonafide work carried out by her under our guidance.
The content included in the Thesis has not been submitted to any other
University or institution for accord of any other degree or diploma.

Ar. Shashi Singh Dr.Anju Saxena

Guide Name Executive Director

Ar.Devarpita Sikata
Dissertation Guide

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Sunderdeep College of Architecture

Ghaziabad

DECLARATION

I YAMAN AL TAJ hereby declares that the dissertation entitled “THE 3 R’s of
ARCHITECTURE” submitted in the partial fulfillment of the requirements for
the award of the degree of B.Arch is my original research work and that the
information taken from secondary sources is given due citations and
references.

Name: YAMAN AL TAJ

8th Semester
B.Arch.
2017-18

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I take this opportunity to acknowledge all those who have helped me in getting
this study to a successful present status.

I would like to express my deep sense of gratitude to my guide, Ar. Shashi

Singh for his valuable suggestions and criticism. He made this possible.

I extend my sincere thanks to my parents; they accompanied me to all my sites

for the study and survey. All my batch mates especially Ravikant for extending
help and support, SDCA and all the other authorities which helped me in this
study.
I dedicate this work to my parents, friends, faculty etc.
Once again I take this opportunity to thank all those who have directly or
indirectly helped me and sincere apologies if I have forgotten to mention any
one in particular.

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ABSTRACT

The 3R’s of Architecture Era covers the entire period of RENAISSANCE, ROMAN AND
ROMANSEQUE architecture of Europe. It offers a basic introduction with appropriate
plans, sections, photographs, with examples. The writer carefully examines selected
major monuments, incorporating just the right amount of detail to provide the basic
information needed to learn about each type of building, and to impart a sense of
continuity and development of structure, form, and function across Europe. The writer
explores the contextual role of the buildings in their settings and the symbolic impact
of both exterior and interior forms, paying particular attention to their experiential
qualities. The study is illustrated with photographs, plans, sections, and diagrams to
make the readers understand and learn more comfortably.

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Table of Contents

Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION

1.1 Introduction 9
1.1.1 Roman Architecture 9
1.1.2 Romanesque Architecture 9 - 10
1.1.3 Renaissance Architecture 10
1.2 Aim 11
1.3 Objectives 11
1.4 Scope 11
1.5 Limitations 11
1.6 Case Study 12
1.6.1. Roman Architecture 12
1.6.1.1. The Pantheon 12
1.6.1.2. The Colosseum 13
1.6.2. Romanesque Architecture 14
1.6.2.1. The Pisa Cathedral 14
1.6.2.2. The Church of Apostles, Cologne 15
1.6.3. The Renaissance Architecture 16
1.6.3.1. The Pazzi Chapel 16
1.6.3.2. Medici Riccardi Palace 17
1.6.3.3. La Rotonda 18
1.7. Methodology 19

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Chapter 2 19
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 The Roman Architecture 19

2.1.1. Early Roman Empire 20

2.1.2. Building Technology 21

2.1.3. Style and Ornament 21

2.1.4. Building Types 22

2.1.4.1. Temples 22

1 Rectangular Temples 22

2 Circular Temples 23

2.1.4.2. Imperial Thermae 24

2.1.4.3. Amphitheatres, Circus and Theatres 25

2.1.4.4. Triumphal Arches 26

2.1.4.5. Triumphal Columns 27

2.2 The Romanesque Architecture 28

2.2.1. Buildings Elements 29

1. Walls 30

2. Buttresses 30

3. Arches and Openings 30

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2.3 The Renaissance Architecture 32

2.3.1. Introduction 32

2.3.2. Periods 33

2.3.3. Principal Phases 33

2.3.3.1. Quattrocento 33

2.3.3.2. High Renaissance 34

2.3.3.3. Mannerism 34

2.3.4. Architectural Character 34 - 35

2.3.5. Construction and Details 36

Chapter 3 37
CASE STUDY
3.1 The Roman Architecture 37

3.1.1. The Pantheon 37 - 39

3.1.2. The Colosseum 40 - 41

3.2 The Romanesque Architecture 42

3.2.1. Pisa Cathedral 42 - 43

3.2.2. Church of Apostles, Cologne 44

3.3 The Renaissance Architecture 45

3.3.1. The Pazzi Chapel 45 - 46

3.3.2. Medici Ricardi Palace 47 - 48

3.3.3. La Rotonda 49 - 51

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Chapter 4 52

COMPARATIVE TABLE, FINDINGS AND CONCLUSIONS

4.1 COMPARATIVE TABLE 52

4.2 FINDINGS 53
4.3 CONCLUSIONS 54

REFFERENCES

BIBLOGRAPHY

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1.1 INTRODUCTION

The 3R’s of Architecture Era covers the period of ROMAN, RENAISSANCE,

AND ROMANSEQUE architecture of Europe.

1.1.1 ROMAN ARCHITECTURE

Roman Architecture Ancient Roman architecture developed different aspects

of Ancient Greek architecture and newer technologies such as the arch and the
dome to make a new architectural style. Roman architecture flourished
throughout the Empire during the Pax Romana. Its use of new materials,
particularly concrete, was a very important feature. Roman Architecture
covers the period from the establishment of the Roman Republic in 509 BC to
about the 4th century AD, after which it becomes reclassified as Late Antique
or Byzantine architecture. Roman architectural style continued to influence
building in the former empire for many centuries, and the style used in
Western Europe beginning about 600AD is called Romanesque architecture to
reflect this dependence on basic Roman forms.

1.1.2. ROMANESQUE ARCHITECTURE

Romanesque Architecture is an architectural style of medieval Europe

characterized by semi-circular arches. There is no consensus for the beginning
date of the Romanesque style, with proposals ranging from the 6th to the late
10th century, this later date being the most commonly held. It developed in the
12th century into the Gothic style, marked by pointed arches. Examples of
Romanesque architecture can be found across the continent, making it the first
pan-European architectural style since Imperial Roman Architecture. The
Romanesque style in England is traditionally referred to as Norman
architecture.
Combining features of ancient Roman and Byzantine buildings and
other local traditions, Romanesque architecture is known by its massive
quality, thick walls, round arches, sturdy pillars, groin vaults, large towers and
decorative arcading. Each building has clearly defined forms, frequently of

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very regular, symmetrical plan; the overall appearance is one of simplicity

when compared with the Gothic buildings that were to follow. The style can
be identified right across Europe, despite regional characteristics and different
materials.

1.1.3. RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE

Renaissance architecture, style of architecture, reflecting the rebirth of

Classical culture, that originated in Florence in the early 15th century and
spread throughout Europe, replacing the medieval Gothic style. There was a
revival of ancient Roman forms, including the column and round arch, the
tunnel vault, and the dome. The basic design element was the order.
Knowledge of Classical architecture came from the ruins of ancient buildings
and the writings of Vitruvius. As in the Classical period, proportion was the
most important factor of beauty; Renaissance architects found a harmony
between human proportions and buildings. This concern for proportion
resulted in clear, easily comprehended space and mass, which distinguishes
the Renaissance style from the more complex Gothic. Filippo Brunelleschi is
considered the first Renaissance architect. Leon Battista Alberti’s Ten Books
on Architecture, inspired by Vitruvius, became a bible of Renaissance
architecture. From Florence the early Renaissance style spread through Italy.
Donato Bramante’s move to Rome ushered in the High Renaissance (c. 1500–
20). Mannerism, the style of the Late Renaissance (1520–1600), was
characterized by sophistication, complexity, and novelty rather than the
harmony, clarity, and repose of the High Renaissance.

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1.2 AIM

To study the overall growth with the development done in 3R’s that is Roman,
Renaissance and Romanesque architecture and by using their characteristics,
elements build a new building.

1.3 OBJECTIVES

i. To clarify how, when and where the 3R’s started.

ii. To get knowledge what is 3R.

iii. To study the features of 3R’s.

iv. To demonstrate how they helped in the development at their time.

1.4 SCOPE

i. By the reference of this theory, will be creating a new better façade, design of
the building.

ii. To generate a better conceptual design of the building.

1.5 LIMITATION

i. All the examples of the eras.

ii. Services of the building.

iii. The structural and load calculations.

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1.6 CASE STUDY

1.6.1. ROMAN ARCHITECTURE

1.6.1.1. THE PANTHEON ROME

LOCATION - REGION ix CIRCUS FLAMINIUS

BUILT IN – 118 – 128 AD
BUILT BY – PUBLIUS AELIUS HADRIANUS
TYPE OF STRUCTURE

Figure: 1 – The view of The Pantheon

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1.6.1.2. THE COLOSSEUM

LOCATION – REGIO IV TEMPLUM PACIS

BUILT IN – 70 80 AD

BUILT BY – VESPASIAN, TITUS

TYPE OF STRUCTURE – AMPHITHEATER

Figure 2: The view of Amphitheatre – The Colosseum

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1.6.2. THE ROMANESQUE ARCHITECTURE

1.6.2.1. PISA CATHEDRAL

LOCATION – PISA

COUNTRY – ITALY

TYPE OF THE BUILDING – CATHEDRAL

Figure 3: The view of Pisa Cathedral

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1.6.2.2. THE CHURCH OF APOSTLES, COLOGNE

LOCATION: NEUMARKT 30, 50667 KÖLN, GERMANY

COUNTRY: GERMANY

PERIOD: ROMANESQUE ARCHITECTURE

Figure 4: The View of the Church

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1.6.3. THE RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE

1.6.3.1. THE PAZZI CHAPEL

LOCATION - BASILICA DI SANTA CROCE, PIAZZA S.

CROCE, 16, 50122 FIRENZE, ITALY

COUNTRY – ITALY

BUILT TYPE – BASILICA

Figure 5: The view of Pazzi Chapel

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1.6.3.2. MEDICI- RICCARDI PALACE

LOCATION: VIA CAMILLO CAVOUR, 3, 50129 FIRENZE,

ITALY

COUNTRY: ITALY

CONSTRUCTION STARTED: 1445

ARCHITECTURAL STYLE: RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE

Figure 6: The view of Medici Riccardi Palace

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1.6.3.3. LA ROTONDA

LOCATION: VIA DELLA ROTONDA, 45, 36100 VICENZA VI,

ITALY

COUNTRY- ITALY

OPENED: 1571

ARCHITECTURAL STYLE: RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE

FIGURE 7: The view of La Rotonda

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1.7. METHODOLOGY

 Selection of topic
 Data collection
 Literature study
 Case study
 Analysis
 Conclusions

2 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1. THE ROMAN ARCHITECTURE

The geographical position of Italy conferred upon her special and obvious
advantages for taking up and carrying northward and westward the arts of
civilization. A scarcity of good harbours was the only drawback amid the
blessings of a glorious climate, fertile soil, varied scenery and rich material
resources. From a remote antiquity Dorian colonist had occupied the southern
portion and island of Sicily, enriching them with splendid monuments of Doric
art and Phoenician commerce had brought thither the products of Oriental art
and industry. The foundation of Rome in 753 B.C. established the nucleus
about which the sundry populations of Italy were to crystallize into the Roman
nation, under the dominating influence if the Latin element. Later on, the
absorption of the conquered Etruscans added to this composite people a race
of builders and engineers, as yet rude and uncouth in their art, but destined to
become a powerful factor in developing the new architecture that was to
spring from the contact of the practical Romans with the noble art of the Greek
centres.

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2.1.1. EARLY ROMAN EMPIRE

While the Greeks bequeathed to posterity the most perfect models of former in
literary and plastic art, it was reserved for the Romans to work out the
applications of these to everyday material life, The Romans were above all
things a practical people. Their consummate skill as organizers in manifest in
the marvellous administrative institutions of their government, under which
they united the most distant and diverse nationalities. Seemingly deficient in
culture, they were yet able to recast the forms of Greek architecture in new
moulds, and to evolve therefrom a mighty architecture adapted to wholly
novel conditions. They brought engineering into the service of architecture,
which they fitted to the varied requirements of government, public
amusement, private luxury and the common comfort. They covered the
antique world with arches and amphitheatres, with villas, baths, basilicas, and
the temple all bearing the unmistakable impress if Rome, though wrought by
artists and artisans of divers races. Only an extraordinary genius for
organization could have accomplished such results.

The architects of Rome marvellously extended the range of their art, and
gave it a flexibility by which it accommodated itself to the widest variety of
materials and conditions. They made the arch and vault the basis of their
system of design, employing them on a scale previously undreamed of, and in
combinations of surpassing richness and majesty. They systemized their
methods of construction so that soldiers and barbarians could execute the
rough mass of their buildings, and formulated the designing of the decorative
details so that artisans of moderate skill could execute them with good effect.
They carried the principles of repetition of motives of motives to its utmost
limit, and sought to counteract any resulting monotony by the scale and
splendour of the design. Above all they developed planning into a fine art,
displaying their genius in a wonderful variety of combinations and in an
unfailing sense if the demands of constructive propriety, practical
convenience, and artistic effect. Where Egyptian or Greek architecture shows
one type of plan, the Roman shows a score.

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2.1.2. BUILDING TECHNOLOGY

Roman building technology was the most advanced of its time. Though highly
original in many aspects, it appropriated some techniques from the Etruscans,
who were probably the first Europeans to make wide use of the true or
radiating arch built up of wedge shaped blocks known as voussoirs. Italy and
later the imperial provinces, offered a far greater variety of building materials
than had been available to the Greeks. The Pont du Gard, Nimes, France,
testifies to Roman skill in Etruscan dry stone techniques. More significant,
though, was the discovery of how to make the concrete from the rubble mixed
with lime and sand. Arches, vault and domes were characteristics of
architectural elements. Intersecting barrel vaults. The oblique sideways thrust
of a large vault was countered by buttresses. Semi dome vaulting, fronted by
an arch, was often used to cover a semi-circular recess.

2.1.3. STYLE AND ORNAMENT

The Romans continued to build along Etruscan lines until well into the
Republic, but then began to assimilate Greek sources. In the distinctive Roman
style that emerged prior to the Empire, the aesthetic functionalism of the
Greeks gave way to a largely decorative treatment of the classical Orders.
Columns and half columns were placed along walls that were structurally
complete without them. An example is the entablatures of the Theatre of
Marcellus, Rome which seem to be held up by half-columns but are in fact
carried adequately by arches. The mundane functions of piers, buttresses and
pinnacles were generally disguised. Decorative made much use of Corinthian
capitals as well as the new Composite Order, an amalgam of Ionic and
garlanded friezes commonly featured in highly ornamental entablatures.
Architraves could be curved forward, or up into arches.

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2.1.4. BUILDING TYPES

Roman ingenuity was applied both to existing building types such as temples
and theatres and to new ones such as basilicas, public baths and amphitheatres.
The result was an architecture unprecedented in the variety of functions is
served. Roads, aqueducts and bridges- unadorned feats of engineering are in
some ways more impressive then public buildings.

2.1.4.1. TEMPLES

(1) Rectangular Temple

FiF

Figure 8: The plan of the Roman Temple

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(2) Circular Temple

Basilicas
Basilicas (halls of the justice and conference) became the model for early
Christian churches. The usual plan was rectangular, comprising a nave flanked
by lower roofed aisles, sometimes galleried. Opposite the entrance was usually
a semi-circular apse for the tribunal. Roofs, generally wooden, sometimes had
a vast span. Exteriors were unornamented.

Figure 9: The Basilica of Roman Empire

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2.1.4.2. Imperial Thermae

Thermae, found throughout the empire, were public baths which

served as meeting places, with facilities for athletics and lectures. They
were generally raised on a platform, with heating systems underneath.
Main rooms included the calidarium (hot room), tepidarium (warm
room) and frigidarium (containing an unheated pool). Other rooms
were used for dry sweating, dressing and manicure.

Figure 10: The view of Imperial Thermae

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2.1.4.3 AMPHITHEATRES, CIRCUSES, AND THEATRES

Amphitheatres, found in every important settlement. Oval in plan, with high

tiers of seat round an arena, they posed difficult structural problem solved with
great ingenuity. Circuses were an elongated version used for horse and chariot
races.

Theatres, less characteristics than amphitheatres, were built on flat ground as

well in hillsides.

Figure 11: The view of Roman Amphitheatre

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2.1.4.4. TRIUMPHAL ARCHES

Triumphal arches function was to commemorate Imperial Victories with

reliefs. Inscriptions and statues. Opening were either single or triple, between
piers ornamented with Corinthian or Composite columns or pilasters.

Figure 12: The view of the Roman Arch

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2.1.4.5. TRIUMPHAL COLUMNS

A victory column—or monumental column or triumphal column—is a

monument in the form of a column, erected in memory of a victorious battle,
war, or revolution. The column typically stands on a base and is crowned with
a victory symbol, such as a statue.

Figure 13: The view of the Roman Columns

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2.2. THE ROMANESQUE ARCHITECTURE

The term Romanesque was coined in the 19th century to describe the
derivatives of Roman architecture that evolved in Europe between the collapse
of the Roman Empire and the rise of Gothic, but it is now used to refer
principally to the 11th – 12th century. The style was the compound of
influences, drawing variously upon Roman, Byzantine, Viking, Saracenic and
other sources.

Romanesque architecture is characterized by the desire to articulate, to

stress or underline every structural division in order to produce unified
compositions. The smooth surfaces and undifferentiated colonnades of Early
Christian and Carolingian interiors are mostly rejected in favour of articulating
bay divisions in variety of ways. The separate parts of the Carolingian church-
the west work, the transept and the outer crypt – are gradually incorporated
into a single harmonious composition by the transformation of the westwork
into a lowered façade, the absorbing to transept into the design through the
creation of the crossing and by making the outer crypt simple an extension of
the aisles carried around the sanctuary to form the ambulatory.

The first signs of the new movement in architecture appeared in different

parts of Europe at roughly the same time – around the year 1000- and the
desire to articulate structure manifested itself in different ways according to
the area. The most important innovations were the development of pier forms,
the introduction of the triforium gallery, the regular crossing, the inclusion of
wall passages, ambulatories with radiating chapels, the evolution of new
concepts in external massing and an increasing mastery of architectural
sculpture.

The greater complexity of piers proved to be an effective way of stressing

bay divisions and thus articulating the interiors elevations. It started with
simple elements of a pier being allowed to project beyond the wall plane and
from there being taken up the full height of the interior elevation. This occurs
in its simplest form at S. Martin du Canigou where a pair of cruciform piers
carry pilasters which become transverse arches reinforcing the barrel vaults.
Soon every pier its treated in this manner and the number of pier elements or
order is multiplied as at Cardona. After this the most important development
was the introduction of the half columns, as at Santigo de Compstela and later
nook shafts or small columns which carry the outer orders of the main arches.
Concessions were made to the new desire for articulation with the use of
alternating columns and piers.

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Romanesque preoccupation with breaking up the smooth wall surfaces

and transforming them into articulate architectural units. This period
incorporated the transept into unified design by creating the regular crossing: a
square bay bothered on each side with an arch of equal size corresponding to
four arms of the church.

Exterior massing during the Romanesque period is also characterised by

the desire to achieve legibility through stressing the elements which make up
an architectural composition. Thus the nave, aisles, transepts, crossing,
subsidiary chapels and even stair turrets can be immediately identified from a
cursory examination of the exterior.

Architectural sculpture developed dramatically during the Romanesque

period. Sculptures, decoration and carved mouldings was mostly confined to
capitals, doorways, windows, and arches.

2.2.1. BUILDING ELEMENT

The general impression given by Romanesque architecture, in both

ecclesiastical and secular buildings, is one of massive solidity and strength. In
contrast with both the preceding Roman and later Gothic architecture, in
which the load-bearing structural members are, or appear to be, columns,
pilasters and arches, Romanesque architecture, in common with Byzantine
architecture, relies upon its walls, or sections of walls called piers.

Romanesque architecture is often divided into two periods known as the "First
Romanesque" style and the "Romanesque" style. The difference is chiefly a
matter of the expertise with which the buildings were constructed. The First
Romanesque employed rubble walls, smaller windows and unvaulted roofs. A
greater refinement marks the Second Romanesque, along with increased use of
the vault and dressed stone.

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(1) WALLS
The walls of Romanesque buildings are often of massive thickness with few
and comparatively small openings. They are often double shells, filled with
rubble.

Figure 14: The walls of the Romanesque Architecture

(2) BUTTRESSES
Romanesque buttresses are generally of flat square profile and do not project a
great deal beyond the wall. In the case of aisled churches, barrel vaults, or
half-barrel vaults over the aisles helped to buttress the nave, if it was vaulted.

In the cases where half-barrel vaults were used, they effectively became like
flying buttresses. Often aisles extended through two storeys, rather than the
one usual in Gothic architecture, so as to better support the weight of a vaulted
nave. In the case of Durham Cathedral, flying buttresses have been employed,
but are hidden inside the triforium gallery.

Figure 15: The Buttresses of the Romanesque Architecture

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(3) ARCHES AND OPENINGS

The arches used in Romanesque architecture are nearly always semi-circular,
for openings such as doors and windows, for vaults and for arcades. Wide
doorways are usually surmounted by a semi-circular arch, except where a door
with a lintel is set into a large arched recess and surmounted by a semi-circular
"lunette" with decorative carving. These doors sometimes have a carved
central jamb.

Narrow doors and small windows might be surmounted by a solid stone lintel.
Larger openings are nearly always arched. A characteristic feature of
Romanesque architecture, both ecclesiastic and domestic, is the pairing of two
arched windows or arcade openings, separated by a pillar or colonette and
often set within a larger arch.

Figure 16: The elevation of the façade of the Romanesque Architecture

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2.3. THE RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE

2.3.1. The Introduction

The abandonment of Gothic architecture in Italy and the substitution in its

place of forms derived from classic models were occasioned by no sudden
intellectual movement, whose roots may be traced for back inti the Middle
Ages, and which manifested itself first in Italy simply because there the
conditions were most propitious. It spread through Europe just as rapidly as
similar conditions appearing in other countries prepared the way for it. The
essence of this far reaching movement f=was the protest of the individual
reason against the trammels of external and arbitrary authority- a protest
which found its earliest organized expression in the Humanist. In its assertion
of the intellectual and moral rights of the individual, the Renaissance laid the
foundation of the modern civilization. The same spirit, in rejecting the
authority and teachings o the church in matters of purely secular knowledge,
led the questionings of the precursors of modern science and the discoveries of
the early navigators. But in nothing did the reaction against mediaeval
scholasticism and asceticism display itself more strikingly than in the joyful
enthusiasm which marked the pursuit of classical studies. The long neglected
treasures of classic literature were reopened, almost rediscovered, in the
fourteenth century by the immortal trio- Dante, Petrarch, Boccaccio. The joy
of living the hitherto forbidden delight in beauty and pleasure for their own
sakes. The exultant awakening to the sense of personal freedom, which came
with the bursting of mediaeval fetters, found in classic art and literature their
most sympathetic expression. It was in Italy, where feudalism had never fully
established itself, and where the municipalities and guilds had developed, as
nowhere else, the sense of civic and personal freedom, that these symptoms
first manifested themselves. In Ital, and above all in the Tuscan cities, they
appeared throughout the fourteenth century in the growing enthusiasm for all
that recalled the antique culture, and in the rapid advance of luxury and
refinement in both public and private life.

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2.3.2. PERIODS
The early Renaissance of Formative Period, 1420-90: characterized by the
grace and freedom of the decorative detail, the orders especially appearing in
almost all compositions of great variety and originality.

The High Renaissance or Formally Period,1490-1550; During this period

classic details were copied with increasing fidelity, the orders especially
appearing in almost all compositions; decoration meanwhile losing somewhat
in grace and freedom.

2.3.3. PRINCIPAL PHASES

Historians often divide the Renaissance in Italy into three phases. Whereas art
historians might talk of an "Early Renaissance" period, in which they include
developments in 14th-century painting and sculpture, this is usually not the case in
architectural history. The bleak economic conditions of the late 14th century did not
produce buildings that are considered to be part of the Renaissance. As a result, the
word "Renaissance" among architectural historians usually applies to the period 1400
to ca. 1525, or later in the case of non-Italian Renaissances.

Historians often use the following designations:

 Renaissance (ca. 1400–1500); also known as the Quattrocento[8] and

sometimes Early Renaissance[9]
 High Renaissance (ca.1500–1525)
 Mannerism (ca. 1520–1600)

2.3.3.1. Quattrocento

In the Quattrocento, concepts of architectural order were explored and rules were
formulated. The study of classical antiquity led in particular to the adoption of
Classical detail and ornamentation.
Space, as an element of architecture, was utilised differently from the way it had
been in the Middle Ages. Space was organised by proportional logic, its form and
rhythm subject to geometry, rather than being created by intuition as in Medieval
buildings. The prime example of this is the Basilica di San Lorenzo in Florence by
Filippo Brunelleschi (1377–1446).

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2.3.3.2. High Renaissance

During the High Renaissance, concepts derived from classical antiquity were
developed and used with greater surety. The most representative architect is
Bramante (1444–1514) who expanded the applicability of classical
architecture to contemporary buildings. His San Pietro in Montorio (1503) was
directly inspired by circular Roman temples. He was, however, hardly a slave
to the classical forms and it was his style that was to dominate Italian
architecture in the 16th century.

2.3.3.3. Mannerism
During the Mannerist period, architects experimented with using architectural
forms to emphasize solid and spatial relationships. The Renaissance ideal of
harmony gave way to freer and more imaginative rhythms. The best known
architect associated with the Mannerist style was Michelangelo (1475–1564),
who is credited with inventing the giant order, a large pilaster that stretches
from the bottom to the top of a façade. He used this in his design for the
Campidoglio in Rome.

Prior to the 20th century, the term Mannerism had negative connotations, but
it is now used to describe the historical period in more general non-
judgemental terms.

2.3.4. ARCHITECTURAL CHARACTER

The massive blocks of rusticated masonry in the lower stories of the Florentine
palaces to the buildings that character of solidity and ruggedness for which
they are remarkable. The palaces were all built round interior courts, possibly
derived from the arcaded cloister of the medieval monastery, the walls resting
on columnar arcades. The general absence of pilasters, as decorative features,
is especially noticeable in the design of the palaces, which are therefore called
“astylar”. The sparing use of carved detail, and in fact of features of any kind,
gives a marked character of simplicity to the style. The grand effect if these
palaces is considerably aided by the massive cornice which crowns the
structure, bring proportioned to the whole height of the building, as in Riccardi
Palace(image). The columnar arcade is a special feature, as in OSpedale degli
Innocenti (image) and the Loggia S. Paolo, and mural monuments and altars
are exceedingly rich with sculpture and decoration.

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The types of door and windows may be divided into thwse groups-

(a) The arcade type, usual in the heavily rusticated examples, consists of a
round arch, in the center of which is a circular column supporting a simple
piece of tracery as at the Strozzi, Pitti and Richardi

(b) The architecture type is that in which the opening is framed with a
pilaster or column on each side supporting an entablature above, this being the
final development as employed in the Pandolfini Palace (image), ascribed to
Raphael.

Figure 17: Architectural Characters of Renaissance Architecture

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2.3.5. CONSTRUCTION AND DETAIL

The architects of the Renaissance occupied themselves more with form than
with construction, and rarely set themselves constructive problems of great
difficulty. Although the new architecture began with the colossal dome of the
cathedral of Florence, and culminated in the stupendous church of St. Peter at
Rome, it was pre-eminently an architecture of palaces and villas, of facades
and of decorative display. Constructive difficulties were reduced to their
lowest terms, the constructive framework was concealed, not emphasized, by
the decorative apparel of the design. Among the masterpieces of the early
Renaissance are many buildings of small dimensions, such as gates, chapels,
tombs, and fountains. In these the individual fancy had full sway, and
produced surprising results by the beauty of enriched moldings, of carved
friezes with infant genii, wreaths of fruit, griffins, mask and scrolls; by
pilasters covered with arabesques as delicate in modelling as if wrought in
silver; by inlays of marble, panels of glazed terracotta, marvelously carved
doors, fine stucco work in relief, capitals and cornices of wonderful richness
and variety. The Roman orders appeared only in free imitations, with paneled
and carved pilasters for the most part instead of columns, and capitals of
fanciful design and recalling remotely the Corinthian by their volutes and
leaves. Instead of the low pitched classic pediments, there appears frequently
an arched cornice enclosing a sculpture lunette. Doors and windows were
enclosed in richly carved frames, sometimes arched and sometimes square.
Facades were flat and unbroken, depending mainly for effect upon the
distribution and adornment of the openings, and the design of doorways,
courtyards and cornices. Internally vaults and flat ceilings far more frequently
than the groined vault. Many of the ceilings of this period are of remarkable
richness and beauty.

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3 CASE STUDY

3.1. THE ROMAN ARCHITECTURE

3.1.1. THE PANTHEON ROME

The Pantheon Rome (AD 118c – 128 c) was by far the most important temple,
its importance can be measured by technical achievement and influence.

The form combines a huge portico leads into the rotunda. An

inscription on the porch attributing the construction to the Agrippa. It stood at
the head of the colonnades, whose ground level was substantially below that
of the present piazza, and whose end walls, together with colonnades, would
have framed the porch in much the same way as the side colonnades and rear
wall of the forum of Augustus framed the porch of the Temple of Mars Ultor.

The porch is 8 columns wide and 3 deep and the influenced monolithic
columns of Egyptian granite are 14cm (46 ft.) high, reducing in diameter from
1.5m (5 ft.) at the baste to 1.3m (4.3 ft.) at the top, and have Corinthian
capitals of white Pentelic marble. They support an entablature which carries
the inscription already referred to and a pediment which may originally had a
bronze eagle relief affixed to it. On its rear wall, on either side of the entrance
to the rotunda, are two deep niches which held the statues of Augustus and
Agrippa. The roof is no longer the original one. But sixteenth century
drawings and descriptions of it show its trussed framing to have been
fabricated partially of timber and partially from riveted plates of bronze. The
walls of rotunda rise through rise through three storeys constructed of brick
faced concrete separated by stone cornices, each storey now disclosing in the
brick facing a ring relieving arches. All this brick work would have been with
marble and stucco, but there was never any decorative use of applied orders as
in most theatres and amphitheatres.

In the interior a large sphere with its lower half expanded outwards to
cylindrical form, and whereas the exterior cylinder was divided into three
storeys, the corresponding part of the interior is lower and is divided into only
two. As the section shows, this is because it correspondence to only the lower
two external storeys, the upper most external storey being above the springing
level of the dome. Internally, the taller bottom storey has eight recesses around
the circumference, alternately square ended and rounded and divided from the

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space directly beneath the dome by the pairs of monolithic columns of

differently coloured marbles, the shafts of which are reeded in their lower
portion and fluted above. Corinthian capitals carry the entablature which mark
the divisions between two storeys. Above the nest storey is the dome, with a
large, central unglazed eye which is the only source of light, when the bronze
entrance doors are closed. On its surface are five rows of square coffers of
diminishing size, surprisingly 28 to a row, a number which doesn’t correspond
to the 8 fold divisions of the circumference below. They are designed so as to
appear to diminish equally on all size at each recession when seen from a
central position at floor level.

Not all of the interior looks as it originally did, though it is the best
preserve of all large Roman interior spaces. The coffers were probably with
stucco with moulded edges and they have large gilded bronze rosettes in their
centres. Most of the marble facings to the walls and floors are comparatively
recent. The upper storey was, for instance, refaced to a different design in
1747. But a section of it has been restored to the earlier design, and six
capitals of the originals marble pilasters may now be seen in the British
museum. Their shallow relief carving, partly done with a drill is remarkably
closed to some later byzantine work.

If, finally, one turns to the construction, it soon becomes apparent that the
basic simplicity of the form belies a far more complex structural organism. It
would be out of place here to describe in detail but it may be noted first that
the six metres thick cylindrical drum on which the dome stands have many
more voids than the recesses already noted. These voids rise into the second
storey behind the attic, and there are also hidden voids both above them and
between them. In fact, it would be truer to regard the whole drum as consisting
of three continuous arcades. Corresponding to the three tiers of the relieving
arches visible on the outside of the building. The piers stand on a massive
circular foundation, 4.5m deep. Above the level of the highest external
cornice, the dome is of solid concrete construction, reducing finally to about
1.2m thick at the open eye. But a refinement here is a progressive variation in
the nature of the cemented for the purpose of reducing the density of the
concrete towards the top. Horizontal layers of travertine and tufa at the foot
give way first to layers of tufa and brick, and at the top, to tufa and pumice.

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Figure 18: Plan of Pantheon Figure 19: Sectional Elevation

Figure 20: Sectional View Figure 21: Sectional View

Figure 22: Sectional View with Interiors

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3.1.2. THE COLOSSEUM

The colosseum or Flavian Amphitheatre, Rome

It was constructed by Vespasian AD 70 and inaugurated by Titus in AD 80.

The first permanent amphitheatre in the capital, it was designed to take 50,000
spectators and a major concern in design must have been the practical
problems of access and crowd control.

The plan is vast ellipse measuring externally 188m X 156m (615 ft. X
510 ft.). There are eighty radial walls, and almost as many separate entrances
around the circumference. Corresponding to these walls there are three tiers of
outer arcades, tripled at the first two levels, and all carrying circumferential
vaults to create double ambulatories at all three levels. From them there is
direct access to the first two tiers of seating for those of equestrian rank and
for other Roman citizens, while flights of stairs from the top ambulatories
gave access to a third tier, which was separated from the others by a high
encircling wall that took the place of the innermost arcade at this level.
Beneath the arena, there is a further complex system of passageways, together
with the dens for wild beasts and other provisions for staging the often
gruesome spectacles for which the structure was built.

The floor of the arena has been lost as has the original marble seating and
the timber seating above. But much if the exterior is well preserved, despite
the losses from the use of the structure as a quarry over many centuries. The
three superimposed arcades are faced in the manner already noted on earlier
monuments by three quarter columns and entablatures. These are Doric in the
first storey, Ionic in the second, and Corinthian in the third storey. Above them
is a deep attic storey with shallow Corinthian pilasters and small square
window opening in alternate bays to light the uppermost tier of seating, which
seems to have been set within a continuous portico. In the other bays there
were large bronze shields in place of the windows. At the top there are
brackets and sockets to carry the masts from which a canopy, known as a
velarium, was hung to give shade.

The feat of planning and organisation entailed in carrying out such an

enterprise is a good index of Roman abilities. It was made possible partly by a
careful combination of different types of construction mass concrete for the
12m (40 ft.) deep foundations, a cautious use of travertine opus quadratum for
the piers to create the radial walls at the two lower levels, and brick faced
concrete for the similar infillings at higher levels and for most of the vaults.

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Figure 23: Plan of the Colosseum Figure 24: Sectional View

Figure 25: Elevation

Figure 26: Sectional View of the whole structure

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3.2. THE ROMANESQUE ARCHITECTURE

3.2.1. PISA CATHEDRAL

Pisa Cathedral (1063 – 1118 and 1261 – 72). The cathedral is one of the finest
of the Romanesque period and has a strongly marked individuality. It
resembles other early basilica churches in plan, with long rows of columns
connected by arches, double aisles, and a nave which has the usual timber
roof. The exterior has bands of red and white marble, and the ground storey is
faced with wall arcading, while the entrance façade is thrown into relief by
tiers if wall passages which rise one above another right into gable. The
transepts, each with an apse at the end, were an advance on the simple
basilican plan. The elliptical dome over the crossing is of later date. The
elliptical dome over the crossing is of later date. The building depends for its
interest on its general proportions and on the delicacy of its ornamental
features, rather than on any new structural development, such as may be seen
in northern Italy.

Figure 27: Elevation

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Figure 28: Sectional and Plan

Figure 29: The structural elements of the structure

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3.2.2. CHURCH OF THE APOSTLES COLOGNE

The church of the Apostles, Cologne (c. 1190 and later) (p.376), is one
of the series of trefoil churches in that city. The church has a broad nave,
aisles half its width, western transept, and a triapsidal choir, and over the
crossing a low octagonal tower gives dignity to the external grouping. The
entrance is by a northern porch; there is no great western portal as in France,
the west end being occupied by a tower flanked by stair turrets, crowned with
a typical Rhenish roof, consisting of a steep gable on each face from which
rise the ridges of the helm roof. The trefoil end has wall arcading in two
storeys crowned with the characteristics wall passage, and on the south side
are the cloisters.

Figure 30: Longitudinal Section Figure 31: Transverse Section

Figure 32: Exterior from North Figure 33: Plan and Section

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3.3. THE RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE

3.3.1. THE PAZZI CHAPEL

In the picturesque cloister to the side of the Church of Santa Croce one finds
one of the greatest works by Filippo Brunelleschi: the Pazzi Chapel. It dates
from just three years before the death of the architect (1443).

The plan of the chapel is the circle and the square. A rectangular base is
covered with a conical central dome supported by fine "veiled" vaulting that
one also finds in the porch. The spaces are divided up with a geometric
lucidity; the white intonaco (plaster) of the walls is in the cool contrast to the
pilasters in grey "serene" stone, and the beautiful decorations in glazed
terracotta which adorn the interior are by Luca della Robbia.

It is considered to be one of the masterpieces of Renaissance architecture.

Figure 34: Elevation View

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Figure 35: Section Figure 36: Interior View

Figure 37: Elements of the Structure

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3.3.2. MEDICI- RICCARDI PALACE

The solid, geometric structure of the palace draws inspiration from noble
medieval dwellings. But at the same time Michelozzo's clear and distinct
conception reverses the typically medieval tendency to treat the house as a
fortress, and impresses upon it a new sense of comfort and space.

The shape is extremely simple, a loggia composed of four rectangular

wings set around the courtyard.

The building block is divided into stories of decreasing height by long,

unbroken stringcourses, which give it articulation and presence. The stone is
utilized in such a way as to show the building's structure to the best advantage.

In Renaissance palaces, the bottom floor was constructed of rusticated

stone to suggest a firm foundation and impenetrable defenses. Higher floors
were formed from smooth ashlar blocks, with the joints hardly perceptible, to
represent the refinement of the living area. The overall effect emphasizes that
the building appears progressively lighter as the eye moves upward.

This effect is dramatically reversed by the extremely heavy cornice, which

Michelozzo related not to the top story but to the building as a whole. The
cornice clearly and effectively defines the structure's proportions. The massive
cornice crowning the solid cube of the palace in a coherent fashion is the
prototype of the cornice seen in Renaissance palaces from that time on.

On the first floor the facade is occupied by imposing entrance doors,

many of which were walled in time and substituted with large windows. The
perimeter of the palace is lined with stone benches.

The facade on upper floors, divided by linear frames, is surrounded by

windows and other decorations. Harmony is established in the proportions of
the windows, as the sharpness of the Gothic mullion is toned down by the use
of the round arches.

In the corners of the building there are still placed the coat-of-arms of the
families Medici and Riccardi.

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Figure 38: Plan of the Building

Figure 39: Elevation View Figure 40: Elevation

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3.3.3. LA ROTONDA
Villa Capra "La Rotonda" is a Renaissance villa just outside Vicenza, northern
Italy, designed by Andrea Palladio. The correct name is Villa Almerico-Capra.
It is also known as La Rotonda, Villa Rotunda, Villa La Rotonda, and Villa
Almerico. The name "Capra" derives from the Capra brothers, who completed
the building after it was ceded to them in 1591. Like other works by Palladio
in Vicenza and the surrounding area, the building is conserved as part of the
World Heritage Site "City of Vicenza and the Palladian Villas of the Veneto".

The site selected was a hilltop just outside the city of Vicenza. Unlike some
other Palladian villas, the building was not designed from the start to
accommodate a working farm. This sophisticated building was designed for a
site which was, in modern terminology, "suburban". Palladio classed the
building as a "palazzo" rather than a villa.

The design is for a completely symmetrical building having a square plan

with four facades, each of which has a projecting portico. The whole is
contained within an imaginary circle which touches each corner of the
building and centres of the porticos. (illustration, left). The name La Rotonda
refers to the central circular hall with its dome. To describe the villa, as a
whole, as a 'rotonda' is technically incorrect, as the building is not circular but
rather the intersection of a square with a cross. Each portico has steps leading
up, and opens via a small cabinet or corridor to the circular domed central hall.
This and all other rooms were proportioned with mathematical precision
according to Palladio's own rules of architecture which he published in the
Quattro Libri dell'Architettura.

The design reflected the humanist values of Renaissance architecture. In

order for each room to have some sun, the design was rotated 45 degrees from
each cardinal point of the compass. Each of the four porticos has pediments
graced by statues of classical deities. The pediments were each supported by
six Ionic columns. Each portico was flanked by a single window. All principal
rooms were on the second floor or piano nobile.

Building began in 1567. Palladio, and the owner, Paolo Almerico, were not
to see the completion of the villa. Palladio died in 1580 and a second architect,
Vincenzo Scamozzi, was employed by the new owners to oversee the

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completion. One of the major changes he made to the original plan was to
modify the two-storey centre hall. Palladio had intended it to be covered by a
high semi-circular dome but Scamozzi designed a lower dome with an oculus
(intended to be open to the sky) inspired by the Pantheon in Rome. The dome
was ultimately completed with a cupola.

The interior design of the Villa was to be as wonderful, if not more so, than
the exterior. Alessandro and Giovanni Battista Maganzia and Anselmo Canera
were commissioned to paint frescoes in the principal salons. Among the four
principal salons on the piano nobile are the West Salon (also called the Holy
Room, because of the religious nature of its frescoes and ceiling), and the East
Salon, which contains an allegorical life story of the first owner Paolo
Almerico, his many admirable qualities portrayed in fresco.

The highlight of the interior is the central, circular hall, surrounded by a

balcony and covered by the domed ceiling; it soars the full height of the main
house up to the cupola, with walls decorated in trompe l'oeil. Abundant
frescoes create an atmosphere that is more reminiscent of a cathedral than the
principal salon of a country house. From the porticos wonderful views of the
surrounding countryside can be seen; this is no coincidence as the Villa was
designed to be in perfect harmony with the landscape. This was in complete
contrast to such buildings as Villa Farnese of just 16 years earlier. Thus, while
the house appears to be completely symmetrical, it actually has certain
deviations, designed to allow each facade to complement the surrounding
landscape and topography. Hence there are variations in the facades, in the
width of steps, retaining walls, etc. In this way, the symmetry of the
architecture allows for the asymmetry of the landscape, and creates a
seemingly symmetrical whole. The landscape is a panoramic vision of trees
and meadows and woods, with the distant Vicenza on the horizon.

The northwest portico is set onto the hill as the termination of a straight
carriage drive from the principal gates. This carriageway is an avenue between
the service blocks, built by the Capra brothers who acquired the villa in 1591;
they commissioned Vincenzo Scamozzi to complete the villa and construct the
range of staff and agricultural buildings. As one approaches the villa from this
angle one is deliberately made to feel one is ascending from some less worthy
place to a temple on high. This same view in reverse, from the villa, highlights
a classical chapel on the edge of Vicenza, thus villa and town are united.
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Figure 41: Plan Section Elevation of the Structure

Figure 42: Sectional View Figure 43: Sectional View

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4 COMPARATIVE TABLE, FINDINGS AND CONCLUSIONS

4.1. Comparative Table

Differences Roman Romanesque Renaissance

Architecture Architecture Architecture
Time Period from 6th century from 10th century from 14th century
BCE BCE BCE
Characteristics strong wall with massive walls square and
no external symmetrical plans
support
flat buttresses symmetrical facades
invented arches – semi-circular semi-circular arches
 half point arches
 semi-
circular
arches
flat roofs covered arcades flat ceilings or
by either tile or coffered
wood
piers piers
hand carved colonnette and columns –
columns or plain attached shaft  tuscan
columns columns-  doric
 salvaged  ionic
 hollow
 drum
corinthian capitals mouldings in
capitals
barrel vaults vaulted roof vaults with no ribs
domes domes massive domes
Famous -  Henry  Filippo
Architects Hobson Brunelleschi
Richardson
 Andrea
 Thomas Palladio
Penson
 Michelangelo
 Paul
Abadie  Leonardo da
Vinci
Table 1: Comparative Analysis

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4.2. Findings

The whole study is dedicated to the history of the 3 very known periods that
are Roman architecture, Romanesque Architecture, Renaissance Architecture.

The description stated the architectural characteristics, elements,

materials of their time. The difference in their eras from Roman massive,
elegant, superior construction technique to the Romanesque way of using
articulate features and elements in their design. Creating a new view for the
massive structure which blend with art as well the architecture of that time.

The Renaissance architecture has its own pros; it’s said it’s the era in
which the seed of Modern Architecture were sown. The Renaissance
Architecture neglected the excess ornamentation, decoration. The structures
were massive use of different techniques to construct the buildings were used.

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4.3. Conclusions

The overall growth for the 3 R’s of Architecture is the aim of this dissertation.
An attempt is made to conclude to certain features that can be adopted for the
new designs in our today’s world. The target is to achieve these, with the help
of a comparative study of existing buildings of Roman, Renaissance,
Romanesque Architecture.

The concept of this study is to bring the new and the matter of the new
into the agenda appear as the concept of every age or era which informs it’s
most immanent and transcendental characteristics. Re-reading the history of
architecture is re-reading architecture and buildings as architectural products.
Because of this interrelatedness, creativity – so to say, proposing this
difference of reading as a method - must form the basis of theoretical studies
in history and architecture education because architectural creativity is
historically based on its questioning, critical and displacing attitude – its
deconstructive philosophy. Both architecture and history are complex systems
of information. They require simplification in dealing with their own
discourses. Architecture’s entanglements with all other systems above and
below it, and history’s involvement with the entire universe and mankind as
well as with the specific nature of at-hand issues, apply pressure to their
practice. The question of which issues one needs to leave out in approaching
the theory is one thing; deciding upon privacy/communality in practice is
another, for instance. The proposed architectural history course, which is itself
an interpretation of already interpreted stories of architecture, may run its
course either chronically or Ana-chronically, employing one important
metaphor for architects – creativity - among many possible others, and may
proceed with those selections from the creative past which the educator
believes necessary.

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REFERENCES

Book - Sir Banister Fletcher 20th edition

Book- The History of Architecture

http://www.greatbuildings.com/buildings/Villa_Capra.html

http://architectuul.com/architecture/villa-capra-rotonda

http://www.museumsinflorence.com/musei/Pazzi_chapel.html

https://sites.google.com/site/ad79eruption/pompeii/public-buildings/basilica

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanesque_architecture

https://www.google.co.in/search?biw=1396&bih=645&tbm=isch&sa=1&q=+TRI
UMPHAL+Columns+++roman&oq=+TRIUMPHAL+Columns+++roman&gs_l
=img.3...160800.161550.0.162023.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0..0.0....0...1c.1.64.img..0.0.0.z9ybh
QjMHB0#imgdii=0vWeBGXGpGmMXM:&imgrc=oMhw2W_XCdS3EM:

http://www.museumsinflorence.com/musei/medici_riccardi_palace.html#

https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/medieval-world/latin-western-
europe/romanesque1/a/a-beginners-guide-to-romanesque-architecture

https://www.britannica.com/art/Romanesque-architecture

http://www.essential-humanities.net/western-art/architecture/renaissance/

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List of Figures

S.No Figure No. Captions Page No.

1. (Fig no.01) The View of Pantheon 11

2. (Fig no.02) The View of Colosseum 12
3. (Fig no.03) The View of Pia Cathedral 13
4. (Fig no.04) The View of Church, Cologne 14
5. (Fig no.05) The View of Pazzi Chapel 15
6. (Fig no.06) The View of Medici Riccardi Palace 16

7. (Fig no.07) The View of La Rotonda 17

8. (Fig no.08) Plan of Roman Temple 21

9. (Fig no.09) Basilica of Roman Empire 22

10. (Fig no.10) View of Imperial Thermae 23

11. (Fig no.11) View of Roman Amphitheatre 24

12. (Fig no.12) View of Roman Arch 25

13. (Fig no.13) View of Roman Column 26

14. (Fig no.14) Walls of Romanesque Architecture 29
15. (Fig no.15) Buttresses of Romanesque Architecture 29
16. (Fig no.16) Façade Elevation of Romanesque 30
17. (Fig no.17) Architectural Characters of Renaissance 33
18. Fig no.18) Plan of Pantheon 37
19. (Fig no.19) Sectional Elevation of Pantheon 37
20. (Fig no.20) Sectional View of Pantheon 37
21. (Fig no.21) Sectional View of Pantheon 37
22. (Fig no.22) Sectional View with Interiors of Pantheon 37
23. (Fig no.23) Plan of Colosseum 39
24. (Fig no.24) Sectional View of Colosseum 39
25. (Fig no.25) Elevation of Colosseum 39
26. (Fig no.26) Sectional View of Colosseum 39
27. (Fig no.27) Elevation of Pisa Cathedral 40
28. (Fig no.28) Plan and Sectional of Pisa Cathedral 41
29. (Fig no.29) Structural Elements of Pisa Cathedral 41
30. (Fig no.30) Church of Apostles Longitudinal Section 42
31. (Fig no.31) Transverse Section of the Church 42

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 THE 3 R’s OF ARCHITECTURE lvii

32. (Fig no.32) Exterior from North of the Church 42

33. (Fig no.33) Plan and Section of the Church 42

34. (Fig no.34) Elevation of Pazzi Chapel 43

35. (Fig no.35) Section of Pazzi Chapel 44

36. (Fig no.36) Internal View of Pazzi Chapel 44
37. (Fig no.37) Elements of the Structure of Pazzi Chapel 44
38. (Fig no.38) Plan of Medici Riccardi Palace 46

39. (Fig no.39) Elevation of Medici Riccardi Palace 46

40. (Fig no.40) Elevation of Medici Riccardi Palace 46

41. (Fig no.41) Plan and Section of La Rotonda 49

42. (Fig no.42) Sectional View of La Rotonda 49

43. (Fig no.43) Sectional View of La Rotonda 49

List of Tables

S.No Table No. Captions Page No.

1. (Table no. 1) Comparative Analysis 50

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