Material5862 Geography Mains Mantra 2019 PDF

OFFICERS IAS ACADEMY
(IAS Academy by IAS Officers)
Mains Mantra
2019
GEOGRAPHY
Important Topics for Mains
2019
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Foreword
Officers IAS Academy is a one of its kind academy in the entire country which is run by 5 ex-officers
– 3 IAS, 1 IRS & 1 IRAS - who have cleared the UPSC exam. Its strength also lies in wide array of
experienced faculties who have been in Government service earlier and have been training
aspirants for over a decade. These booklets named ‘Mains Mantra – 2018’are prepared subject
wise for the benefit of all UPSC aspirants who are appearing for the Mains Exam in 2018. The
initial sectionof each booklet contains approach to answer writing followed by all important topics
for the respective subject, which have a high probability of being asked in Mains 2018. This booklet
is the collective team work of all faculty members of the Academy and we would like to thank each
one of them for their contribution. We sincerely hope that this booklet would be of immense help
to all aspirants appearing for the mains exams in 2018 and also for future aspirants who would be
taking up the exam in comings years.
Wishing you all the very best
Yours Sincerely
R.A. Israel Jebasingh (IAS 2004 batch) Rangarajan R (IAS 2005 batch)
Director Associate Director
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Approach to Answer Writing

The aim of this section is to familiarize the students with important tips to be borne in mind while writing
Mains answers in UPSC examination.
Your Answer reflects Your personality in Mains
While in the ‘Interview’ or ‘Personality Test’, the candidate is physically present before the board, it is only the
answer paper that is present before the examiner in Mains examination. Hence, you need to be aware of this
fact and ensure that your answers reflect not just your preparation and knowledge but also your approach to
any given question. In this regard, the following important points may be useful.
1. Understand the import of the question and also the key words in the question - separate discussion below
on key words
2. Break the question into sub questions and create suitable sub-headings for various aspects of the question
3. Have a simple introduction to the answer with suitable statistics from government sources or international
agencies where possible
4. Break the answer into sub-headings and write in simple but precise bullet points below the sub-headings
5. Provide an overall conclusion based on the question and always maintain a positive outlook in the
conclusion
6. Link the answer to various government schemes in that particular area wherever possible
7. Provide flow charts, pie-charts, tables where you can summarise some points in a lucid manner. But don’t
answer the entire question only through such tables. You should write the important points in simple
sentences but can use such diagrams for summarizing the various sub-headings or issues.
8. Stick to word limit – Don’t deviate beyond 10%
Key words and their Import

All the mains questions invariably carry a key word as part of the question. The below table summarises the
import of these key words and approach for answers depending on these words.
Key Word Approach to Answers

Critically Evaluate Provide a brief synopsis of the topic and list down pros and cons/ benefits and
Analyse challenges / issues and suggestions (depending on the topic). Both aspects
Examine should be 50:50. Provide a holistic picture
eg: (a) The states of Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal and Uttarakhand are
reaching limits of their ecological carrying capacity due to tourism. Critically
Evaluate
(b) Eradication of poverty is only possible through GDP Growth. Analyse
(c) The Collegium system of appointment of judges while maintaining
complete independence in judicial appointments, also suffers from serious
limitations. Examine the statement and suggest possible options to
strengthen judicial appointments.
Opinion Provide a balanced opinion whether it is for or against. But don’t provide your
Comment personal opinion. It should be based on a dispassionate analysis by an
Views intelligent person. And even if the opinion or views is one-way, in the
concluding remarks provide the other side as well to balance your answer.
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Key Word Approach to Answers

Your side of opinion can be 70%-80%, but the conclusion should also carry
synopsis of counter view before you conclude.
Eg: (a) What is your opinion on the Rohingya crisis? Should India provide
shelter to the Muslim immigrants or not?
(b) Inter-linking of rivers is a possible solution to both floods and droughts
that affect the country. Comment.
Discuss Most often repeated key word in the Mains examination at present.
Keep it simple and as lucid as possible. Bifurcate or trifurcate the topic into
sub-headings and discuss from various important angles. Provide a well-
rounded conclusion
Eg: Globalisation has both positives and negatives for Indian economy.
Discuss
Elucidate Here the question is asking you to provide points supporting the statement
provided. So don’t try and analyse the statement but provide points in support
of the statement with a conclusion
Eg: Mahatma Gandhi and Dr BR Ambedkar, despite having divergent
approaches and strategies, had a common goal of amelioration of the down
trodden. Elucidate
Enumerate Just list down the points and there is no need for detailed
analysis/Explanation.
Eg: Enumerate the steps taken by the Government towards improvement of
textile industry
Narrate Relate it to the timeframe to which the question pertains and bring out
thorough information of the event/situation
Eg: Narrate how the Gandhian era shaped the Indian freedom struggle
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Table of Contents
Salient features of world physical geography .6 Soils.................................................................................. 41
Geomorphology ............................................................. 6 Minerals ......................................................................... 45
Structure of the earth ............................................. 7 Crops ............................................................................... 51
Plate tectonics ........................................................... 7 Rivers .............................................................................. 53
Rock and Rock Cycle ............................................ 11 Drainage system of India ................................... 57
Landforms ................................................................ 13 Factors Responsible for Location of Industries
Landforms and their evolution ....................... 22 ...................................................................................... 62
Oceanography ............................................................. 25 Important Geophysical Phenomenon ............. 70
Relief of the ocean floor ..................................... 25 Earthquake ................................................................... 70
Ocean currents ....................................................... 26 Tsunami: ........................................................................ 72
Tides ........................................................................... 29 Volcanoes and volcanic landforms ..................... 73
Coral Reefs ............................................................... 30 Cyclone ........................................................................... 74
Climatology .................................................................. 31 Changes in critical geographical features ..... 76
Composition and structure of atmosphere 31 Human Impact on Climate changes .................... 76
Climate and weather............................................ 34 Human impact on Ocean Acidification .............. 77
Airmass and wind pattern................................. 36 Human Impact on Ground Water Depletion ... 77
Geographical features and their locations .... 38 Human impact on pollution ................................... 78
Mountains ..................................................................... 38 Deforestation ............................................................... 79
Plateau............................................................................ 39 Miscellaneous .......................................................... 80
Plains .............................................................................. 39 Floods.............................................................................. 80
Regarding Land Degradation ................................ 39 Landslides ..................................................................... 81
Distribution of Key Natural Resources ........... 41
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Geography
Salient features of world physical geography
Geomorphology greatly over the past few decades, allowing
▪ Geomorphology is the study of landforms, them to understand global distributions.
their processes, form and sediments at the ▪ Geomorphologists are also “landscape-
surface of the Earth (and sometimes on detectives” working out the history of a
other planets). Study includes looking at landscape. Most environments, such as
landscapes to work out how the earth Britain and Ireland, have in the past been
surface processes, such as air, water and glaciated on numerous occasions, tens and
ice, can mould the landscape. hundreds of thousands of years ago.
▪ Landforms are produced by erosion or ▪ These glaciations have left their mark on
deposition, as rock and sediment is worn the landscape, such as the steep-sided
away by these earth-surface processes and valleys in the Lake District and the drumlin
transported and deposited to different fields of central Ireland. Geomorphologists
localities. The different climatic can piece together the history of such
environments produce different suites of places by studying the remaining
landforms. landforms and the sediments – often the
▪ The landforms of deserts, such as sand particles and the organic material, such as
dunes and ergs, are a world apart from the pollen, beetles, diatoms and macrofossils
glacial and periglacial features found in preserved in lake sediments and peat, can
polar and sub-polar regions. provide evidence on past climate change
Geomorphologists map the distribution of and processes.
these landforms so as to understand better ▪ So, geomorphology is a diverse discipline.
their occurrence. Although the basic geomorphological
▪ Earth-surface processes are forming principles can be applied to all
landforms today, changing the landscape, environments, geomorphologists tend to
albeit often very slowly. Most geomorphic specialise in one or two areas, such aeolian
processes operate at a slow rate, but (desert) geomorphology, glacial and
sometimes a large event, such as a landslide periglacial geomorphology, volcanic and
or flood, occurs causing rapid change to the tectonic geomorphology, and even
environment, and sometimes threatening planetary geomorphology.
humans. ▪ Most research is multi-disciplinary,
▪ So geological hazards, such as volcanic combining the knowledge and perspectives
eruptions, earthquakes, tsunamis and from two contrasting disciplines,
landslides, fall within the interests of combining with subjects as diverse as
geomorphologists. Advancements in ecology, geology, civil engineering,
remote sensing from satellites and GIS hydrology and soil science.
mapping has benefited geomorphologists
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Structure of the earth As indicated earlier, the earthquake wave

The Crust velocities helped in understanding the existence of
It is the outermost solid part of the earth. It is the core of the earth. The core mantle boundary is
brittle in nature. The thickness of the crust varies located at the depth of 2,900 km. The outer core is
under the oceanic and continental areas. Oceanic in liquid state while the inner core is in solid state.
crust is thinner as compared to the continental The density of material at the mantle core
crust. The mean thickness of oceanic crust is 5 km boundary is around 5 g/cm3 and at the centre of
whereas that of the continental is around 30 km. the earth at 6,300 km, the density value is around
The continental crust is thicker in the areas of 13g/cm3. The core is made up of very heavy
major mountain systems. It is as much as 70 km material mostly constituted by nickel and iron. It is
thick in the Himalayan region. It is made up of sometimes referred to as the nife layer.
heavier rocks having density of 3 g/cm3. This type Plate tectonics
of rock found in the oceanic crust is basalt. The The theory of plate tectonics (meaning "plate
mean density of material in oceanic crust is 2.7 structure") was developed in the 1960's. This
g/cm3. theory explains the movement of the Earth's plates
The Mantle (which has since been documented scientifically)
The portion of the interior beyond the crust is and also explains the cause of earthquakes,
called the mantle. The mantle extends from Moho’s volcanoes, oceanic trenches, mountain range
discontinuity to a depth of 2,900 km. The upper formation, and other geologic phenomenon.
portion of the mantle is called asthenosphere. The The plates are moving at a speed that has been
word astheno means weak. It is considered to be estimated at 1 to 10 cm per year. Most of the
extending upto 400 km. It is the main source of Earth's seismic activity (volcanoes and
magma that finds its way to the surface during earthquakes) occurs at the plate boundaries as
volcanic eruptions. It has a density higher than the they interact.
crust’s (3.4 g/cm3). The crust and the uppermost The top layers of the plates are called the crust.
part of the mantle are called lithosphere. Its Oceanic crust (the crust under the oceans) is
thickness ranges from 10-200 km. The lower thinner and denser than continental crust. Crust is
mantle extends beyond the asthenosphere. It is in constantly being created and destroyed; oceanic
solid state. crust is more active than continental crust.
Earth's major plates
The current continental and oceanic plates include:
the Eurasian plate, Australian-Indian plate,
Philippine plate, Pacific plate, Juan de Fuca plate,
Nazca plate, Cocos plate, North American plates,
Caribbean plate, South American plate, African
The Core
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plate, Arabian plate, and the Antarctic plate. These undergo destruction and re-melting), and slip
plates consist of smaller sub-plates. laterally.
Since the Earth's crust solidified billions of years Divergent Plate Movement: Sea floor
ago, plates of its crust have been drifting all over Spreading
the globe. The map of the Earth is always changing;
not only are the underlying plates moving, but the
plates change in size. Also, the sea level changes
over time (as the temperature on Earth varies and
the poles melt or freeze to varied extents), covering
or exposing different amounts of crust.
1. Antarctica and the surrounding oceanic

plate
2. North American (with western Atlantic
floor separated from the South
American plate along the Caribbean Seafloor spreading is the movement of two oceanic
islands) plate plates away from each other, which results in the
3. South American (with western Atlantic formation of new oceanic crust (from magma that
floor separated from the North comes from within the Earth's mantle) along a mid-
American plate along the Caribbean ocean ridge. Where the oceanic plates are moving
islands) plate away from each other is called a zone of
4. Pacific plate divergence. Ocean floor spreading was first
5. India-Australia-New Zealand plate suggested by Harry Hess and Robert Dietz in the
6. Africa with the eastern Atlantic floor 1960's.
plate Convergent Plate Movement:
7. Eurasia and the adjacent oceanic plate.
Some important minor plates are listed below:
▪ Cocos plate: Between Central America &
Pacific plate
▪ Nazca plate: Between South America &
Pacific plate
▪ Arabian plate: Mostly the Saudi Arabian
landmass When two plates collide, some crust is destroyed in
▪ Philippine plate: Between the Asiatic & the impact and the plates become smaller. The
Pacific plate results differ, depending upon what types of plates
TYPES OF PLATE MOVEMENT (Divergence, are involved.
Convergence, and Lateral Slipping) Oceanic Plate and Continental Plate
At the boundaries ofthe plates, various When a thin, dense oceanic plate collides with a
deformations occur as the plates interact; they relatively light, thick continental plate, the oceanic
separate from one another (seafloor spreading), plate is forced under the continental plate; this
collide (forming mountain ranges), slip past one phenomenon is called subduction.
another (subduction zones, in which plates Two Oceanic Plates
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When two oceanic plates collide, one may be generate what scientists call a convection cell or
pushed under the other and magma from the convective flow. Heat within the earth comes from
mantle rises, forming volcanoes in the vicinity. two main sources: radioactive decay and
residual heat. Arthur Holmes first considered this
idea in the 1930s, which later influenced Harry
Hess’ thinking about seafloor spreading. The slow
movement of hot, softened mantle that lies below
the rigid plates is the driving force behind the plate
movement.
Movement of The Indian Plate
Lateral Slipping Plate Movement:

When two plates move sideways against each
other, there is a tremendous amount of friction
which makes the movement jerky. The plates slip,
then stick as the friction and pressure build up to
incredible levels. When the pressure is released
suddenly, and the plates suddenly jerk apart, this is
an earthquake.
Rates of Plate Movement
The strips of normal and reverse magnetic field
that parallel the mid-oceanic ridges help scientists
determine the rates of plate movement. These
rates vary considerably. The Arctic Ridge has the
slowest rate (less than 2.5 cm/yr), and the East
Pacific Rise near Easter Island, in the South Pacific
about 3,400 km west of Chile, has the fastest rate
(more than 15 cm/yr).
Force for the Plate Movement
At the time that Wegener proposed his theory
of continental drift, most scientists believed that
the earth was a solid, motionless body. However,
concepts of sea floor spreading and the unified
The Indian plate includes Peninsular India and the
theory of plate tectonics have emphasised that
Australian continental portions. The subduction
both the surface of the earth and the interior
zone along the Himalayas forms the northern plate
are not static and motionless but are dynamic. The
boundary in the form of continent— continent
fact that the plates move is now a well-accepted
convergence. In the east, it extends through
fact. The mobile rock beneath the rigid plates is
Arakanyoma Mountains of Myanmar towards the
believed to be moving in a circular manner. The
island arc along the Java Trench. The eastern
heated material rises to the surface, spreads and
margin is a spreading site lying to the east of
begins to cool, and then sinks back into deeper
Australia inthe form of an oceanic ridge in SW
depths. This cycle is repeated over and over to
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Pacific. The Western margin follows Magma from the mantle or lower crust rises
KirtharMountain of Pakistan. It further extends through its crust to the surface. If magma reaches
along the Makrana coast and joins the spreading the surface, its behaviour depends on the viscosity
site from the Red Sea rift south eastward along of the molten constituent rock. Viscous (thick)
the Chagos Archipelago. The boundary between magma produces volcanoes characterised by
India and the Antarctic plate is also marked by explosive eruptions, while non-viscous (runny)
oceanic ridge (divergent boundary) running in magma produce volcanoes characterised by
roughly W-E direction and merging into the effusive eruptions pouring large amounts of lava
spreading site, a little south of New Zealand. onto the surface.
India was a large island situated off the Australian In some cases, rising magma can cool and solidify
coast, in a vast ocean. The Tethys Sea separated it without reaching the surface. Instead, the cooled
from the Asian continent till about 225 million and solidified igneous mass crystallises within the
years ago. India is supposed to have started her crust to form an igneous intrusion. As magma cools
northward journey about 200 million years ago at the chemicals in the crystals formed are effectively
the time when Pangaea broke. India collided with removed from the main mix of the magma (by a
Asia about 40-50 million years ago causing rapid process known as fractional crystallization),so the
uplift of the Himalayas. The positions of India since chemical content of the remaining magma evolves
about 71 million years till the present are shown in as it solidifies slowly. Fresh unevolved magma
the Figure 4.6. It also shows the position of the injections can remobilise more evolved magmas ,
Indian subcontinent and the Eurasian plate. About allowing eruptions from more viscous magmas.
140 million years before the present, the Movement of molten rock in the mantle ,caused
subcontinent was located as south as 50oS. by thermal convection currents, coupled with
latitude. The two major plates were separated by gravitational effects of changes on the earth's
the Tethys Sea and the Tibetan block was closer to surface (erosion, deposition, even asteroid impact
the Asiatic landmass. and patterns of post- glacial rebound) drive plate
During the movement of the Indian plate towards tectonic motion and ultimately volcanism.
the Asiatic plate, a major event that occurred was Cross-section through a volcano:
the outpouring of lava and formation of the Deccan 1. Large magma 9. Layers of lava
Traps. This started somewhere around 60 million chamber emitted by the volcano
years ago and continued for a long period of time. 2. Bedrock 10. Throat
3. Conduit (pipe) 11. Parasitic cone
Note that the subcontinent was still close to the
4. Base 12. Lava flow
equator. From 40 million years ago and thereafter, 5. Sill 13. Vent
the event of formation of the Himalayas took place. 6. Dike 14. Crater
Scientists believe that the process is still continuing 7. Layers of ash 15. Ash cloud
and the height of the Himalayas is rising even to emitted by the volcano
this date. 8. Flank
Phenomenon related to tectonic activities:
Volcanoes
Volcanoes are places where magma reaches the
earth's surface. The type of volcano depends on the
location of the eruption and the consistency of the
magma.
Volcanic processes
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Lapolith, Phacolith and Sills

As and when the lava moves upwards, a portion of
the same may tend to move in a horizontal
direction wherever it finds a weak plane. It may get
rested in different forms. In case it develops into a
saucer shape, concave to the sky body, it is called
lapolith. A wavy mass of intrusive rocks, at times, is
found at the base of synclines or at the top of
anticline in folded igneous country. Such wavy
materials have a definite conduit to source
beneath in the form of magma chambers
(subsequently developed as batholiths). These
Volcanic Landforms are called the phacoliths. The near horizontal
Intrusive Forms bodies of the intrusive igneous rocks are called sill
The lava that is released during volcanic eruptions or sheet, depending on the thickness of the
on cooling develops into igneous rocks. The cooling material. The thinner ones are called sheets while
may take place either on reaching the surface or the thick horizontal deposits are called sills.
also while the lava is still in the crustal portion. Dykes
Depending on the location of the cooling of the lava, When the lava makes its way through cracks and
igneous rocks are classified as volcanic rocks the fissures developed in the land, it solidifies
(cooling at the surface) and plutonic rocks (cooling almost perpendicular to the ground. It gets cooled
in the crust). The lava that cools within the crustal in the same position to develop a wall-like
portions assumes different forms. These forms are structure. Such structures are called dykes. These
called intrusive forms. are the most commonly found intrusive forms in
Batholiths the western Maharashtra area. These are
A large body of magmatic material that cools in the considered the feeders for the eruptions that led to
deeper depth of the crust develops in the form of the development of the Deccan traps.
large domes. They appear on the surface only after Rock and Rock Cycle
the denudational processes remove the overlying
materials. They cover large areas, and at times,
assume depth that may be several km. These are
granitic bodies. Batholiths are the cooled portion of
magma chambers.
Lacoliths
These are large dome-shaped intrusive bodies with
a level base and connected by a pipe-like conduit
from below. It resembles the surface volcanic
domes of composite volcano, only these are
located at deeper depths. It can be regarded as the
localised source of lava that finds its way to the
surface. The Karnataka plateau is spotted with
domal hills of granite rocks. Most of these, now Rock
exfoliated, are examples of lacoliths or batholiths.
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The earth’s crust is composed of rocks. A rock is an (igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic) of the
aggregate of one or more minerals. Rock may be earth’s surface are exposed to denudational agents,
hard or soft and in varied colours. For example, and are broken up into various sizes of fragments.
granite is hard, soapstone is soft. Gabbro is black Such fragments are transported by different
and quartzite can be milky white. Rocks do not exogenous agencies and deposited. These deposits
have definite composition of mineral constituents. through compaction turn into rocks. This process
Feldspar and quartz are the most common is called lithification. In many sedimentary rocks,
minerals found in rocks. As there is a close relation the layers of deposits retain their characteristics
between rocks and landforms, rocks and soils. even after lithification. Hence, we see a number of
There are many different kinds of rocks which are layers of varying thickness in sedimentary rocks
grouped under three families on the basis of their like sandstone, shale etc.
mode of formation. They are: (i) Igneous Rocks —
solidified from magma and lava; (ii) Sedimentary
Rocks — the result of deposition of fragments of
rocks by exogenous processes; (iii) Metamorphic
Rocks — formed out of existing rocks undergoing
recrystallisation.
Igneous rocks
As igneous rocks form out of magma and lava from
the interior of the earth, they are known as
primary rocks. The igneous rocks (Ignis– in Latin
means‘Fire’) are formed when magma cools and
solidifies. You already know what magma is. When Depending upon the mode of formation,
magma in its upward movement cools and turns sedimentary rocks are classified into three major
into solid form it is called igneous rock. The process groups: (i) mechanically formed — sandstone,
of cooling and solidification can happen in the conglomerate, limestone, shale, loess etc. are
earth’s crust or on the surface of the earth. examples; (ii) organically formed — geyserite,
Igneous rocks are classified based on texture. chalk, limestone, coal etc. are some examples; (iii)
Texture depends upon size and arrangement of chemically formed — chert, limestone, halite,
grains or other physical conditions of the materials. potash.
If molten material is cooled slowly at great depths, Metamorphic rocks
mineral grains may be very large. Sudden cooling The word metamorphic means ‘change of form’.
(at the surface) results in small and smooth grains. These rocks form under the action of pressure,
Intermediate conditions of cooling would result in volume and temperature (PVT) changes.
intermediate sizes of grains making up igneous Metamorphism occurs when rocks are forced
rocks. Granite, gabbro, pegmatite, basalt, volcanic down to lower levels by tectonic processes or when
breccia and tuff are some of the examples of molten magma rising through the crust comes in
igneous rocks. contact with the crustal rocks or the underlying
rocks are subjected to great amounts of pressure
by overlying rocks. Metamorphism is a process by
Sedimentary rocks which already consolidated rocks undergo
The word ‘sedimentary’ is derived from the Latin recrystallisation and reorganisation of materials
word sedimentum, which means settling. Rocks within original rocks.
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Gneissoid, granite, syenite, slate, schist, marble,

quartzite etc. are some examples of metamorphic
rocks.
Rock cycle
Rocks do not remain in their original form for long
but may undergo transformation. Rock cycle is a
continuous process through which old rocks are
transformed into new ones.
Mechanical disruption and reorganisation of the

original minerals within rocks due to breaking and
crushing without any appreciable chemical
changes is called dynamic metamorphism. The
materials of rocks chemically alter and
recrystallise due to thermal metamorphism. There
are two types of thermal metamorphism - contact
metamorphism and regional metamorphism. In
contact metamorphism the rocks come in contact
with hot intruding magma and lava and the rock Igneous rocks are primary rocks and other
materials recrystallise under high temperatures. rocks (sedimentary and metamorphic) form from
Quite often new materials form out of magma or these primary rocks. Igneous rocks can be changed
lava are added to the rocks. In regional into metamorphic rocks. The fragments derived
metamorphism, rocks undergo recrystallisation out of igneous and metamorphic rocks form into
due to deformation caused by tectonic shearing sedimentary rocks.
together with high temperature or pressure or Sedimentary rocks themselves can turn into
both. fragments and the fragments can be a source for
In the process of metamorphism in some rocks formation of sedimentary rocks. The crustal rocks
grains or minerals get arranged in layers or lines. (igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary) once
Such an arrangement of minerals or grains in formed may be carried down into the mantle
metamorphic rocks is called foliation or (interior of the earth) through subduction process
lineation. Sometimes minerals or materials of (parts or whole of crustal plates going down under
different groups are arranged into alternating thin another plate in zones of plate convergence) and
to thick layers appearing in light and dark shades. the same melt down due to increase in temperature
Such a structure in metamorphic rocks is called in the interior and turn into molten magma, the
banding and rocks displaying banding are called original source for igneous rocks
banded rocks. Types of metamorphic rocks depend Landforms
upon original rocks that were subjected to The earth’s crust is dynamic it has moved and
metamorphism. moves vertically and horizontally. Of course, it
Metamorphic rocks are classified into two major moved a bit faster in the past than the rate at which
groups — foliated rocks and non-foliated rocks. it is moving now.
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The landforms that are found on the surface of the (aggradation) of basins/depressions, on the earth’s
Earth can be grouped into 4 categories: surface. The phenomenon of wearing down of relief
(1) Structural Landforms - landforms that are variations of the surface of the earth through
created by massive earth movements due to plate erosion is known as gradation. The endogenic
tectonics. This includes landforms with some of the forces continuously elevate or build up parts of the
following geomorphic features: fold mountains, rift earth’s surface and hence the exogenic processes
valleys, and volcanoes. fail to even out the relief variations of the surface of
(2) Weathering Landforms- landforms that are the earth. So, variations remain as long as the
created by the physical or chemical decomposition opposing actions of exogenic and endogenic forces
of rock through weathering. Weathering produces continue. In general terms, the endogenic forces
landforms where rocks and sediments are are mainly land building forces and the exogenic
decomposed and disintegrated. This includes processes are mainly land wearing forces.
landforms with some of the following geomorphic The endogenic and exogenic forces causing
features: karst, patterned ground, and soil profiles. physical stresses and chemical actions on earth
(3) Erosional Landforms - landforms formed materials and bringing about changes in the
from the removal of weathered and eroded surface configuration of the surface of the earth are known
materials by wind, water, glaciers, and gravity. This as geomorphic processes. Diastrophism and
includes landforms with some of the following volcanism are endogenic geomorphic processes.
geomorphic features: river valleys, glacial valleys, Weathering, mass wasting, erosion and deposition
and coastal cliffs. are exogenic geomorphic processes
(4) Depositional Landforms - landforms formed Any exogenic element of nature (like water, ice,
from the deposition of weathered and eroded wind, etc.,) capable of acquiring and transporting
surface materials. On occasion, these deposits can earth materials can be called a geomorphic agent.
be compressed, altered by pressure, heat and When these elements of nature become mobile due
chemical processes to become sedimentary rocks. to gradients, they remove the materials and
This includes landforms with some of the following transport them over slopes and deposit them at
geomorphic features: beaches, deltas, flood plains, lower level. Geomorphic processes and
and glacial moraines. geomorphic agents especially exogenic, unless
The differences in the internal forces operating stated separately, are one and the same.
from within the earth which built up the crust have A process is a force applied on earth materials
been responsible for the variations in the outer affecting the same. An agent is a mobile medium
surface of the crust. The earth’s surface is being (like running water, moving ice masses, wind,
continuously subjected to external forces induced waves and currents etc.) which removes,
basically by energy (sunlight). Of course, the transports and deposits earth materials. Running
internal forces are still active though with different water, groundwater, glaciers, wind, waves and
intensities. That means, the earth’s surface is being currents, etc., can be called geomorphic agents.
continuously subjected to by external forces Movements:
originating within the earth’s atmosphere and by Gravity besides being a directional force activating
internal forces from within the earth. The external all down slope movements of matter also causes
forces are known as exogenic forces and the stresses on the earth’s materials. Indirect
internal forces are known as endogenic forces. The gravitational stresses activate wave and tide
actions of exogenic forces result in wearing down induced currents and winds. Without gravity and
(degradation) of relief/elevations and filling up gradients there would be no mobility and hence no
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erosion, transportation and deposition are The exogenic processes derive their energy from
possible. So, gravitational stresses are as important atmosphere determined by the ultimate energy
as the other geomorphic processes. Gravity is the from the sun and also the gradients created by
force that is keeping us in contact with the surface tectonic factors. Gravitational force acts upon all
and it is the force that switches on the movement earth materials having a sloping surface and tend
of all surface material on earth. All the movements to produce movement of matter in down slope
either within the earth or on the surface of the direction. Force applied per unit area is called
earth occur due to gradients — from higher levels stress. Stress is produced in a solid by pushing or
to lower levels, from high pressure to low pressure pulling. This induces deformation. Forces acting
areas etc. along the faces of earth materials are shear stresses
Endogenic Processes (separating forces). It is this stress that breaks
The energy emanating from within the earth is the rocks and other earth materials. The shear stresses
main force behind endogenic geomorphic result in angular displacement or slip. Besides the
processes. This energy is mostly generated by gravitational stress earth materials become
radioactivity, rotational and tidal friction and subjected to molecular stresses that may be caused
primordial heat from the origin of the earth. by a number of factors amongst which temperature
Diastrophism changes, crystallisation and melting are the most
All processes that move, elevate or build up common. Chemical processes normally lead to
portions of the earth’s crust come under loosening of bonds between grains, dissolving of
diastrophism. They include: (i) Orogenic processes soluble minerals or cementing materials. Thus, the
involving mountain building through severe basic reason that leads to weathering, mass
folding and affecting long and narrow belts of movements, erosion and deposition is
the earth’s crust; (ii) Epeirogenic processes development of stresses in the body of the earth
involving uplift or warping of large parts of the materials.
earth’s crust; (iii) earthquakes involving local As there are different climatic regions on the
relatively minor movements; (iv) plate tectonics earth’s surface the exogenic geomorphic processes
involving horizontal movements of crustal plates. vary from region to region. Temperature and
In the process of orogeny, the crust is severely precipitation are the two important climatic
deformed into folds. Due to epeirogeny, there may elements that control various processes.
be simple deformation. Orogeny is a mountain All the exogenic geomorphic processes are covered
building process whereas epeirogeny is under a general term, denudation. The word
continental building process. Through the ‘denude’ means to strip off or to uncover.
processes of orogeny, epeirogeny, earthquakes and Weathering, mass wasting/movements, erosion
plate tectonics, there can be faulting and fracturing and transportation are included in denudation.
of the crust. All these processes cause pressure, As there are different climatic regions on the
volume and temperature (PVT) changes which in earth’s surface owing to thermal gradients created
turn induce metamorphism of rocks. by latitudinal, seasonal and land and water spread
Volcanism variations, the exogenic geomorphic processes
Volcanism includes the movement of molten rock vary from region to region. The density, type and
(magma) onto or toward the earth’s surface and distribution of vegetation which largely depend
also formation of many intrusive and extrusive upon precipitation and temperature exert
volcanic forms. influence indirectly on exogenic geomorphic
Exogenic processes processes. Within different climatic regions there
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may be local variations of the effects of different Weathering is the breakdown and alteration of
climatic elements due to altitudinal differences, rocks and minerals at or near the Earth's surface
aspect variations and the variation in the amount into products that are more in equilibrium with
of insolation received by north and south facing the conditions found in this environment. Most
slopes as compared to east and west facing slopes. rocks and minerals are formed deep within the
Further, due to differences in wind velocities and Earth's crust where temperatures and pressures
directions, amount and kind of precipitation, its differ greatly from the surface. Because the
intensity, the relation between precipitation and physical and chemical nature of materials formed
evaporation, daily range of temperature, freezing in the Earth's interior are characteristically in
and thawing frequency, depth of frost penetration, disequilibrium with conditions occurring on the
the geomorphic processes vary within any climatic surface. Because of this disequilbrium, these
region. materials are easily attacked, decomposed, and
Climatic factors being equal, the intensity of action eroded by various chemical and physical surface
of exogenic geomorphic processes depends upon processes.
type and structure of rocks. The term structure Weathering is the first step for a number of
includes such aspects of rocks as folds, faults, other geomorphic and biogeochemical processes.
orientation and inclination of beds, presence or The products of weathering are a major source of
absence of joints, bedding planes, hardness or sediments for erosion and deposition. Many types
softness of constituent minerals, chemical of sedimentary rocks are composed of particles
susceptibility of mineral constituents; the that have been weathered, eroded, transported,
permeability or impermeability etc. Different types and terminally deposited in basins. Weathering
of rocks with differences in their structure offer also contributes to the formation of soil by
varying resistances to various geomorphic providing mineral particles like sand, silt, and clay.
processes. A particular rock may be resistant to one Elements and compounds extracted from the rocks
process and non-resistant to another. And, under and minerals by weathering processes supply
varying climatic conditions, particular rocks may nutrients for plant uptake. The fact that the oceans
exhibit different degrees of resistance to are saline in the result of the release of ion salts
geomorphic processes and hence they operate at from rock and minerals on the continents, leaching
differential rates and give rise to differences in and runoff transport these ions from land to the
topography. The effects of most of the exogenic ocean basins where they accumulate in the
geomorphic processes are small and slow and may seawater. In conclusion, weathering is a process
be imperceptible in a short time span, but will in that is fundamental to many other aspects of the
the long run affect the rocks severely due to hydrosphere, lithosphere, and biosphere.
continued fatigue. There are three broad categories of mechanisms
Finally, it boils down to one fact that the differences for weathering: chemical,physical and biological.
on the surface of the earth though originally related Products of Weathering
to the crustal evolution continue to exist in some The process of weathering can result in the
form or the other due to differences in the type and following three outcomes on rocks and minerals:
structure of earth materials, differences in (1). The complete loss of particular atoms or
geomorphic processes and in their rates of compounds from the weathered surface.
operation. (2). The addition of specific atoms or
Weathering compounds to the weathered surface.
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(3). A breakdown of one mass into two or more hydration and help in rock fracturing. The
masses, with no chemical change in the mineral or volume changes in minerals due to
rock. hydration will also help in physical
Chemical Weathering weathering through exfoliation and
Chemical weathering involves the alteration of the granular disintegration.
chemical and mineralogical composition of the ▪ Carbonation is the reaction of carbonate
weathered material. A number of different and bicarbonate ions with minerals. The
processes can result in chemical weathering. The formation of carbonates usually takes place
most common chemical weathering processes are as a result of other chemical processes.
hydrolysis, oxidation, reduction, hydration, Carbonation is especially active when the
carbonation, and solution. reaction environment is abundant with
▪ Hydrolysis is the weathering reaction that carbon dioxide. The formation of carbonic
occurs when the two surfaces of water and acid, a product of carbon dioxide and water,
compound meet. It involves the reaction is important in the solution of carbonates
between mineral ions and the ions of water and the decomposition of mineral surfaces
(OH- and H+), and results in the because of its acidic nature.
decomposition of the rock surface by ▪ Solution:Water and the ions it carries as it
forming new compounds, and by moves through and around rocks and
increasing the pH of the solution involved minerals can further the weathering
through the release of the hydroxide ions. process. Geomorphologists call this
o Oxidation is the reaction that phenomena solution. The effects of
occurs between compounds and dissolved carbon dioxide and hydrogen
oxygen. ions in water have already been mentioned,
o Reduction is simply the reverse of but solution also entails the effects of a
oxidation, and is thus caused by the number of other dissolved compounds on a
addition of one or more electrons mineral or rock surface. Molecules can mix
producing a more stable in solution to form a great variety of basic
compound. and acidic decompositional compounds.
▪ Hydration: Hydration is the chemical The most important factor affecting all of
addition of water. Minerals take up water the above mentioned chemical weathering
and expand; this expansion causes an processes is climate. Climatic conditions
increase in the volume of the material itself control the rate of weathering that takes
or rock. Calcium sulphate takes in water place by regulating the catalysts of
and turns to gypsum, which is more moisture and temperature.
unstable than calcium sulphate. This Physical Weathering
process is reversible and long, continued Physical weathering is the breakdown of mineral
repetition of this process causes fatigue in or rock material by entirely mechanical methods
the rocks and may lead to their brought about by a variety of causes. Some of the
disintegration. Many clay minerals swell forces originate within the rock or mineral, while
and contract during wetting and drying others are applied externally. Both of these
and a repetition of this process results stresses lead to strain and the rupture of the rock.
in cracking of overlying materials. Salts in The processes that may cause mechanical rupture
pore spaces undergo rapid and repeated
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are abrasion, crystallization, thermal insolation,

wetting and drying, and pressure release.
Abrasion occurs when some force causes two rock
surfaces to come together causing mechanical
wearing or grinding of their surfaces. Collision
between rock surfaces normally occurs through
the erosional transport of material by wind, water,
or ice. crystallization can cause the necessary
stresses needed for the mechanical rupturing of
rocks and minerals. Crystal growth causes stress as
a result of a compound's or an element's change
of physical state with change in temperature.
The transformation from liquid to solid crystalline Dark coloured grains, because of their absorptive
form produces a volumetric change which in turn properties, will expand much more than light
causes the necessary mechanical action for coloured grains. Therefore, in a rock peppered
rupture. with many different coloured grains, rupturing can
occur at different rates at the various mineral
boundaries.
Alternate wetting and drying of rocks, sometimes
known as slaking, can be a very important factor
in weathering. Slaking occurs by the mechanism
of "ordered water", which is the accumulation of
successive layers of water molecules in between
the mineral grains of a rock. The increasing
thickness of the water pulls the rock grains apart
Insolation weathering with great tensional stress.
The physical breakdown of rock by their expansion Pressure release of rock can cause physical
and contraction due to diurnal temperature weathering due to unloading. The majority of
changes is one of the most keenly debated topics in igneous rocks were created deep under the Earth's
rock weathering research. Known as insolation surface at much higher pressures and
weathering, it is the result of the physical inability temperatures. As erosion brings these rock
of rocks to conduct heat well. This inability to formations to the surface, they become subjected
conduct heat results in differential rates of to less and less pressure. This unloading of
expansion and contraction. Thus, the surface of the pressure causes the rocks to fracture horizontally
rock expands more than its interior, and this stress with an increasing number of fractures as the rock
will eventually cause the rock to rupture. approaches the Earth's surface. Spalling, the
Differential expansion and contraction may also be vertical development of fractures, occurs because
due to the variance in the colors of mineral grains of the bending stresses of unloaded sheets across a
in rock. three dimensional plane.
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produced by respiration. Carbon dioxide

mixing with water forms carbonic acid.
▪ The complex chemical effects that occur
as a result of chelation. Chelation is a
biological process where organism
produce organic substances, known as
chelates, that have the ability to
decompose minerals and rocks by the
removal of metallic cations.
▪ Organism can influence the moisture
regime in soils and therefore enhance
Biological Weathering weathering. Shade from aerial leaves and
Biological weathering involves the disintegration stems, the presence of roots masses, and
of rock and mineral due to the chemical and/or humus all act to increase the availability of
physical agents of an organism. The types of water in the soil profile. Water is a
organisms that can cause weathering range from necessary component in several physical
bacteria to plants to animals. and chemical weathering processes.
▪ Organisms can influence the pH of the soil
solution. Respiration from plant roots
releases carbon dioxide. If the carbon
dioxide mixes with water carbonic acid is
formed which lowers soil pH. Cation
exchange reactions by which plants absorb
nutrients from the soil can also cause pH
changes. The absorption processes often
involves the exchange of basic cations for
hydrogen ions. Generally, the higher the
Biological weathering involves process that can be
concentration of hydrogen ions the more
either chemical and physical in character. Some of
acidic a soil becomes.
the more important processes are:
Erosion and Deposition
▪ Simple breaking of particles, by the
Erosion is defined as the removal of soil, sediment,
consumption of soils particles by animals.
regolith, and rock fragments from the landscape.
Particles can also fracture because of
Most landscapes show obvious evidence of
animal burrowing or by the pressure put
erosion. Erosion is responsible for the creation of
forth by growing roots.
hills and valleys. It removes sediments from that
▪ Movement and mixing of materials. Many
were once glaciated, shapes the shorelines of lakes
large soil organisms cause the movement of
and coastlines, and transports material down slope
soil particles. This movement can introduce
from elevated sites. In order for erosion to occur
the materials to different weathering
three processes must take place: detachment,
processes found at distinct locations in the
entrainment and transport. Erosion also requires a
soil profile.
medium to move material. Wind, water, and ice are
▪ Simple chemical processes like solution can
the mediums primarily responsible for erosion.
be enhanced by the carbon dioxide
Finally, the process of erosion stops when the
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transported particles fall out of the transporting even weaker bonds which result from the cohesion
medium and settle on a surface. This process is effects of water and the electro-chemical bonds
called deposition. found in clay and particles of organic matter.
Energy of Erosion Physical, chemical, and biological weathering act to
The energy for erosion comes from several sources. weaken the particle bonds found in rock materials.
Mountain building creates a disequilibrium within As a result, weathered materials are normally more
the Earth's landscape because of the creation of susceptible than unaltered rock to the forces of
relief. Gravity acts to vertically move materials of detachment. The agents of erosion can also exert
higher relief to lower elevations to produce an their own forces of detachment upon the surface
equilibrium. Gravity also acts on the mediums of rocks and soil through the following mechanisms:
erosion to cause them to flow to base level. Plucking: ice freezes onto the surface, particularly
Solar radiation and its influence on atmospheric in cracks and crevices, and pulls fragments out
processes is another source of energy for erosion. from the surface of the rock.
Rainwater has a kinetic energy imparted to it when Cavitation: intense erosion due to the surface
it falls from the atmosphere. Snow has potential collapse of air bubbles found in rapid flows of
energy when it is deposited in higher elevations. water. In the implosion of the bubble, a micro-jet of
This potential energy can be converted into the water is created that travels with high speeds and
energy of motion when the snow is converted into great pressure producing extreme stress on a very
flowing glacial ice. Likewise, the motion of air small area of a surface. Cavitation only occurs when
because of differences in atmospheric pressure can water has a very high velocity, and therefore its
erode surface material when velocities are high effects in nature are limited to phenomenon like
enough to cause particle entrainment. high waterfalls.
The Erosion Sequence Raindrop impact: the force of a raindrop falling
Erosion can be seen as a sequence of three events: onto a soil or weathered rock surface is often
detachment, entrainment, and Movement. These sufficient to break weaker particle bonds. The
three processes are often closely related and amount of force exerted by a raindrop in a function
sometimes not easy distinguished between each of the terminal velocity and mass of the raindrop.
other. A single particle may undergo detachment, Abrasion: the excavation of surface particles by
entrainment, and transport many times. material carried by the erosion agent. The
Detachment effectiveness of this process is related to the
Erosion begins with the detachment of a particle velocity of the moving particles, their mass, and
from surrounding material. Sometimes their concentration at the eroding surface.
detachment requires the breaking of bonds which Abrasion is very active in glaciers where the
hold particles together. Many different types of particles are firmly held by ice. Abrasion can also
bonds exist each with different levels of particle occur from the particles held in the erosional
cohesion. Some of the strongest bonds exist mediums of wind and water.
between the particles found within igneous rocks. Entrainment
In these materials, bonds are derived from the Entrainment is the process of particle lifting by the
growth of mineral crystals during cooling. In agent of erosion. In many circumstances, it is hard
sedimentary rocks, bonds are weaker and are to distinguish between entrainment and
mainly caused by the cementing effect of detachment. There are several forces that provide
compounds such as iron oxides, silica, or calcium. particles with a resistance to this process. The most
The particles found in soils are held together by important force is frictional resistance. Frictional
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resistance develops from the interaction between The critical entrainment velocity curve suggests
the particle to its surroundings. A number of that particles below a certain size are just as
factors increase frictional resistance, including: resistant to entrainment as particles with larger
gravity, particle slope angle relative to the flow sizes and masses. Fine silt and clay particles tend to
direction of eroding medium, particle mass, and have higher resistance to entrainment because of
surface roughness. the strong cohesive bonds between particles.
Entrainment also has to overcome the resistance These forces are far stronger than the forces of
that occurs because of particle cohesive bonds. friction and gravity.
These bonds are weakened by weathering or forces MASS MOVEMENTS
created by the erosion agent (abrasion, plucking, These movements transfer the mass of rock debris
raindrop impact, and cavitation). down the slopes under the direct influence of
Entrainment Forces gravity. That means, air, water or ice do not carry
The main force responsible for entrainment is fluid debris with them from place to place but on the
drag. The strength of fluid drag varies with the other hand the debris may carry with it air, water
mass of the eroding medium (water is 9000 times or ice. The movements of mass may range from
more dense than air) and its velocity. Fluid drag slow to rapid, affecting shallow to deep columns of
causes the particle to move because of horizontal materials and include creep, flow, slide and fall.
force and vertical lift. Within a medium of erosion, Gravity exerts its force on all matter, both bedrock
both of these forces are controlled by velocity. and the products of weathering. So, weathering is
Horizontal force occurs from the push of the agent not a pre-requisite for mass movement though it
against the particle. If this push is sufficient to aids mass movements. Mass movements are very
overcome friction and the resistance of cohesive active over weathered slopes rather than over
bonds, the particle moves horizontally. The vertical unweathered materials.
lift is produced by turbulence or eddies within the Mass movements are aided by gravity and no
flow that push the particle upward. Once the geomorphic agent like running water, glaciers,
particle is lifted the only force resisting its wind, waves and currents participate in the
transport is gravity as the forces of friction, slope process of mass movements. That means mass
angle, and cohesion are now non-existent. The movements do not come under erosion though
particle can also be transported at velocities there is a shift (aided by gravity) of materials from
lower than the entrainment velocities because of one place to another Mass movements can be
the reduction in forces acting on it. grouped under three major classes: (i) slow
Many hydrologists and geomorphologists require movements; (ii) rapid movements; (iii) landslides.
a mathematical model to predict levels of Slow Movements
entrainment, especially in stream environments. In Movement of materials is extremely slow and
these highly generalized models, the level of imperceptible except through extended
particle entrainment is relative to particle size and observation. Materials involved can be soil or rock
the velocity of the medium of erosion. These debris. Creep is one type under this category which
quantitative models can be represented can occur on moderately steep, soil covered slopes.
graphically. On these graphs, the x-axis Depending upon the type of material involved,
represents the log of particle diameter, and the y- several types of creep viz., soil creep, talus creep,
axis the log of velocity. The relationship between rock creep, rock-glacier creep etc., can be
these two variables to the entrainment of particles identified. Also included in this group is solifluction
is described by a curve, and not by a straight line. which involves slow downslope flowing soil mass
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or fine grained rock debris saturated or lubricated that particles may undergo repeated cycles of
with water. This process is quite common in moist entrainment, transport, and deposition. Movement
temperate areas where surface melting of deeply depends on an appropriate balance of forces within
frozen ground and long continued rain the transporting medium. A reduction in the
respectively, occur frequently. When the upper velocity of the medium, or an increase in the
portions get saturated and when the lower parts resistance of the particles may upset this balance
are impervious to water percolation, flowing and cause deposition. Reductions in competence
occurs in the upper parts. can occur in a variety of ways. Velocity can be
Rapid Movements reduced locally by the sheltering effect of large
These movements are mostly prevalent in humid rocks, hills, and stands of vegetation or other
climatic regions and occur over gentle to steep obstructions. Normally, competence changes
slopes. Movement of water-saturated clayey or occur because of large scale reductions in the
silty earth materials down low-angle terraces or velocity of flowing medium. For wind, reductions in
hillsides is known as earthflow. Quite often, the velocity can be related to variations in spatial
materials slump making step-like terraces and heating and cooling which create pressure
leaving arcuate scarps at their heads and an gradients and wind. In water, lower velocities can
accumulation bulge at the toe. When slopes are be caused by reductions in discharge or a change in
steeper, even the bedrock especially of soft the grade of the stream. Glacial flows of ice can
sedimentary rocks like shale or deeply weathered become slower if precipitation input is reduced or
igneous rock may slide downslope. when the ice encounters melting. Deposition can
Another type in this category is mudflow. In the also be caused by particle precipitation and
absence of vegetation cover and with heavy flocculation. Both of these processes are active only
rainfall, thick layers of weathered materials get in water. Precipitation is a process where
saturated with water and either slowly or rapidly dissolved ions become solid because of changes in
flow down along definite channels. It looks like a the temperature or chemistry of the water.
stream of mud within a valley. When the mudflows Flocculation is a chemical process where salt
emerge out of channels onto the piedmont or causes the aggregation of minute clay particles into
plains, they can be very destructive engulfing larger masses that are too heavy to remain
roads, bridges and houses. Mudflows occur suspended. The coarser materials get deposited
frequently on the slopes of erupting or recently first and finer ones later
erupted volcanoes. Volcanic ash, dust and other Landforms and their evolution
fragments turn into mud due to heavy rains and After weathering processes have had their
flow down as tongues or streams of mud causing actions on the earth materials making up the
great destruction to human habitations. surface of the earth, the geomorphic agents like
A third type is the debris avalanche, which is more running water, groundwater, wind, glaciers, waves
characteristic of humid regions with or without perform erosion. It is already known to you that
vegetation cover and occurs in narrow tracks on erosion causes changes on the surface of the earth.
steep slopes. This debris avalanche can be much Deposition follows erosion and because of
faster than the mudflow. Debris avalanche is deposition too, changes occur on the surface of the
similar to snow avalanche. earth.
Deposition In simple words, small to medium tracts or parcels
The erosional movement of material through the of the earth’s surface are called landforms. Each
landscape is rarely continuous. Instead, we find landform has its own physical shape, size,
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materials and is a result of the action of certain These geomorphic agents acting over long periods
geomorphic processes and agent(s). Actions of of time produce systematic changes leading to
most of the geomorphic processes and agents are sequential development of landforms. Each
slow, and hence the results take a long time to take geomorphic agent produces its own assemblage
shape. Every landform has a beginning. Landforms of landforms. Not only this, each geomorphic
once formed may change in their shape, size and process and agent leave their distinct imprints on
nature slowly or fast due to continued action of the landforms they produce. Most of the
geomorphic processes and agents. geomorphic processes are imperceptible functions
Due to changes in climatic conditions and vertical and can only be seen and measured through their
or horizontal movements of landmasses, either the results.
intensity of processes or the processes themselves As the geomorphic agents are capable of erosion
might change leading to new modifications in the and deposition, two sets — erosional or
landforms. Evolution here implies stages of destructional and depositional or constructional —
transformation of either a part of the earth’s of landforms are produced by them. Many varieties
surface from one landform into another or of landforms develop by the action of each of the
transformation of individual landforms after they geomorphic agents depending upon especially the
are once formed. That means, each and every type and structure i.e. folds, faults, joints, fractures,
landform has a history of development and hardness and softness, permeability and
changes through time. A landmass passes through impermeability, etc. come under structure of rocks.
stages of development somewhat comparable to There are some other independent controls like
the stages of life — youth, mature and old age. (i) stability of sea level;
What are the two important aspects of the (ii) tectonic stability of landmasses;
evolution of landforms? The evolutionary history (iii) climate, which influence the evolution of
of the continually changing surface of the earth is landforms.
essential to be understood in order to use it Any disturbance in any of these three controlling
effectively without disturbing its balance and factors can upset the systematic and sequential
diminishing its potential for the future. stages in the development and evolution of
Geomorphology deals with the reconstruction of landforms. Discussion on how landmasses are
the history of the surface of the earth through a reduced in their relief:
study of its forms, the materials of which it is made
up of and the processes that shape it. Running water
Changes on the surface of the earth owe mostly to In humid regions, which receive heavy rainfall
erosion by various geomorphic agents. Of course, running water is considered the most important of
the process of deposition too, by covering the land the geomorphic agents in bringing about the
surfaces and filling the basins, valleys or degradation of the land surface. There are two
depressions, brings changes in the surface of the components of running water. One is overland
land. Deposition follows erosion and the flow on general land surface as a sheet. Another is
depositional surfaces too are ultimately subjected linear flow as streams and rivers in valleys. Most
to erosion. Running water, ground-water, glaciers, of the erosional landforms made by running
wind and waves are powerful erosional and water are associated with vigorous and youthful
depositional agents shaping and changing the rivers flowing along gradients.
surface of the earth aided by weathering and mass With time, stream channels over steep gradients
wasting processes. turn gentler due to continued erosion, and as a
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consequence, lose their velocity, facilitating active irregularities such as waterfalls and cascades will
deposition. There may be depositional forms be removed. In the middle stages, streams cut their
associated with streams flowing over steep slopes. beds slower, and lateral erosion of valley sides
But these phenomena will be on a small scale becomes severe. Gradually, the valley sides are
compared to those associated with rivers flowing reduced to lower and lower slopes. The divides
over medium to gentle slopes. The gentler the river between drainage basins are likewise lowered
channels in gradient or slope, the greater is the until they are almost completely flattened leaving
deposition. finally, a lowland of faint relief with some low
When the stream beds turn gentler due to resistant remnants called monadnocks standing
continued erosion, downward cutting becomes less out here and there. This type of plain forming as a
dominant and lateral erosion of banks increases result of stream erosion is called a peneplain(an
and as a consequence the hills and valleys are almost plain). The characteristics of each of the
reduced to plains. Overland flow causes sheet stages of landscapes developing in running water
erosion. Depending upon irregularities of the land regimes may be summarised as follows:
surface, the overland flow may concentrate into
narrow to wide paths.
Youth
Streams are few during this stage with poor
integration and flow over original slopes showing
shallow V-shaped valleys with no floodplains or
with very narrow floodplains along trunk
streams. Streams divides are broad and flat with
marshes, swamp and lakes. Meanders if present
develop over these broad upland surfaces. These
meanders may eventually entrench themselves
into the uplands. Waterfalls and rapids may exist
where local hard rock bodies are exposed.
Mature
During this stage streams are plenty with good
integration. The valleys are still V-shaped but deep;
trunk streams are broad enough to have wider
floodplains within which streams may flow in
meanders confined within the valley. The flat and
Because of the sheer friction of the column of broad inter stream areas and swamps and
flowing water, minor or major quantities of marshes of youth disappear and the stream divides
materials from the surface of the land are removed turn sharp. Waterfalls and rapids disappear.
in the direction of flow and gradually small and Old
narrow rills will form. These rills will gradually Smaller tributaries during old age are few with
develop into long and wide gullies; the gullies will gentle gradients. Streams meander freely over vast
further deepen, widen, lengthen and unite to give floodplains showing natural levees, oxbow lakes,
rise to a network of valleys. In the early stages, etc. Divides are broad and flat with lakes, swamps
down- cutting dominates during which and marshes. Most of the landscape is at or slightly
above sea level.
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Oceanography
Ocean and ocean currents Divisions of the Ocean Floors
It is said that the water is life. Water is an essential The ocean floors can be divided into four major
component of all life forms that exist over the divisions:
surface of the earth. The creatures on the earth are (i) The Continental Shelf;
lucky that it is a water planet otherwise we all (ii) The Continental Slope;
would have no existence. Water is a rare (iii) The Deep Sea Plain
commodity in our solar system. There is no water (iv) The Oceanic Deeps.
on the sun or anywhere else in the solar system. Besides, these divisions there are also major and
The earth, fortunately has an abundant supply of minor relief features in the ocean floors like ridges,
water on its surface. Hence, our planet is called the hills, sea mounts, guyots, trenches, canyons, etc.
‘Blue Planet’. Continental Shelf
Relief of the ocean floor The continental shelf is the extended margin of
The oceans are confined to the great depressions each continent occupied by Relatively shallow seas
of the earth’s outer layer. In this section, we shall and gulfs. It is the shallowest part of the ocean
see the nature of the ocean basins of the earth and showing an average gradient of1° or even less. The
their topography. The oceans, unlike the shelf typically ends at a very steep slope, called the
continents, merge so naturally into one another shelf break. The width of the continental shelves
that it is hard to demarcate them. The geographers vary from one ocean to another. The average width
have divided the oceanic part of the earth into four of continental shelves is about 80 km.
oceans, namely the Pacific, the Atlantic, the Indian
and the Arctic. The various seas, bays, gulfs and
other inlets are parts of these four large oceans. A
major portion of the ocean floor is found between
3-6 km below the sea level. The ‘land’ under the
waters of the oceans, that is, the ocean floor
exhibits complex and varied features as those
observed over the land .The floors of the oceans The shelves are almost absent or very narrow
are rugged with the world’s largest mountain along some of the margins like the coasts of Chile,
ranges, deepest trenches and the largest plains. the west coast of Sumatra, etc. On the contrary, the
These features are formed, like those of the Siberian shelf in the Arctic Ocean, the largest in the
continents, by the factors of tectonic, volcanic and world, stretches to 1,500 km in width. The depth of
depositional processes. the shelves also varies. It may be as shallow as 30
Hydrological cycle m in some areas while in some areas it is as deep as
600m. The continental shelves are covered with
variable thicknesses of sediments brought down by
rivers, glaciers, wind, from the land and distributed
by waves and currents. Massive sedimentary
deposits received over a long time by the
continental shelves, become the source of fossil
fuels.
Continental Slope
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The continental slope connects the continental and some even reach above the ocean’s surface.
shelf and the ocean basins. It begins where the Iceland, a part of the mid-Atlantic Ridge, is an
bottom of the continental shelf sharply drops off example.
into a steep slope. The gradient of the slope region Seamount
varies between 2-5°. The depth of the slope region It is a mountain with pointed summits, rising from
varies between 200 and 3,000 m. The slope the seafloor that does not reach the surface of the
boundary indicates the end of the continents. ocean. Seamounts are volcanic in origin. These can
Canyons and trenches are observed in this region. be3,000-4,500 m tall. The Emperor seamount, an
extension of the Hawaiian Islands in the Pacific
Ocean, is a good example.
Deep Sea Plain Submarine Canyons

These are deep valleys, some comparable to the
Grand Canyon of the Colorado River. They are
sometimes found cutting across the continental
shelves and slopes, often extending from the
mouths of large rivers. The Hudson Canyon is the
Deep sea plains are gently sloping areas of the best known canyon in the world. Guyots It is a flat
ocean basins. These are the flattest and smoothest topped seamount. They show evidences of gradual
regions of the world. The depths vary between subsidence through stages to become flat topped
3,000 and6,000m. These plains are covered with submerged mountains. It is estimated that more
fine-grained sediments like clay and silt. than10,000 seamounts and guyots exist in the
Oceanic Deeps or Trenches Pacific Ocean alone.
These areas are the deepest parts of the oceans. Atoll
The trenches are relatively steep sided, narrow These are low islands found in the tropical oceans
basins. They are some 3-5 km deeper than the consisting of coral reefs surrounding a central
surrounding ocean floor. They occur at the bases of depression. It may be a part of these a (lagoon),
continental slopes and along island arcs and are or sometimes form enclosing a body of fresh,
associated with active volcanoes and strong brackish, or highly saline water.
earthquakes. That is why they are very significant Ocean currents
in the study of plate movements. As many as 57 Ocean currents are like river flow in oceans. They
deeps have been explored so far; of which 32 are in represent a regular volume of water in a definite
the Pacific Ocean; 19 in the Atlantic Ocean and 6 in path and direction. Ocean currents are influenced
the Indian Ocean. by two types of forces namely:
Minor Relief Features ▪ Primary forces that initiate the movement
Apart from the above mentioned major relief of water
features of the ocean floor, some minor but ▪ Secondary forces that influence the
significant features predominate in different parts currents to flow.
of the oceans. The primary forces that influence the currents are:
Mid-Oceanic Ridges ▪ Heating by solar energy;
A mid-oceanic ridge is composed of two chains of ▪ Wind;
mountains separated by a large depression .The ▪ Gravity;
mountain ranges can have peaks as high as 2,500 m ▪ Coriolis force.
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Heating by solar energy causes the water to (i) surface currents constitute about 10 per cent of
expand. That is why, near the equator the ocean all the water in the ocean, these waters are the
water is about 8 cm higher in level than in the upper 400 m of the ocean;
middle latitudes. This causes a very slight gradient (ii) deep water currents make up the other 90 per
and water tends to flow down the slope. Wind cent of the ocean water. These waters move around
blowing on the surface of the ocean pushes the the ocean basins due to variations in the density
water to move. Friction between the wind and the and gravity. Deep waters sink into the deep ocean
water surface affects the movement of the water basins at high latitudes, where the temperatures
body in its course. Gravity tends to pull the water are cold enough to cause the density to increase.
down the pile and create gradient variation. The Ocean currents can also be classified based on
Coriolis force intervenes and causes the water to temperature : as cold currents and warm currents:
move to the right in the northern hemisphere and (i) cold currents bring cold water into
to the left in the southern hemisphere. These large warm water areas. These currents are
accumulations of water and the flow around them usually found on the west coast of the
are called Gyres. These produce large circular continents in the low and middle
currents in all the ocean basins. latitudes (true in both hemispheres)
Differences in water density affect vertical mobility and on the east coast in the higher
of ocean currents. Water with high salinity is latitudes in the Northern Hemisphere;
denser than water with low salinity and in the same (ii) warm currents bring warm water into
way cold water is denser than warm water. Denser cold water areas and are usually
water tends to sink, while relatively lighter water observed on the east coast of
tends to rise. Cold-water ocean currents occur continents in the low and middle
when the cold water at the poles sinks and slowly latitudes (true in both hemispheres). In
moves towards the equator. Warm-water currents the northern hemisphere they are
travel out from the equator along the surface, found on the west coasts of continents
flowing towards the poles to replace the sinking in high latitudes.
cold water. Major Ocean Currents
Characteristics of Ocean Currents: Major ocean currents are greatly influenced by the
Currents are referred to by their “drift”. Usually, stresses exerted by the prevailing winds and
the currents are strongest near the surface and coriolis force. The oceanic circulation pattern
may attain speeds over five knots. At depths, roughly corresponds to the earth’s atmospheric
currents are generally slow with speeds less than circulation pattern. The air circulation over the
0.5 knots. We refer to the speed of a current as its oceans in the middle latitudes is mainly
“drift.” Drift is measured in terms of knots. The anticyclonic (more pronounced in the southern
strength of a current refers to the speed of the hemisphere than in the northern hemisphere). The
current. A fast current is considered strong. A oceanic circulation pattern also corresponds with
current is usually strongest at the surface and the same. At higher latitudes, where the wind flow
decreases in strength (speed) with depth. Most is mostly cyclonic, the oceanic circulation follows
currents have speeds less than or equal to 5 knots. this pattern. In regions of pronounced monsoonal
Types of Ocean Currents flow, the monsoon winds influence the current
The ocean currents may be classified based on their movements. Due to the coriolis force, the warm
depth as surface currents and deep water currents from low latitudes tend to move to the
currents : right in the northern hemisphere and to their left
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in the southern hemisphere. The oceanic Earth. The Walker circulation is the result of a
circulation transports heat from one latitude belt difference in surface pressure and temperature
to another in a manner similar to the heat over the western and eastern tropical Pacific
transported by the general circulation of the Ocean. Normally, the tropical western Pacific is
atmosphere. The cold waters of the Arctic and warm and wet with a low pressure system, and the
Antarctic circles move towards warmer water in cool and dry eastern Pacific lie under a high
tropical and equatorial regions, while the warm pressure system. This creates a pressure gradient
waters of the lower latitudes move pole wards. from east to west and causes surface air to move
east to west, from high pressure in the eastern
Effects of Ocean Currents Pacific to low pressure in the western Pacific.
Ocean currents have a number of direct and Higher up in the atmosphere, west-to-east winds
indirect influences on human activities. West complete the circulation.
coasts of the continents in tropical and subtropical
latitudes (except close to the equator) are
bordered by cool waters. Their average
temperatures are relatively low with a narrow
diurnal and annual ranges. There is fog, but
generally the areas are arid. West coasts of the
continents in the middle and higher latitudes are
bordered by warm waters which cause a distinct
marine climate. They are characterised by cool
The warm waters of the western Pacific Ocean in
summers and relatively mild winters with a
East Asia heat the air above it and supply it with
narrow annual range of temperatures. Warm
currents flow parallel to the east coasts of the moisture. On average, the air rises, forms clouds,
and then flows to the east across the Pacific, losing
continents in tropical and subtropical latitudes.
This results in warm and rainy climates. These moisture to rainfall. The air then sinks off the west
coast of South America and returns to the west
areas lie in the western margins of the subtropical
anti-cyclones. The mixing of warm and cold along the surface of the ocean, back to the western
currents help to replenish the oxygen and favour Pacific Ocean.
the growth of planktons, the primary food for fish The Walker circulation contributes to normal
weather conditions in the tropical Pacific Ocean:
population. The best fishing grounds of the world
warm, wet weather in the western Pacific and cool,
exist mainly in these mixing zones.
dry weather in the eastern Pacific.
The Walker circulation reverses every few years, as
part of a phenomenon called the El Niño-
Southern Oscillation (ENSO). When the Walker
circulation weakens, the winds also weaken and
the warm water of the western Pacific spreads to
the east slowly drifts towards South American
coast and replaces the Peruvian current Or
Walker Circulation& EL-NINO, LA-NINA otherwise called as HAMBOLT COLD CURRENT..
The Walker circulation is an ocean-based system These conditions are called El Niño. In the years
of air circulation that influences weather on the when the ENSO is strong, large-scale variations in
weather occur over the world. The arid west coast
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of South America receives heavy rainfall, drought subject to forces such as wind and barometric
occurs in Australia and sometimes in India and pressure changes, resulting in storm surges,
floods in China. This phenomenon is closely especially in shallow seas and near coasts.
monitored and is used for long range forecasting in Tidal phenomena are not limited to the oceans, but
major parts of the world. can occur in other systems whenever a
During times when the Walker circulation is gravitational field that varies in time and space is
particularly strong, called La Niña, the winds are present. For example, the shape of the solid part of
stronger across the Pacific. These strong winds the Earth is affected slightly by Earth tide, though
cause cooler ocean temperatures because of this is not as easily seen as the water tidal
upwelling in the eastern Pacific. movements.
El Niño and La Niña impact the weather in Types of Tides
North and South America, Australia, and Diurnal Tide
Southeast Africa, and can cause flooding, droughts, A diurnal tide has one episode of high water and
and increases or decreases in hurricane activity. one episode of low water each day. These tides
Scientists and meteorologists are seriously usually occur in locations when the moon is
pondering over the relation between ENSO & farthest from the equator
Monsoon failure in Indian subcontinent. Semi-diurnal Tide
Tides A semi-diurnal tide has two episodes of equal high
Tides are the rise and fall of sea levels caused by water and two episodes of low equal water each
the combined effects of the gravitational forces day. The second high tide rises to the same level it
exerted by the Moon and the Sun, and did in the first high tide and the second low tide
the rotation of Earth. falls to the same level it did in the first low tide.
Tide tables can be used to find the predicted times Semi-diurnal tides tend to occur when the moon is
and amplitude (or "tidal range") of tides at any directly over the equator. This is the most common
given locale. The predictions are influenced by type of tidal pattern.
many factors including the alignment of the Sun Mixed Tide
and Moon, the phase and amplitude of the Mixed tides, like the semi-diurnal tide, can have
tide (pattern of tides in the deep ocean), two episodes of high water and two episodes of low
the amphidromic systems of the oceans, and the water per day. However, unlike a semi-diurnal tide,
shape of the coastline and near-shore bathymetry. mixed tides are unequal, meaning they do not rise
They are however only predictions, the actual time and fall to the same levels. Mixed tides can either
and height of the tide is affected by wind and include both sets of unequal high and low waters,
atmospheric pressure. or only one set of unequal high or low waters.
Tides vary on timescales ranging from hours to Mixed tides will happen when the moon is
years due to a number of factors, which determine extremely far north or extremely far south of the
the lunitidal interval. To make accurate equator.
records, tide gauges at fixed stations measure Meteorological Tide
water level over time. Gauges ignore variations The first three tides listed are astronomical tides,
caused by waves with periods shorter than meaning they are influenced by gravitational
minutes. These data are compared to the reference actions of the sun, moon and Earth. Meteorological
(or datum) level usually called mean sea level. tides represent all atmospherically influenced
While tides are usually the largest source of short- tides, such as those affected by wind, barometric
term sea-level fluctuations, sea levels are also pressures, rainfall, ice melting and land drying. One
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example of a meteorological tide is a storm surge, ▪ Yet some estimates put the total diversity
when wind and inverted barometric pressure of life found in, on, and around all coral
combine to cause a dramatic increase in sea levels. reefs at up to 2 million species. All up, reefs
are home to 25% of all marine life, and form
the nurseries for about a quarter of the
ocean's fish - including commercially
Difference Between Tides and Waves important species that could end up on
1. Tides are formed because of the your dinner plate any night of the week.
interaction of the gravitational forces ▪ This biodiversity translates directly into
between the Earth, the moon, and the sun. food security, income, and a multitude of
2. Waves are formed because of the gusting or other benefits to people. For example,
raging force exerted by the wind on the although scientists have only just begun to
water surface. understand how reefs can contribute to
3. Tides are usually generated at the deep medicine, already coral reef organisms are
oceanic regions while waves are usually being used in treatments for diseases like
seen at shallower areas of the sea. cancer and HIV.
4. Tides are made by the rising and falling sea ▪ For many coastal areas, coral reefs also
levels with the action of gravity while provide an important barrier against the
waves are formed when worst ravages of storms, hurricanes, and
several factors relating to the wind and typhoons.
water interact with each other. As thousands of communities across the world will
Coral Reefs tell you, coral reefs are essential not only to ocean
Coral reefs are the most diverse of all marine health, but also to human health and well-being.
ecosystems. They teem with life, with perhaps one- What are the main threats to coral reefs?
quarter of all ocean species depending on Coral reefs have survived tens of thousands of
reefs for food and shelter. This is a remarkable years of natural change, but many of them may not
statistic when you consider that reefs cover just a be able to survive the havoc wrought by
tiny fraction (less than one percent) of the earth’s humankind.
surface and less than two percent of the ocean Roughly one-quarter of coral reefs worldwide are
bottom. Because they are so diverse, coral reefs are already considered damaged beyond repair, with
often called the rainforests of the sea. another two-thirds under serious threat.
Unfortunately, people also pose the greatest threat Major threats to coral reefs & their habitats
to coral reefs. Overfishing and destructive fishing, • Climate change: Corals cannot survive if
pollution, warming, changing ocean chemistry, and the water temperature is too high. Global
invasive species are all taking a huge toll. In some warming has already led to increased levels
places, reefs have been entirely destroyed, and in of coral bleaching, and this is predicted to
many places reefs today are a pale shadow of what increase in frequency and severity in the
they once were. coming decades. Such bleaching events
Coral reefs: home to 25% of all marine life may be the final nail in the coffin for already
▪ The total area of the world's coral reefs stressed coral reefs and reef ecosystems.
amounts to less than one quarter of 1% of • Destructive fishing practices: These
the entire marine environment. include cyanide fishing, blast or dynamite
fishing, bottom trawling, and muro-ami
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(banging on the reef with sticks). Bottom- from farming, increase the level of nitrogen
trawling is one of the greatest threats to in seawater, causing an overgrowth of
cold-water coral reefs. algae, which 'smothers' reefs by cutting off
• Overfishing: This affects the ecological their sunlight.
balance of coral reef communities, warping • Sedimentation: Erosion caused by
the food chain and causing effects far construction (both along coasts and
beyond the directly overfished population. inland), mining, logging, and farming is
• Careless tourism: Careless boating, leading to increased sediment in rivers.
diving, snorkeling, and fishing happens This ends up in the ocean, where it can
around the world, with people touching 'smother' corals by depriving them of the
reefs, stirring up sediment, collecting coral, light needed to survive. The destruction
and dropping anchors on reefs. Some of mangrove forests, which normally trap
tourist resorts and infrastructure have large amounts of sediment, is exacerbating
been built directly on top of reefs, and some the problem.
resorts empty their sewage or other wastes • Coral mining: Live coral is removed from
directly into water surrounding coral reefs. reefs for use as bricks, road-fill, or cement
• Pollution: Urban and industrial waste, for new buildings. Corals are also sold as
sewage, agrochemicals, and oil pollution souvenirs to tourists and to exporters who
are poisoning reefs. These toxins are don't know or don't care about the longer
dumped directly into the ocean or carried term damage done, and harvested for
by river systems from sources upstream. the live rock trade.
Some pollutants, such as sewage and runoff
Climatology
Composition and structure of atmosphere carbon dioxide for plants. The air is an integral part
Atmosphere is a mixture of different gases and it of the earth’s mass and 99 per cent of the total mass
envelopes the earth all round. It contains life-giving of the atmosphere is confined to the height of 32
gases like oxygen for humans and animals and km from the earth’s surface. The proportion of
carbon dioxide for plants. The air is an integral part gases changes in the higher layers of the
of the earth’s mass and 99 per cent of the total mass atmosphere in such a way that oxygen will be
of the atmosphere is confined to the height of 32 almost in negligible quantity at the height of 120
km from the earth’s surface. km. Similarly, carbon dioxide and water vapour are
found only up to 90 km from the surface of the
earth
Gases
Carbon dioxide is meteorologically a very
important gas as it is transparent to the incoming
solar radiation but opaque to the outgoing
terrestrial radiation. It absorbs a part of terrestrial
radiation and reflects back some part of it towards
the earth’s surface. It is largely responsible for the
Atmosphere is a mixture of different gases and it green house effect. The volume of other gases is
envelopes the earth all round. It contains life-giving constant but the volume of carbon dioxide has been
gases like oxygen for humans and animals and rising in the past few decades mainly because of the
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burning of fossil fuels. This has also increased the troposphere is greatest at the equator because heat
temperature of the air. Ozone is another important is transported to great heights by strong
component of the atmosphere found between 10 convectional currents. This layer contains dust
and 50 km above the earth’s surface and acts as a particles and water vapour. All changes in climate
filter and absorbs the ultra-violet rays radiating and weather take place in this layer. The
from the sun and prevents them from reaching the temperature in this layer decreases at the rate
surface of the earth. of1°C for every 165m of height. This is the most
Water Vapour important layer for all biological activity. The zone
Water vapour is also a variable gas in the separating the troposphere from stratosphere is
atmosphere, which decreases with altitude. In the known as the tropopause. The air temperature at
warm and wet tropics, it may account for four per the tropopause is about minus 800C over the
cent of the air by volume, while in the dry and cold equator and about minus 45oC over the poles. The
areas of desert and polar regions, it may be less temperature here is nearly constant, and hence, it
than one per cent of the air. Water vapour also is called the tropopause. The stratosphere is found
decreases from the equator towards the poles. It above the tropopause and extends up to a height of
also absorbs parts of the insolation from the sun 50 km. One important feature of the stratosphere is
and preserves the earth’s radiated heat. It thus, acts that it contains the ozone layer. This layer absorbs
like a blanket allowing the earth neither to become ultraviolet radiation and shields life on the earth
too cold nor too hot. Water vapour also contributes from intense, harmful form of energy.
to the stability and instability in the air.
Dust Particles
Dust particles are generally concentrated in the
lower layers of the atmosphere; yet, convectional
air currents may transport them to great heights.
The higher concentration of dust particles is found
in subtropical and temperate regions due to dry
winds in comparison to equatorial and Polar
Regions. Dust and salt particles act as hygroscopic
nuclei around which water vapour condenses to
produce clouds.
Structure of the atmosphere
The atmosphere consists of different layers with The mesosphere lies above the stratosphere, which
varying density and temperature. Density is extends up to a height of 80 km. In this layer, once
highest near the surface of the earth and decreases again, temperature starts decreasing with the
with increasing altitude. The column of increase in altitude and reaches up to minus 100°C
atmosphere is divided into five different layers at the height of 80 km. The upper limit of
depending upon the temperature condition. They mesosphere is known as the mesopause. The
are: troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, ionosphere is located between 80 and 400 km
ionosphere and exosphere above the mesopause. the ionosphere, extends
The troposphere is the lowermost layer of the from the mesosphere to the exosphere It contains
atmosphere. Its average height is13 km and electrically charged particles known as ions, and
extends roughly to a height of 8 km near the poles hence, it is known as ionosphere.
and about 18 km at the equator. Thickness of the
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The ionosphere is a layer of ionized air in the storm, the wind can intensify very strongly, and
atmosphere extending from almost80 km above aurorae may be seen at lower latitudes further
the Earth's surface altitudes of 600 km and more. from the magnetic poles. Every 11 years, at the
Technically, the ionosphere is not another peak of the sunspot cycle there is an increase in
atmospheric layer. It occupies the same region of intensity of the solar wind, and with it, an increase
theupper atmosphere as the thermosphere. In this in frequency and intensity of auroral displays.
region of the atmosphere theSun's energy is so Aurorae occur in both the Northern and Southern
strong that it breaks apart molecules and atoms of Hemispheres. In the Northern Hemisphere, the
air, leaving ions (atoms with missing electrons) display is known as the aurora borealis, or
and free-floating electrons. The ionosphere is the northern lights. In the Southern Hemisphere, it is
region of the atmosphere where the aurorae occur. called the aurora australis, or southern lights. The
Ionisation of air molecules in the ionosphere is term aurora polaris, polar lights, is a general name
produced by ultraviolet radiation from the Sun, and for both. Aurorae are usually visible from within
to a lesser extent by high-energy particles from the the Arctic or Antarctic circles - Antarctica,
Sun and from cosmic rays. Greenland, Iceland and Northern regions of
Aurora Canada, Alaska, Scandinavia and Russia. During
On certain nights at high latitudes shifting patterns times of more intense activity on the Sun, auroral
of light may been seen in the sky. These are the storms can be viewed at lower latitudes such as
aurorae. The bright lights are caused by high- northern Scotland and most of Norway, Sweden
energy particles streaming out from the Sun - the and Finland. Very rarely displays can be seen from
solar wind - striking the Earth's upper atmosphere northerly parts of Europe and the United States.
or ionosphere. Energy from these electrically The large number of free electrons in the
charged particles is converted into light, forming ionosphere allows the propagation of
visible glows, rays, arcs, bands and veils. This light electromagnetic waves. Radio signals - a form of
is usually greenish, but is sometimes red as well. electromagnetic radiation - can be "bounced" off
The charged particles are attracted by the Earth's the ionosphere allowing radio communication over
magnetic field. Near the magnetic poles, the Earth's long distances.
magnetic field becomes much stronger. Radio waves transmitted from the earth are
Consequently, it is nearer the magnetic poles that reflected back to the earth by this layer.
the aurorae are most frequently witnessed. Temperature here starts increasing with height.
The uppermost layer of the atmosphere above the
ionosphere is known as the exosphere. This is the
highest layer and it gradually merges with the
outer space.
Exosphere
The exosphere is the highest layer of the
atmosphere. Together with the ionosphere, it
makes up the thermosphere. The exosphere
extends to 10,000 km above the Earth's surface.
This is the upper limit of our atmosphere. The
atmosphere here merges into space in the
The power of aurorae depends mostly on the extremely thin air. Air atoms and molecules are
strength of the solar wind. During an intense solar constantly escaping to space from the exosphere.
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In this region of the atmosphere, hydrogen and past it, will be warmed or cooled if the winds are
helium are the prime components and are only onshore.
present at extremely low densities. This is the area Factors affecting India’s climate
where many satellites orbit the Earth. LatitudeThe Tropic of Cancer passes through the
Climate and weather middle of the country from the Rann of Kutch in the
Climate refers to the sum total of weather west to Mizoram in the east. Almost half of the
conditions and variations over a large area for a country, lying south of the Tropic of Cancer,
long period of time (more than thirty years). belongs to the tropical area. All the remaining area,
Weather refers to the state of the atmosphere over north of the Tropic, lies in the sub-tropics.
an area at any point of time. The elements of Therefore, India’s climate has characteristics of
weather and climate are the same, i.e. temperature, tropical as well as subtropical climates.
atmospheric pressure, wind, humidity and Altitude India has mountains to the north, which
precipitation. have an average height of about 6,000 metres. India
The climate of India is described as the ‘monsoon’ also has a vast coastal area where the maximum
type. In Asia, this type of climate is found mainly in elevation is about 30 metres. The Himalayas
the south and the southeast. Despite an overall prevent the cold winds from Central Asia from
unity in the general pattern, there are perceptible entering the subcontinent. It is because of these
regional variations in climatic conditions within mountains that this subcontinent experiences
the country. comparatively milder winters as compared to
Climatic controls central Asia.
There are six major controls of the climate of any Pressure and Winds The climate and associated
place. They are: latitude, altitude, pressure and weather conditions in India are governed by the
wind system, distance from the sea following atmospheric conditions:
(continentality), ocean currents and relief features. ▪ Pressure and surface winds;
Due to the curvature of the earth, the amount of ▪ Upper air circulation; and
solar energy received varies according to latitude. ▪ Western cyclonic disturbances and tropical
As a result, air temperature generally decreases cyclones.
from the equator towards the poles. As one goes India lies in the region of north easterly winds.
from the surface of the earth to higher altitudes, the These winds originate from the subtropical high-
atmosphere becomes less dense and temperature pressure belt of the northern hemisphere. They
decreases. The hills are therefore cooler during blow south, get deflected to the right due to the
summers. The pressure and wind system of any Coriolis force, and move on towards the equatorial
area depend on the latitude and altitude of the low-pressure area. Generally, these winds carry
place. Thus it influences the temperature and very little moisture as they originate and blow over
rainfall pattern. The sea exerts a moderating land. Therefore, they bring little or no rain. Hence,
influence on climate: As the distance from the sea India should have been an arid land, but, it is not so.
increases, its moderating influence decreases and The pressure and wind conditions over India are
the people experience extreme weather conditions. unique. During winter, there is a high-pressure
This condition is known as continentality (i.e. very area north of the Himalayas. Cold dry winds blow
hot during summers and very cold during winters). from this region to the low-pressure areas over the
Ocean currents along with onshore winds affect the oceans to the south. In summer, a low-pressure
climate of the coastal areas, For example, any area develops over interior Asia as well as over
coastal area with warm or cold currents flowing North Western India. This causes a complete
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reversal of the direction of winds during summer. (b) The shift of the position of Inter Tropical
Air moves from the high-pressure area over the Convergence Zone (ITCZ) in summer, over the
southern Indian Ocean, in a south-easterly Ganga plain (this is the equatorial trough
direction, crosses the equator, and turns right normally positioned about 5°N of the equator.
towards the low-pressure areas over the Indian It is also known as the monsoon-trough during
subcontinent. These are known as the Southwest the monsoon season).
Monsoon winds. These winds blow over the warm (c) The presence of the high-pressure area, east of
oceans, gather moisture and bring widespread Madagascar, approximately at 20°S over the
rainfall over the mainland of India. The upper air Indian Ocean. The intensity and position of
circulation in this region is dominated by a this high-pressure area affects the Indian
westerly flow. An important component of this Monsoon.
flow is the jet stream. These jet streams are located (d) The Tibetan plateau gets intensely heated
approximately over 27°-30° north latitude, during summer, which results in strong
therefore, they are known as subtropical westerly vertical air currents and the formation of low
jet streams. Over India, these jet streams blow pressure over the plateau at about 9 km above
south of the Himalayas, all through the year except sea level.
in summer. The western cyclonic disturbances (e) The movement of the westerly jet stream to
experienced in the north and north-western parts the north of the Himalayas and the presence of
of the country are brought in by this westerly flow. the tropical easterly jet stream over the Indian
In summer, the subtropical westerly jet stream peninsula during summer.
moves north of the Himalayas with the apparent Apart from this, it has also been noticed that
movement of the sun. An easterly jet stream, called changes in the pressure conditions over the
the sub-tropical easterly jet stream blows over southern oceans also affect the monsoons.
peninsular India, approximately over 14°N during Normally when the tropical eastern south Pacific
the summer months. Ocean experiences high pressure, the tropical
The Indian monsoon eastern Indian Ocean experiences low pressure.
The climate of India is strongly influenced by But in certain years, there is a reversal in the
monsoon winds. The sailors who came to India in pressure conditions and the eastern Pacific has
historic times were one of the first to have noticed lower pressure in comparison to the eastern Indian
the phenomenon of the monsoon. They benefited Ocean. This periodic change in pressure conditions
from the reversal of the wind system as they came is known as the Southern Oscillation or SO. The
by sailing ships at the mercy of winds. The Arabs, difference in pressure over Tahiti (Pacific Ocean,
who had also come to India as traders named this 18°S/149°W) and Darwin in northern Australia
seasonal reversal of the wind system ‘monsoon’. (Indian Ocean, 12°30’S/131°E) is computed to
The monsoons are experienced in the tropical area predict the intensity of the monsoons. If the
roughly between 20° N and 20° S. To understand pressure differences were negative, it would mean
the mechanism of the monsoons, the following below average and late monsoons. A feature
facts are important. connected with the SO is the El Nino phenomenon
(a) The differential heating and cooling of land in which a warm ocean current that flows past the
and water creates low pressure on the Peruvian Coast, in place of the cold Peruvian
landmass of India while the seas around current, every 2 to 5 years. The changes in pressure
experience comparatively high pressure. conditions are connected to the El Nino. Hence, the
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phenomenon is referred to as ENSO (El Nino ▪ Latitudinal variation of atmospheric

Southern Oscillations). heating;
Airmass and wind pattern ▪ Emergence of pressure belts;
Pressure and Wind ▪ The migration of belts following apparent
The velocity and direction of the wind are the net path of the sun;
result of the wind generating forces. The winds in ▪ The distribution of continents and oceans;
the upper atmosphere, 2 - 3 km above the surface, ▪ The rotation of earth.
are free from frictional effect of the surface and are The pattern of the movement of the planetary
controlled by the pressure gradient and the winds is called the general circulation of the
Coriolis force. When isobars are straight and when atmosphere. The general circulation of the
there is no friction, the pressure gradient force is atmosphere also sets in motion the ocean water
balanced by the Coriolis force and the resultant circulation which influences the earth’s climate. A
wind blows parallel to the isobar. This wind is schematic description of the general circulation is
known as the geostrophic wind shown in Figure.
The general circulation of the atmosphere also
affects the oceans. The large- scale winds of the
atmosphere initiate large and slow moving
currents of the ocean. Oceans in turn provide input
of energy and water vapour into the air. These
interactions take place rather slowly over a large
part of the ocean.
Air Masses
When the air remains over a homogenous area for
a sufficiently longer time, it acquires the
Pattern of Wind Direction in Cyclones and characteristics of the area. The homogenous
Anticyclones regions can be the vast ocean surface or vast plains.
The wind circulation around a low is called cyclonic The air with distinctive characteristics in terms of
circulation. Around a high it is called anti cyclonic temperature and humidity is called an airmass. It is
circulation. The direction of winds around such defined as a large body of air having little
systems changes according to their location in horizontal variation in temperature and moisture.
different hemispheres (Table 10.2). The wind The homogenous surfaces, over which air masses
circulation at the earth’s surface around low and form, are called the source regions.
high on many occasions is closely related to the The air masses are classified according to the
wind circulation at higher level. Generally, over low source regions. There are five major source
pressure area the air will converge and rise. Over regions. These are: (i) Warm tropical and
high pressure area the air will subside from above subtropical oceans; (ii) The subtropical hot
and diverge at the surface (Figure10.5). Apart from deserts; (iii) The relatively cold high latitude
convergence, some eddies, convection currents, oceans; (iv) The very cold snow covered continents
orographic uplift and uplift along fronts cause the in high latitudes; (v) Permanently ice covered
rising of air, which is essential for the formation of continents in the Arctic and Antarctica.
clouds and precipitation. Accordingly, following types of air- masses are
General circulation of the atmosphere recognised: (i) Maritime tropical (mT); (ii)
The pattern of planetary winds largely depends on: Continental tropical (cT); (iii) Maritime polar (mP);
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(iv) Continental polar (cP); (v) Continental arctic represent the subtypes of the monsoon
(cA). Tropical air masses are warm and polar air climate. It is on this basis that the climatic
masses are cold. regions can be identified.
Fronts ▪ A climatic region has a homogeneous
When two different air masses meet, the boundary climatic condition which is the result of a
zone between them is called a front. The process of combination of factors. Temperature and
formation of the fronts is known as frontogenesis. rainfall are two important elements which
There are four types of fronts: are considered to be decisive in all the
1. Cold schemes of climatic classification.
2. Warm ▪ The classification of climate, however, is a
3. Stationary complex exercise. There are different
4. Occluded schemes of classification of climate.
When the front remains stationary, it is called a ▪ Major climatic types of India based on
stationary front. When the cold air moves towards Koeppen’s scheme have been described
the warm air mass, its contact zone is called the below: Koeppen based his scheme of
cold front, whereas if the warm air mass moves Climatic classification on monthly values of
towards the cold air mass, the contact zone is a temperature and precipitation. He
warm front. identified five major climatic types,
namely: (i) Tropical climates, where mean
monthly temperature throughout the year
is over 18°C. (ii) Dry climates, where
precipitation is very low in comparison to
temperature, and hence, dry. If dryness is
less, it is semiarid (S); if it is more, the
climate is arid(W). (iii) Warm temperate
climates, where mean temperature of the
coldest month is between 18°C and minus
3°C. (iv) Cool temperate climates, where
mean temperature of the warmest month is
over 10°C, and mean temperature of the
coldest month is under minus 3°C. (v) Ice
climates, where mean temperature of the
If an air mass is fully lifted above the land surface, warmest month is under 10°C Koeppen
it is called the occluded front. The fronts occur in used letter symbols to denote climatic
middle latitudes and are characterised bysteep types as given above.
gradient in temperature and pressure. They bring ▪ Each type is further sub-divided into sub-
abrupt changes in temperature and cause the air to types on the basis of seasonal variations in
rise to form clouds and cause precipitation. the distributional pattern of rainfall and
Climatic Regions of India: temperature. He used S for semi-arid and
▪ The whole of India has a monsoon type of W for arid and the following small letters to
climate. But the combination of elements of define sub-types: f (sufficient
the weather, however, reveal many precipitation), m (rain forest despite a dry
regional variations. These variations monsoon season), w (dry season in winter),
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h (dry and hot), c (less than four months 5. Bwhw – Hot parts of western
with mean temperature over 10°C), and g desert Rajasthan and
(Gangetic plain). Accordingly, India can be 6. Cwg – Monsoon Punjab
divided into eight climatic regions. with dry winter 5. Extreme western
Climatic Regions of India According to 7. Dfc – Cold humid Rajasthan
Koeppen’s Scheme: winter with 6. Ganga plain,
TYPE OF CLIMATE AREAS short summer eastern Rajasthan,
1. Amw Monsoon 1. West coast of India 8. E – Polar type northern Madhya
with short dry south of Goa Pradesh, most of
season 2. Coromandel coast North-east India
2. As – Monsoon of Tamil Nadu 7. Arunachal Pradesh
with dry summer 3. Most of the 8. Jammu and
3. Aw – Tropical Peninsular Kashmir, Himachal
savannah plateau, south of Pradesh and
4. Bwhw – Semi- the Tropic of Uttarakhand
arid steppe Cancer
climate 4. North-western
Gujarat, some
Geographical features and their locations

Mountains relief and high conical peaks. The Aravalli range in
A mountain is any natural elevation of the earth India is one of the oldest fold mountain systems in
surface. The mountains may have a small summit the world. The range has considerably worn down
and a broad base. It is considerably higher than the due to the processes of erosion. The Appalachians
surrounding area. Some mountains are even higher in North America and the Ural Mountains in Russia
than the clouds. As you go higher, the climate (Figure 5.1) have rounded features and low
becomes colder. In some mountains, there are elevation. They are very old fold mountains.
permanently frozen rivers of ice. They are called Block Mountains are created when large areas are
glaciers. There are some mountains you cannot see broken and displaced vertically. The uplifted
as they are under the sea. Because of harsh climate, blocks are termed as horsts and the lowered blocks
less people live in the mountain areas. Since the are called graben. The Rhine valley and the Vosges
slopes are steep, less land is available for farming. mountain in Europe are examples of such
Mountains may be arranged in a line known as mountain systems. Locate them on the world map
range. Many mountain systems consist of a series in the atlas and find out some more examples of
of parallel ranges extending over hundreds of this type of landforms. Volcanic mountains are
kilometres. The Himalayas, the Alps and the Andes formed due to volcanic activity. Mt.Kilimanjaro in
are mountain ranges of Asia, Europe and South Africa and Mt.Fujiyama in Japan are examples of
America, respectively (Figure 5.1). Mountains vary such mountains. Mountains are very useful. The
in their heights and shape. There are three types of mountains are a storehouse of water. Many rivers
mountains- Fold Mountains, Block Mountains and have their source in the glaciers in the mountains.
the Volcanic Mountains. The Himalayan Mountains Reservoirs are made and the water is harnessed for
and the Alps are young fold mountains with rugged the use of people. Water from the mountains is also
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used for irrigation and generation of hydro- plains are formed by rivers and their tributaries.
electricity. The river valleys and terraces are ideal The rivers flow down the slopes of mountains and
for cultivation of crops. Mountains have a rich erode them. They carry forward the eroded
variety of flora and fauna. The forests provide fuel, material. Then they deposit their load consisting of
fodder, shelter and other products like gum, stones, sand and silt along their courses and in
raisins, etc. Mountains provide an idyllic site for their valleys. It is from these deposits that plains
tourists. They visit the mountains for their scenic are formed. Generally, plains are very fertile.
beauty. Several sports like paragliding, hang Construction of transport network is easy. Thus,
gliding, river rafting and skiing are popular in the these plains are very thickly-populated regions of
mountains. the world. Some of the largest plains made by the
Plateau rivers are found in Asia and North America. For
A plateau is an elevated flat land. It is a flat-topped example, in Asia, these plains are formed by the
table land standing above the surrounding area. A Ganga and the Brahmaputra in India and the
plateau may have one or more sides with steep Yangtze in China. Plains are the most useful areas
slopes. The height of plateaus often varies from few for human habitation. There is great concentration
hundred metres to several thousand metres. of people as more flat land is available for building
Plateaus, like mountains may be young or old. The houses, as well as for cultivation. Because of fertile
Deccan plateau in India is one of the oldest soils, the land is highly productive for cultivation.
plateaus. The East African Plateau in Kenya, In India too, the Indo-Gangetic plains are the most
Tanzania and Uganda and the Western plateau of densely populated regions of the country.
Australia are other examples. The Tibet plateau Regarding Land Degradation
(Figure 5.1, p.31) is the highest plateau in the world Definition of Land Degradation:
with a height of 4,000 to 6,000 metres above the ▪ Land degradation is defined as the long-
mean sea level. Plateaus are very useful because term loss of ecosystem function and
they are rich in mineral deposits. As a result, many productivity caused by disturbances from
of the mining areas in the world are located in the which the land cannot recover unaided.
plateau areas. The African plateau is famous for ▪ The UN Convention to Combat
gold and diamond mining. In India huge reserves of Desertification (CCD), recognizes land
iron, coal and manganese are found in the degradation as a global development and
Chhotanagpur plateau. In the plateau areas, there environment issue.
may be several waterfalls as the river falls from a ▪ Desertification is the most severe form of
great height. In India, the Hundru falls in the land degradation. The CCD defines
Chhotanagpur plateau on the river Subarnarekha desertification as land degradation in arid,
and the Jog falls in Karnataka are examples of such semi-arid, and dry sub-humid areas (also
waterfalls. The lava plateaus are rich in black soil referred to as drylands) resulting from
that are fertile and good for cultivation. Many various factors, including climatic
plateaus have scenic spots and are of great variations and human activities.
attraction to tourists. Causes of Land Degradation:
Plains (a) Deforestation:
Plains are large stretches of flat land. They are, Deforestation is taking place at a faster rate due to
generally, not more than 200 metres above mean increasing demands of timber, fuel and forest
sea level. Some plains are extremely level. Others products which results into degradation of land
may be slightly rolling and undulating. Most of the resources.
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(b) Overgrazing: practices, for instance, occur only under

Overgrazing refers to excessive eating of grasses constraints such as the saturation of good
and other green plants by cattle. It results into lands under population pressure which
reduced growth of vegetation, reduced diversity of leads settlers to cultivate too shallow or too
plant species, excessive growth of unwanted plant steep soils, plough fallow land before it has
species, soil erosion, and degradation of land due to recovered its fertility, or attempt to obtain
cattle movement. multiple crops by irrigating unsuitable
(c) Agricultural practises: soils.
The modern agricultural practises, excessive use of ▪ High population density is not always
fertilizers and pesticides has adversely degraded related to land degradation. Rather, it is the
the natural quality and fertility of the cultivation practices of the human population that can
land. cause a landscape to become degraded.
(d) Industrialization: Populations can be a benefit to the land and
Development of industries for the economic make it more productive than it is in its
growth of the country leads to excessive natural state. Land degradation is an
deforestation and utilization of land in such as way important factor of internal displacement
that it has lost its natural up gradation quality. in many African and Asian countries.
(e) Urbanization: ▪ Severe land degradation affects a
Increasing growth of population and demand for significant portion of the Earth's arable
more residential areas and commercial sectors is lands, decreasing the wealth and economic
also one of the reasons for land degradation. development of nations. As the land
Effects of Land Degradation: resource base becomes less
▪ Overcutting of vegetation occurs when productive, food security is compromised
people cut forests, woodlands and and competition for
shrublands to obtain timber, fuelwood and dwindling resources increases, the seeds
other products—at a pace exceeding the of famine and potential conflict are sown.
rate of natural regrowth. This is frequent in Prevention and Control Measures for Land
semi-arid environments, Degradation:
where fuelwood shortages are often Following are some practises for controlling land
severe. degradation:
▪ Overgrazing is the grazing of natural 1. Strip farming:
pastures at stocking intensities above the It is a practice in which cultivated crops are sown
livestock carrying capacity; the resulting in alternative strips to prevent water movement, so
decrease in the vegetation cover is a that land degradation could be prevented.
leading cause of wind and water erosion. It 2. Crop Rotation:
is a significant factor in Afghanistan. The It is one of the agricultural practices in which
growing population pressure, during 1980- different crops are grown in same area following a
1990, has led to decreases in the already rotation system which helps in replenishment of
small areas of agricultural land per person the soil, which in turn helps to prevent land
in six out of eight countries (14% for India degradation.
and 21% for Pakistan). 3. Ridge and Furrow Formation:
▪ Population pressure also operates through Soil erosion is one of the factors responsible for
other mechanisms. Improper agricultural land degradation. It can be prevented by formation
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of ridge and furrow during irrigation which lessens 5. Contour Farming:

run off. This type of farming is usually practiced across the
4. Construction of Dams: hill side and is useful in collecting and diverting the
This usually checks or reduces the velocity of run run off to avoid erosion.
off so that soil support vegetation.
Distribution of Key Natural Resources

Soils
Soil is the mixture of rock debris and organic
materials which develop on the earth’s surface. The
major factors affecting the formation of soil are
relief, parent material, climate, vegetation and
other life-forms and time. Besides these, human
activities also influence it to a large extent.
Components of the soil are mineral particles,
humus, water and air. The actual amount of each of
these depend upon the type of soil. Some soils are
deficient in one or more of these, while there are
some others that have varied combinations.
The vertical column of soil consists of three layers It has some organic matter in it, although the
which are called horizons.‘Horizon A’ is the mineral matter is noticeably weathered. ‘Horizon
topmost zone, where organic materials have got C’ is composed of the loose parent material. This
incorporated with the mineral matter, nutrients layer is the first stage in the soil formation process
and water, which are necessary for the growth of and eventually forms the above two layers. This
plants. ‘Horizon B’ is a transition zone between the arrangement of layers is known as the soil profile.
‘horizon A’ and‘horizon C’, and contains matter Underneath these three horizons is the rock which
derived from below as well asfrom above. is also known as the parent rock or the
bedrock.Soil, which is a complex and varied entity
has always drawn the attention of the scientists. In
order to understand its importance, it is essential
to attempt ascientific study of the soil.
Classification of the soil is an effort to achieve
thisobjective.
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Inceptisols
Classification of soils These soils are in the beginning stages of soil
India has varied relief features, landforms, climatic profile development. The differences between
realms and vegetation types. These have horizons are just beginning to appear. Some color
contributed in the development of various types of changes may be evident between the emerging
soils in India. Inancient times, soils used to be horizons, and the beginnings of a B horizon may
classified into two main groups – Urvara andUsara, be seen with the accumulation of small amounts of
which were fertile and sterile, respectively. In the clay, salts, and organic material
16th century A.D.,soils were classified on the basis Entisols
of their inherent characteristics and external This is a very diverse group of soils with one thing
features such as texture, colour, slope of land and in common, little profile (horizon) development.
moisture content in the soil. Includes the soils of unstable environments, such
Based on texture, main soil types were identified as as floodplains, sand dunes, or those found on steep
sandy, clayey, silty and loam, etc. On the basis of slopes. Entisols are commonly found at the site of
colour, they were red, yellow, black, etc. Since recently deposited materials (e.g., alluvium),
Independence, scientific surveys of soils have Alfisols
been conducted by various agencies. Soil Survey Alfisols are found in cool to hot humid areas, and in
of India, established in 1956, made comprehensive the semiarid tropics; they are formed mostly under
studies of soils in selected areas like in the forest vegetation, but also under grass savannah.
Damodar Valley. Alfisolsgenerally show extensive profile
development, with distinct argillic (clay)
accumulations in the subsoil. Extensive leaching
often produces a light- coloured E horizon below
the topsoil.
Vertisols
Vertisols are soils with a high content of clay
minerals that shrink and swell as they change
water content. The clay minerals adsorb water and
increase in volume (swell) when wet and then
shrink as they dry, forming large, deep cracks.
Surface materials fall into these cracks and are
incorporated into the lower horizons when the soil
The National Bureau of Soil Survey and the Land becomes wet again. As this process is repeated, the
Use Planning an Institute under the control of the soil experiences a mixing of surface materials into
Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) did the subsoil that promotes a more uniform soil
a lot of studies on Indian soils. In their effort to profile
study soil and to make it comparable at the Aridisols
international level, the ICAR has classified Dry soils with CaCO3 (lime) accumulations,
theIndian soils on the basis of their nature and common in desert regions. The extent of Aridisol
character as per the United StatesDepartment of occurrence throughout the world is widespread,
Agriculture (USDA) Soil Taxonomy. second in total ice-free land area only to the
ICAR has classified the soils of India into Entisols. Extensive areas of Aridisols occur in the
thefollowing order as per theUSDA soil taxonomy. major deserts of the world, as well as in
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Southwestern North America , Australia, and many phosphorous. In the Upper and Middle Ganga plain,
Middle Eastern locations. Aridisols are commonly two different types of alluvial soils have developed,
light in colour, and low in organic matter content. viz. Khadar and Bhangar. Khadar is the new
Lime and salt accumulations are common in alluvium and is deposited by floods annually,
thesub-surface horizons. (For details on horizon which enriches the soil by depositing fine silts.
development Bhangar represents a system of older alluvium,
Ultisols deposited away from the flood plains. Both the
Ultisols are intensely weathered soils of warm and Khadar and Bhangar soils contain calcareous
humid climates. They are typically formed on older concretions (Kankars). These soils are more loamy
geologic locations in parent material that is already and clayey in the lower and middle Ganga plain and
extensively weathered. the Brahmaputra valley. The sand content
Ultisols have accumulated clay minerals in the B decreases from the west to east.
horizon. While generally low in natural fertility The colour of the alluvial soils varies from the light
(basic cations, Ca2+, Mg2+, and K+) and high in soil grey to ash grey. Its shades depend on the depth of
acidity (H+, Al3+) the clay content of Ultisols gives the deposition, the texture of the materials, and the
them a nutrient retention capacity greater than time taken for attaining maturity. Alluvial soils are
that of Oxisols, but less than Alfisols or Mollisols. intensively cultivated.
Ultisol soils can be agriculturally productive with Black Soil
inputs of lime and fertilizers. Black soil covers most of the Deccan Plateau which
Mollisols includes parts of Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh,
The Mollisol order takes its name from the Latin Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh and some parts of Tamil
word mollis, meaning soft. These mineral soils Nadu. In the upper reaches of the Godavari and the
have developed on grasslands, a vegetation that Krishna, and the north western part of the Deccan
has extensive fibrous root systems. The topsoil of Plateau, the black soil is very deep. These soils are
Mollisols is characteristically dark and rich with also known as the ‘Regur Soil’ or the ‘Black Cotton
organic matter, giving it a lot of natural fertility. Soil’. The black soils are generally clayey, deep and
These soils are typically well saturated with basic impermeable. They swell and become sticky when
cations (Ca2+, Mg2+, Na+, and K+) that are wet and shrink when dried. So, during the dry
essential plant nutrients. These characteristics of season, these soil develop wide cracks. Thus, there
Mollisols place them among the most fertile soils occurs a kind of ‘self-ploughing’. Because of this
found on Earth. character of slow absorption and loss of moisture,
On the basis of genesis, colour, composition and the black soil retains the moisture for a very long
location, the soils ofIndia have been classified into: time, which helps the crops, especially, the rain fed
(i) Alluvial soils (v) Arid soils ones, to sustain even during the dry season.
(ii) Black soils (vi) Saline soils Chemically, the black soils are rich in lime, iron,
(iii) Red and (vii) Peaty soils magnesia and alumina. They also contain potash.
Yellow soils But they lack in phosphorous, nitrogen and organic
(iv) Laterite soils (viii) Forest soils. matter. The colour of the soil ranges from deep
Alluvial Soils black to grey.
Alluvial soils are widespread in the northern plains Red and Yellow Soil
and the river valleys. These soils cover The alluvial Red soil develops on crystalline igneous rocks in
soils vary in nature from sandy loam to clay. They areas of low rainfall in the eastern and southern
are generally rich in potash but poor in part of the Deccan Plateau. Along the piedmont
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zone of the Western Ghat, long stretch of area is

occupied by red loamy soil. Yellow and red soils are
also found in parts of Orissa and Chhattisgarh and
in the southern parts of the middle Ganga plain.
The soil develops a reddish colour due to a wide
diffusion of iron in crystalline and metamorphic
rocks. It looks yellow when it occurs in a hydrated
form. The fine-grained red and yellow soils are
normally fertile, whereas coarse-grained soils
found in dry upland areas are poor in fertility.
They are generally poor in nitrogen, phosphorous
and humus.
Laterite Soil
Laterite has been derived from the Latin word
‘Later’ which means brick. The laterite soils
develop in areas with high temperature and high
rainfall. These are the result of intense leaching due
to tropical rains. With rain, lime and silica are
leached away, and soils rich in iron oxide and
aluminium compound are leftbehind. Humus
content of the soil is removed fast by bacteria that
Arid soils range from red to brown in colour. They
thrives well in high temperature. These soils are
are generally sandy in structure and saline in
poor in organic matter, nitrogen, phosphate and
nature. In some areas, the salt content is so high
calcium, while iron oxide and potash are in excess.
that common salt is obtained by evaporating the
Hence, laterites are not suitable for cultivation;
saline water. Due to the dry climate, high
however, application of manures and fertilisers
temperature and accelerated evaporation, they
are required for making the soils fertile for
lack moisture and humus. Nitrogen is insufficient
cultivation.
and the phosphate content is normal. Lower
Red laterite soils in Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh
horizons of the soil are occupied by ‘kankar’ layers
and Kerala are more suitable for tree crops like
because of the increasing calcium content
cashew.
downwards. The ‘Kankar’ layer formation in the
Laterite soils are widely cut as bricks for use in
bottom horizons restricts the infiltration of water,
house construction. These soils have mainly
and as such when irrigation is made available, the
developed in the higher areas of the Peninsular
soil moisture is readily available for a sustainable
plateau. The laterite soils are commonly found in
plant growth. Arid soils are characteristically
Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Madhya Pradesh
developed in western Rajasthan, which exhibit
and the hilly areas of Orissa and Assam.
characteristic arid topography. These soils are
Arid Soils
poor and contain little humus and organic matter.
Saline Soils
They are also known as Usara soils. Saline soils
contain a larger proportion of sodium, potassium
and magnesium, and thus, they are infertile, and do
notsupport any vegetative growth. They have more
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salts, largely because of dryclimate and poor matter in these soils may go even up to 40-50 per
drainage. They occur in arid and semi-arid regions, cent. These soils are normally heavy and black in
and in waterlogged and swampy areas. Their colour. At many places, they are alkaline also. It
structure ranges from sandy to loamy. They lack in occurs widely in the northern part of Bihar,
nitrogen and calcium. Saline soils are more southern part of Uttaranchal and the coastal areas
widespread in western Gujarat, deltas of the of West Bengal, Orissa and Tamil Nadu.
eastern coast and in Sunderban areas of West Forest Soils
Bengal. In the Rann of Kutch, the Southwest As the name suggests, forest soils are formed in the
Monsoon brings salt particles and deposits there as forest areas where sufficient rainfall is available.
a crust. Seawater intrusions in the deltas promote The soils vary in structure and texture depending
the occurrence of saline soils. In the areas of on the mountain environment where they are
intensive cultivation with excessive use of formed. They are loamy and silty on valley sides
irrigation, especially in areas of green revolution, and coarse-grained in the upper slopes. In the
the fertile alluvial soils are becoming saline. snow-bound areas of the Himalayas, they
Excessive irrigation with dry climatic conditions experience denudation, and are acidic with low
promotes capillary action, which results in the humus content. The soils found in the lower valleys
deposition of salt on the top layer of the soil. In such are fertile.
areas, especially in Punjab and Haryana, farmers It is evident from the foregoing discussions that
are advised to add gypsum to solve the problem of soils, their texture, quality and nature are vital for
salinity in the soil. the germination and growth of plant and
Peaty Soils vegetation including crops. Soils are living systems.
They are found in the areas of heavy rainfall and Like any other organism, they too develop and
high humidity, where there is a good growth of decay, get degraded, respond to proper treatment
vegetation. Thus, large quantity of dead organic if administered in time. These have serious
matter accumulates in these areas, and this gives a repercussions on other components of the system
rich humus and organic content to the soil. Organic of which they themselves are important parts.
Minerals
Distribution of Minerals ▪ iron, nickel, chromites and platinum in
Minerals occur in different types of rocks. South Africa are examples of minerals
They are found in igneous and metamorphic rocks.
▪ Igneous Rocks Non-metallic Minerals: Sedimentary Rock
▪ Metamorphic Rocks Formations
▪ Sedimentary Rocks ▪ Limestone deposits of Caucasus region of
Let us see which of these rocks yield metallic France,
minerals and which of these yield non-metallic ▪ Manganese deposits of Georgia and
minerals. Ukraine,
Metallic Minerals: Igneous and Metamorphic ▪ Phosphate beds of Algeria are some
Rock examples of mineral found in sedimentary
▪ Iron-ore in north Sweden, rock formations
▪ copper and nickel deposits in Ontario, Mineral fuels such as coal and petroleum are also
Canada, found in the sedimentary strata
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Distribution of minerals in the Continents ▪ Copper, iron ore, chromium, uranium,

▪ Asia produces more than half of the World’s cobalt and bauxite are also found in Africa.
tin. ▪ Oil is found in Nigeria, Libya and Angola.
▪ China, Malaysia and Indonesia are among Australia
the world’s leading tin producers. ▪ Australia is the largest producer of bauxite
▪ China and India have iron ore deposits. in the world.
▪ China leads in production of lead, antimony ▪ Gold, diamond, iron ore, tin and nickel are
and tungsten. also found in Australia. It is also rich in
▪ Asia also has deposits of manganese, Australia is rich in copper, lead, zinc and
bauxite, nickel, zinc and copper. manganese.
Europe ▪ Kalgoorlie and Coolgardie in Western
▪ Europe is the leading producer of iron-ore Australia have the largest deposits of gold.
in the world. Antarctica
▪ Russia, Ukraine, Sweden and France have ▪ Significant size of deposits of coal in the
large deposits of iron ore. Tran Antarctic Mountains and iron near the
▪ Minerals deposits of copper, lead, zinc, Prince Charles Mountains of East
manganese and nickel are found in Eastern Antarctica is forecasted.
Europe and European Russia. ▪ Iron ore, gold, silver and oil are also present
North America in commercial quantities.
▪ Iron ore, nickel, gold, uranium and copper Distribution of Mineral Resources in India
are found in the Canadian Shield Region. Ferrous Metal—Iron Ore:
▪ Coal is found in the Appalachians region India occupies a pride position in her iron ore
▪ Copper, lead, zinc, gold and silver are found reserve among all other iron ore producing
in the Western Cordilleras. countries in the world. The value of annual iron ore
South America production exceeds the combined output of all
▪ Brazil is the largest producer of high-grade other ferrous and ferroalloy minerals. Bulk of this
iron-ore in the world. production is used in manufacturing industry.
▪ Chile and Peru are leading producers of Origin:
copper. Major iron-ore reserves in India occur in the
▪ Brazil and Bolivia are among the world’s peninsular plateau within crystalline schist rocks
largest producers of tin. of Dharwar and Cuddapa systems. Most frequently
▪ South America also has large deposits of visible formations are laminated hematite and
gold, silver, zinc, chromium, manganese, magnetite-quartz schist’s associated with
bauxite, mica, platinum, asbestos and metamorphosed sand and clay.
diamond. Mainly oxide form of iron-ores are widespread in
▪ Mineral oil is found in Venezuela, India, of which by far hematite (Fe2O3) is most
Argentina, Chile, Peru and Columbia. important, followed by Magnetite (Fe3O4) and
Africa Limonite (Fe3O4.2H2O). Carbonate iron ore, i.e.,
▪ Africa is the world’s largest producer of Siderite, is almost absent in India.
diamonds, gold and platinum. Most of the ores originated during pre-Cambrian
▪ South Africa, Zimbabwe and Zaire produce period, even before 600 million years ago. Iron—
a large portion of the world’s gold. Ore Reserve. Recent estimates revealed that total
amount of Indian iron-ore reserve is about 20,710
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million tonnes, out of which 12,317 million tonnes Total reserve of Indian manganese exceeds 406
may be classed as hematite and 540 million tonnes million tonnes. Indian ores contain more than 50%
are of magnetite in grade. manganese associated with lesser impurities. India
ranks sixth in the world in manganese production.
Distribution:
Bulk of the manganese is extracted from the mines
of Orissa, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Andhra
Pradesh, Goa and Bihar. Like iron-ore, manganese
is also extracted in Orissa from Kalahandi,
Bolangir, Koraput, Dhenkanal and Keonjhar
districts.
In Madhya Pradesh, the major manganese mining
region is located in the districts of Balaghat,
Chindwara and Shadol district. Manganese ores are
widespread in Singbhum district of Bihar.
Maharashtra is also rich in manganese reserve.
The major portion of manganese is generally
extracted from the districts of Bhandara and
Nagpur. Among the other notable manganese
mines in India Udaipur in Rajasthan, Banaskanta
and Sabarkanta districts of Gujarat, Srikakulam
Hematite varieties are generally abundant in
and Visakhapatnam districts of Andhra Pradesh,
peninsular plateau; comprising Bihar, Orissa,
Chitradurga and Bellary districts of Karnataka are
Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Goa and Karnataka.
important.
Indian hematite’s are of very high grade, containing
Chromite:
more than 70% ferrous content.
Chromite is an important Ferro-alloy used in
Magnetite ores are abundant in the southern iron-
refractory and chemical industry. Total estimated
ore producing states of Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh
chromite (FeCr2O3) reserve in India is 86 million
and Tamil Nadu. Indian magnetite’s are to some
tonnes. Important chromite deposits are found in
extent inferior in grade, compared to hematite’s,
Cuttack and Keonjhar districts of Orissa,
containing on an average 62% iron. Unlike
Chitradurga, Hassan, Shimoga districts of
hematite which is red in colour, magnetite’s in
Karnataka, Bhandara and Ratnagiri districts of
India are blackish to brown. Magnetite ores are
Maharashtra, Singbhum district of Bihar and
sometimes associated with quartz schist’s and
several other small deposits in other states.
other metamorphosed rocks.
Indian production in 1951 was a mere .019 million
Apart from these two main types of iron-ore, iron
tonnes worth only Rs. 9 lakhs. Production of
stone of limonitic origin is also found in some
chromite in 2004-05 was 3.61 million tonnes
isolated pockets of Ranigunj-JhariaDamuda series.
worth Rs. 674 crores. India exports a sizeable
These iron-ores have little or no commercial
amount of chromite every year to several overseas
importance at present.
countries.
Ferro-Alloys—Manganese:
Tungsten:
Manganese reserve in India is quite satisfactory.
Major ore of tungsten is wolfram tri-oxide or WO3.
Like iron-ore, manganese ores are also abundant in
Tungsten reserve and combined output in India is
Dharwar and Kuddapa series of pre-Cambrian era.
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not satisfactory. Estimated reserve of tungsten is bauxite production, in 1985 the production
around 38.11 million tonnes. Chief producing areas increased to 2.3 million tonnes, worth Rs. 20
are Rajasthan and Maharashtra. crores. In 2004-05, production went up to 11.696
Non-Ferrous Metals—Bauxite: million tonnes, with net value of Rs. 265 crores.
Bauxite (Al2O3.2H2O), considered as the primary Anticipated production in 2005-06 is 13 million
ore of aluminium, occurs in India in substantial tonnes.
amounts. According to the latest estimate, the total Copper:
reserve of bauxite in the country is around 2,462 Major copper ores extracted in India are bornite,
million tonnes. India secured fifth position in her chalcopyrite and tetrahidrite. Among these,
bauxite reserve in the world. As indigenous according to volume and quality, chalcopyrite is the
aluminium industry is still ill-developed, a large most important. Major copper-producing states in
amount of bauxite is generally exported to the India are Bihar, Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh
developed countries. and Sikkim.
Distribution: Along the Brahmani River in Bihar the largest
Bauxite deposits are scattered in India in the states copper bearing strata exists. Percentage of copper
of Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Goa, in the rocks are negligible. Only in Mosabani mine
Gujarat, Karnataka and several other states. the concentration of copper in the rocks is
Distributional pattern of bauxite deposits reveals noteworthy. Near Maubhandar of Bihar the largest
close proximity of its location with iron ore deposits of copper occurs.
deposits. In Rajasthan, copper deposits are extensive in
Bihar ranks first in bauxite deposit where Palamau, Khetri and Khoh—Dariba in Alwar district. The
Lohardaga, Ranchi and Monghyr districts contain Khetri-Singhana area also possesses a number of
some prestigious bauxite mines. Among the copper mines. Most important of these is the
bauxite mines of Bihar BagruPahar, Jardapahar, Barkhera copper mine. In Andhra Pradesh, Guntur
Orsapat and Jamirapat are notable. district accounts for some famous copper mines,
Madhya Pradesh also contains a sizable amount of like Agnigundala, Ganikalua and Nalgonda. In
bauxite reserve. Amarkantak plateau, Durg, Madhya Pradesh, vast deposits of copper ore have
Bilaspur, Raipur, Jabbalpur and Balaghat districts been opened up near Malangkhand, situated within
house the important mines. Some of the good the Balaghat district.
bauxite reserves were depleted following large
scale exploitation.
Some famous deposits occur in Maharashtra along
the eastern edge of Western coastal plain. Major
deposits are found in the districts of Kolahpur,
Udgiri, Thana and Satara districts. Belgaon district
of Karnataka contains a large amount of bauxite
deposit. Besides these major deposits, Junagarh in
Gujarat, Kalahandi in Orissa, and Vishakhapatnam
in Andhra Pradesh are also notable in production
of bauxite.
Production:
India produced only 70 thousand tonnes of bauxite
in 1950-51. Due to greater emphasis laid down on
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crores. In contrast with declining lead production,

zinc production registered a sharp increase in the
corresponding period. Production of zinc in 2003-
04 and 2004-05 was 590 thousand tonnes and 667
thousand tonnes, respectively. In this period, the
value of the production also increased
proportionately, i.e., Rs. 251 crores to Rs. 247
crores.
Zinc production in the country was 666.97
thousand tonnes during 2004-05, as against 126.5
thousand tonnes in 1992-93. The production of
lead, on the other hand, was 81 thousand tonnes
during 2004-05 as compared to 40 thousand
tonnes in 1992-93.
Gold:
The Indian reserve of gold ore is placed at 17.7
million tonnes. Most of the gold is extracted from
the Kolar mines, Hutti mine and Ramgiri field in
Several other small and isolated deposits occur
Kolar, Raichur and Anantapur districts,
throughout India. Bhotang, Dikchu and Sisni
respectively, in Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh.
deposits of Sikkim are now being exploited. The
Rangpo is another large deposit in Sikkim. South
Arcot in Tamil Nadu also contains an exhaustive
supply of copper. Production of copper since 1951
has increased 14 times. In spite of great increase of
production, India has to import large amount of
copper every year.
Lead and Zinc Ore:
Chief lead ore is Galena (PbS) and Sphalerite is the
major zinc ore. Total combined reserve of lead and
zinc ores are estimated at about 179 million
tonnes, out of which 2.3 million tonnes lead and 10
million tonnes of zinc may be classed as
recoverable reserve.
Zinc ores are mostly found in places like Zawar,
Balaria, MochiaMogra of Rajasthan. Apart from
zinc, lead deposits are also found at Dhanbad of
Bihar and South Arcot district of Tamil Nadu. For
the last couple of years, production of lead
remained stagnant or even decreasing.
In 2003-04, the total production of lead ore was 73 Non-Metallic Minerals:
thousand tonnes. Total value of the product was Rs. Gypsum:
58 crores. Production increased marginally in India has a vast reserve of gypsum, ranging about
2004-05 with 82 thousand tonnes, valued at Rs. 67 238 million tonnes. Gypsum deposits mostly occur
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in Bikaner, Jaisalmir and Udaipur in Rajasthan and Dolomite reserve in India was identified as 4,387
the Runn of Kutch in Gujarat. Apart from these two million tonnes. It is mainly used in the production
principal producing states, some gypsum also of iron & steel. Reserves are distributed over
occurs in Tiruchirapalli in Tamil Nadu. The total Orissa, Madhya Pradesh, and Gujarat etc.
Indian reserve of gypsum is around 239 million Kyanite and Silimanite:
tonnes. India produced 3.47 million tonnes of Singhbhum district of Bihar and Bhandara district
gypsum in 2004-05 valued at Rs. 43 crores. of Maharashtra provide large amount of kyanite
Mica: and silimanite which are principally used in the
India secures the world’s top position both in refractory industry. The combined reserve of these
reserve and production of mica. In 1999, Indian two minerals exceeds 200 million tonnes.
mica trade alone constituted 60 per cent of the Barytes:
world mica consumption. In large tracts of Bihar, Large reserves of barytes ore located in
Rajasthan and Tamil Nadu, both Muscovite and Mangampet region of Andhra Pradesh. This is
Biotitic varieties of mica occur. They often coexist largely used in paint, paper and textile industry.
with gneisses and schist’s of Dharwarian rocks. Total reserve is around 87 million tonnes.
Bihar is, so far, contributing the largest amount of Mineral Fuel—Coal:
mica from its innumerable mines located in the Coal plays a pivotal role in energy and industrial
Hazaribagh, Giridih, Monghyr, Ranchi and Gaya sectors of India. Considering the crunch of the
districts. Among all the mines, Kodarma in reserve of other energy sources, coal is still the
Hazaribagh is perhaps contributing the largest mainstay of Indian energy sources. Despite
amount of good quality mica. Singbhum and increasing use of petroleum, atomic, solar and geo-
Palamau districts also have some mica fields. thermal energy, even today coal constitutes 60% of
Besides Bihar, some mica mines are located in the the country’s total energy consumption. Apart from
district of Nellore in Andhra Pradesh and in Hassan energy sector, coal plays a dominant role in iron &
district of Karnataka. The total crude mica steel production and also the heavy chemical
production in 2004-05 was 13.66 thousand tonnes manufacturing industry.
with total value of Rs. 3.6 crores. Coal Reserves:
Limestone: Numerous contradictory estimates are available
Reserve of limestone is placed at 75,679 million regarding Indian coal reserves. According to the
tonnes. Limestone ores are widespread in several latest available estimates of the Geological Survey
states. Leading production centres are located in of India, the total recoverable coal reserves in India
Madhya Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, in 2005 was around 247.85 billion tonnes. Though
Gujarat and Bihar. Limestone (CaCO3) is most of this coal is lying below 1,000 metres, at
extensively used in paper, cement and fertilizer places coal seams are situated just below the crust.
industries. According to their report new reserves have been
Guntur, Kurnool and Khammam districts of Andhra found in 35 geological blocks spread over Bihar,
Pradesh, Gulbarga district of Karnataka, Raipur West Bengal, Orissa, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra
and Jabbalpur in Madhya Pradesh and Son Valley of and Assam. Bihar topped the list with 1,243.7
Bihar are the leading limestone- producing areas. million tonnes new reserve in Jharia, Bokaro,
In 1985, India produced 49 million tonnes of Karanpura and Sahajuri coal fields. The rest of the
limestone. The production increased considerably states had the share of 7,000 million tonnes.
in 2004-05, when it exceeded 161 million tonnes. According to C.M.P.D.I. estimate total coal reserve
Dolomite: of the country is about 192,359 million tonnes.
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Distribution of Coal: creteceous period. The Permian series coal is

Indian coal deposits were formed in two distinctly regarded as the best among the Gondwana coal
separate geological period, Gondwana and series.
Tertiary. Among these the Gondwana variety is Among different coal producing states of India,
high grade coal, ranging from bituminous to sub- Bihar possesses largest amount of coal, followed by
bituminous, containing 60 to 80 per cent carbon. It Orissa, Madhya Pradesh, West Bengal, Andhra
was deposited between permo-carboniferous to Pradesh and Maharashtra.
Crops
Distribution of Crops in World cent to 7 per cent of the total production
1. Cereals: enters the world market.
▪ Cereals, a collective term for grass like 3. Wheat:
plants with starchy edible seeds, have high ▪ Wheat may be called the “bread grain’ of
nutritional value and have formed the basic the European civilization. It is grown over a
diet of humankind for long. wide area. It is one crop which exhibits
▪ The common cereals are rice, wheat, maize great adaptability and can be grown from
or corn, barley, rye, oats, millets and Siberia to the tropics. Major producers are
sorghum. Some of these are surveyed here. the CIS, USA, China, India and Canada.
▪ Wheat is nutritious even when milled into
flour, containing carbohydrate, protein,
2. Rice: and fat, traces of calcium, thiamine,
▪ Requires high temperature and moisture, riboflavin and iron. The byproducts—bran,
therefore most of the rice-growing areas rich in niacin, phosphorus and iron—make
lies in monsoon Asia. Rice accounts for good livestock feed.
more than 50 per cent of the world food. ▪ About 15 to 20 per cent of wheat
Major rice-producing countries are China, production finds its way into the
India, Indonesia, Thailand, Cambodia and international market, and there are more
Vietnam. Minor producers are Egypt, importers than exporters.
Brazil, Turkey, USA and Europe. 4. Maize:
▪ Rice is the staple food in a large area of the ▪ Often known as Indian corn, or simply corn,
world, and probably feeds more people maize is a widely cultivated cereal, being
than any other cereal: As a food grain, it is adaptable to a range of climatic types.
very nutritious in its unpolished parboiled Though bulk of the world’s maize
state but more palatable in the polished or production is used as animal feed, it is also
milled form which is deficient in nutritious a staple food for humans in many parts of
value. (Vitamins A and B and calcium are the world—southern US, Central and South
present in the outer layer of the rice grain America, Africa and some regions of Asia.
and are removed when polished.) ▪ It is also the main ingredient in a wide
However, if eaten along with other food range of processed food items. It has a high
items like fish, meat, vegetables and fruits, food value.
it could form a balanced diet.
▪ Rice is consumed mainly within the
producing regions arid only around 5 per
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5. Barley:
▪ The temperate lands of Europe and North
America are the major producers of this
cereal which is used to make bread in some
Major producers include USA, China, Brazil and regions and has a high nutrition value.
Romania and minor producers are CIS, Mexico, ▪ Large quantities of barley are used these
Zimbabwe and South Africa. Argentina is a minor days as animal feed. The most common use
producer but a major exporter of corn. of barley is for making beer and whisky.
Major producers are France, UK, Germany,
Denmark, CIS, Canada, India and China.
6. Oats:
▪ The hardiest of cereals, oats is tolerant of a
wide range of soil .types but less tolerant of
climatic variation. It is widely grown in
Russia and Ukraine, the corn belt of USA,
and in sunny Mediterranean lands and in
the colder parts of the temperate north.
▪ It is not found in the tropics and sub-tropics
of Africa, Asia or South America. Though
much of oats production goes for animal
feed, it is a well-balanced food; it is
increasingly being processed as breakfast
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cereals or invalid foods and gaining spinach, broccoli, cauliflower) are valuable
popularity among the diet conscious. foodstuffs providing essential vitamins and
7. Millet and Sorghum: minerals and thus contributing to a
▪ Grown in tropical and sub-tropical areas balanced diet.
with low or seasonal rainfall, these cereals ▪ Pulses are leguminous plants such as peas,
are considered less nutritious than the lentils and beans. These are major sources
other cereals. However, they are important of protein. Lentils form an important item
food crops especially in poorer areas. The of diet in India and other South Asian
major producers of sorghum as fodder are countries, especially for vegetarians. The
USA and Argentina, while Russia and other main producers are India, China, CIS and
CIS countries grow millet. Brazil, but production is low on the whole.
▪ In India several varieties of millet are ▪ Fruits, like vegetables, are important
grown for both food and forage. Of late, nutrient providers in the form of vitamins
dieticians are recognising the nutritional and essential minerals. Bananas are the
value of these cereals, especially bajra and most important tropical fruit both as a
ragi. China is a major producer of millet. subsistence crop and in world trade.
Africa also produces millet which is an Mangoes are gaining importance in
important subsistence crop there. international trade as are pineapples.
8. Vegetables and Fruits: ▪ Citrus fruits are the most important fruits
▪ Vegetables and fruits are important articles of the warm- temperate and sub-tropical
of diet and have varied and significant regions. Canning is an important food
nutritional value. Some vegetables, such as processing system for citrus fruits. Apple is
starchy tubers (cassava, yam, potatoes), the most important of the temperate fruits.
are staple foods in some regions of Africa Unlike many fruits, if properly handled and
and South America, and even used as stored, apples can be easily transported
substitutes for cereals for their high and kept for several months. The fruit’s
carbohydrate content. nutritional value is highly rated.
▪ Root crops such as carrots, beets, turnips
and swedes are other important
vegetables. Green vegetables (cabbage,
Rivers
Distribution of Rivers in World ▪ The Thames, in England, is one of Europe’s
Rivers of Europe: most historic rivers. Along its banks stands
▪ The longest river in Europe is the Volga. It the city of London, a bustling urban
flows approximately 3,685 kilometers area for more than a thousand years. By
(2,290 miles) across Russia and empties 100 CE, London had already become an
into the Caspian Sea. The Volga has been important Roman settlement and trading
used for centuries to transport timber from post. Because of its location on the river
northern forests, grain from farms along its and near the seacoast, London became
valley, and manufactured goods. The river England’s principal city and trade center.
is also known for its sturgeon, a type of ▪ Europe’s busiest river is the Rhine, which
large fish whose eggs are used to make a runs from the Alps in Switzerland, through
famous delicacy—Russian caviar. Germany and the Netherlands, and empties
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into the North Sea. It flows through many ▪ The historic Tigris and Euphrates river
industrial and farming regions and system flows from Turkey through Syria
carries barges laden with farm and Iraq and into the Persian Gulf. The
products, coal, iron ore, and a variety of rivers lie in an area called the Fertile
manufactured goods. Crescent. The region between the two
rivers, known as Mesopotamia, is the so-
Rivers of Asia: called “cradle of civilization.” The earliest
▪ Asia’s longest and most important river is evidence of civilization and agriculture-
the Yangtze, in China. It flows from the farming and domestication of animals-
Dangla Mountains, between Tibet and appears in the Fertile Crescent.
China’s Qinghai province. It empties in the Rivers of North America:
East China Sea 6,300 kilometers (3,915 ▪ In North America, rivers served as
miles) later. The Yangtze is a highway for highways for native tribes and, later, for
trade through the world’s most populous European explorers.
country. ▪ French explorers began traveling the St.
▪ The Yangtze is also an agricultural river. Its Lawrence and other rivers of Canada in the
valley is a major rice-growing region, and its 1500s. They found an abundance of fish
water is used to irrigate fields. Many and other wildlife, and they encountered
Chinese live on the river in houseboats Native American tribes who hunted beaver.
or sailboats called junks. The explorers took beaver pelts back to
▪ The Yangtze River is the home of the world’s Europe, where they were used to make
most powerful hydroelectric power plant, fashionable hats. Soon, hunters explored
the Three Gorges Dam. Eventually, the plant and traveled networks of rivers in North
will be able to constantly produce 22,500 America in search of beaver pelts. The
megawatts of power. China’s rural establishment of trading posts along the
population will have access to rivers later opened the way for permanent
affordable electricity for homes, businesses, European settlers.
schools, and hospitals. Creating the Three ▪ The St. Lawrence River is still a
Gorges Dam was one of the largest major waterway. The river, which empties
engineering feats in history. Engineers into the Atlantic, is linked to the Great
dammed the Yangtze, creating a 39.3-cubic- Lakes by the St. Lawrence Seaway—a
kilometer (31.9 million acre-foot) reservoir, series of canals, locks, dams, and lakes. The
or artificial lake. St. Lawrence Seaway allows oceangoing
▪ The Ganges is the greatest river on Asia's ships to enter the interior of the continent.
Indian subcontinent. It is sacred to the ▪ The Mississippi is the chief river of North
millions of followers of the Hindu religion. America. It flows approximately 3,766
For thousands of years, Hindus have kilometers (2,340 miles) through the heart
worshipped the river as a goddess, Ganga of the United States, from its source in
Ma (Mother Ganges). Hindus believe the Minnesota to its delta in Louisiana and the
river’s water purifies the soul and heals the Gulf of Mexico.
body. Millions of people use the Ganges ▪ Spanish and French explorers first traveled
every day for bathing, drinking, and the Mississippi in the 1500s and 1600s. In
industry. 1803, the United States bought almost the
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entire Mississippi River Valley from France Atlantic Ocean. The Amazon and its
as part of the Louisiana Purchase. After tributaries drain a basin that covers an area
that, the Mississippi was widely traveled by equal to three-fourths of the contiguous
traders and settlers on rafts, boats, and United States.
barges. ▪ The first Europeans to see the Amazon
▪ With the introduction of the steamboat, a were Spanish explorers, who traveled it in
new, industrial, era began on the the 1500s. They encountered a group of
Mississippi. Paddle wheelers carried trade natives who all appeared to be women, or
goods up and down the river. Soon, so the story goes. The explorers called the
workboats were joined by cruise ships and people Amazons, after female warriors
other luxurious passenger vessels. described in Greek mythology. The name
Writer Mark Twain, who was once a Amazon was later given to the river.
steamboat pilot on the river, described this ▪ For much of its course, the Amazon flows
era in his book Life on the Mississippi. through the world’s largest tropical rain
▪ Over time, the Mississippi increased in forest. The region has abundant and
importance as a trade route. Today, it unusual wildlife, including flesh-eating fish
carries cargo ships and barges in lines that called piranhas; huge fish called pirarucu,
may extend for more than a kilometer. which can weigh more than 125 kilograms
Large quantities of petroleum, coal, and (275 pounds); and giant snakes
other bulky goods are conveyed on the called anacondas.
river by massive barges pushed by ▪ Some Amazon tribes remain independent
powerful towboats. of Western culture. The Tagaeripeople, for
▪ North America’s Colorado River is famous instance, continue to live a nomadic life
for forming the Grand Canyon in Arizona. based around the Amazon and its
For millions of years, the river has cut its tributaries in the rain forest of Ecuador.
way through layers of rock to carve the Because of the demand for timber from the
canyon. Long ago, the river flowed through rain forest, the land of
a flat plain. Then the Earth’s crust began to the indigenous people of the Amazon is
rise, lifting the land. The river began cutting shrinking. Today, there are fewer than 100
into the land. The Grand Canyon is now Tagaeri living in the rain forest.
about one and a half kilometers (one mile) ▪ Rivers provide energy to many South
deep at its deepest point, and 29 kilometers American communities. The Itaipú Dam
(18 miles) wide at it’s widest. crosses the Paraná River on the Brazil-
Rivers of South America Paraguay border. Construction of the dam
▪ The strength of the Amazon River in South required the labor of thousands of workers
America dwarfs all other rivers on the and cost more than $12 billion. The dam’s
planet. The amount of water flowing power plant can regularly produce some
through the Amazon is greater than the 12,600 megawatts of electricity. The huge
amount carried by the Mississippi, the reservoir formed by the dam supplies
Yangtze, and the Nile combined. water for drinking and for irrigation.
▪ The Amazon begins as an icy stream high in Rivers of Africa:
the Andes mountains of Peru. It flows ▪ Africa’s two largest rivers are the Nile and
through Brazil and empties into the the Congo. One tributary of the Nile,
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the White Nile, flows from tiny streams in grew in the river, Egyptians made a sort of
the mountains of Burundi through Lake paper, as well as rope, cloth, and baskets.
Victoria, Africa’s largest lake. The other Egyptians also built great cities, temples,
tributary, the Blue Nile, begins in Lake and monuments along the river, including
Tana, Ethiopia. The two join at Khartoum, tombs for their monarchs, or pharaohs.
Sudan. The Nile then flows through the Many of these ancient monuments are still
Sahara Desert in Sudan and Egypt, and standing.
empties into the Mediterranean Sea. ▪ The Congo River flows across the middle of
Because the area where the tributaries Africa, through a huge equatorialrain
meet is close to the two sources of the Nile, forest, before emptying in the Atlantic
the area is called the Upper Nile, even Ocean. The Congo is second only to the
though it is farther south geographically. Amazon in terms of water flow. It is the
The Lower Nile runs through Egypt. deepest river in the world, with measured
▪ One of the earliest civilizations in the world depths of more than 230 meters (750 feet).
developed along the Lower Nile. Ancient Huge urban areas, including the capital
Egyptian civilization arose about 5,000 cities of Brazzaville, Republic of Congo, and
years ago. It was directly related to the Nile Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of Congo, sit
and its annual flooding. Each year, the river on the banks of the river.
overflowed, spreading rich sediment ▪ In the Democratic Republic of Congo, the
across its broad flood plain. This made the river is the principal highway for
land extremely fertile. Egyptian farmers transporting goods such as cotton, coffee,
were able to grow plentiful crops. In fact, and sugar. Boats traveling the river range
ancient Egyptians called their land Kemet, from dugout canoes to large freighters.
which means “Black Land,” because of the ▪ The river also supplies an abundance of fish
rich, black soil deposited by the river. to central Africa. Fishermen use baskets
▪ Egyptians also used the Nile as a major and nets hung from high poles across
transportation route to both the rushing falls and rapids to catch fish. They
Mediterranean and the African interior. also use more traditional nets operated
The Pschent, or double crown worn by from either onshore or on boats.
Egyptian monarchs, combined symbolism Rivers of Australia:
from both the Upper Nile and Lower Nile. A ▪ Much of Australia is arid, but rivers still run
tall, white crown shaped like a bowling pin through it. Australia’s principal rivers are
represented the lands of the Upper Nile. the Murray and the Darling, both in the
This crown was combined with a pointy red southeastern part of the continent. The
crown that had a curly wire protruding Murray flows some 2,590 kilometers
from the front. The red color symbolized (1,610 miles) from the Snowy Mountains to
the red soils of Lower Egypt, while the curly a lagoon on the Indian Ocean. Near the
wire represented a honeybee. When town of Wentworth, the Murray is joined by
putting on the Pschent, an Egyptian ruler the Darling, a 2,739-kilometer (1,702-mile)
assumed leadership for the entire Nile. river that flows from the highlands of the
▪ The Nile provided enterprising Egyptians eastern coast.
with material to form a powerful ▪ Indigenous Australians placed great
civilization. From papyrus, a tall reed that importance on the Murray River. The
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Murray valley had the greatest population from the source to the point near Karachi where it
density on the continent before the arrival falls into the Arabian Sea. The main tributaries of
of Europeans in the 1600s. the Indus in India are Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas
▪ By the mid-1800s, European farmers had and Satluj.
settled along both rivers and some of their The principal rivers of the Indus River system are
tributaries. Most Australian farmers raised snow-fed. Their flow varies greatly at different
sheep and cattle. Riverboats began plying times of the year: the discharge is at a minimum
the waters, and towns grew up along the during the winter months (December to February);
banks. there is a rise of water in spring and early summer
▪ Much of Australia’s farmland still lies (March to June); and floods occur in the rainy
within the Murray-Darling basin, where season (July to September). Occasionally there are
river water irrigates some 1.2 million devastating flash floods. The Indus and its
hectares (3 million acres). The region is the tributaries receive all their waters in the hilly
chief supplier of the country’s upper parts of their catchments. Therefore, their
agricultural exports—wool, beef, wheat, flow is at a maximum where they emerge out of the
and oranges. foothills, and little surface flow is added in the
Drainage system of India plains, where evaporation and seepage
India is a land of many rivers. Its geographical area considerably reduce the flow volume. On the other
is intersected by a large number of big and small hand, some water is added by seepage in the period
rivers. Rivers are our lifeline. It may not be an after the monsoon months. In the main stream of
exaggeration to say that the rivers are the heart the Indus, the water level is at its lowest from mid-
and soul of Indian life. December to mid- February. After this the river
Indus River System starts rising, slowly at first and then more rapidly
It is one of the longest rivers in the world, with a at the end of March. The high-water level usually
length of some 2,900 k). Its total drainage area is occurs between mid-July and mid-August. The
about 1,165,000 square km, of which 453,000 river then falls rapidly until the beginning of
square km lie in the Himalayan ranges and foothills October, when the water level subsides more
and the rest in the semiarid plains of Pakistan. gradually.
The Indus originates in the northern slopes of the Brief description of some of the important
Kailash range in Tibet near Lake Manasarovar. It tributaries of Indus River other thenJhelum,
follows a north-westerly course through Tibet. It Chenab, Ravi, Beas and Sutlej is given below. :
enters Indian territory in Jammu and Kashmir. It
forms a picturesque gorge in this part. Several Jhelum River
tributaries - the Zaskar, the Shyok, the Nubra and River Jhelum, a major tributary out of five major
the Hunza join it in the Kashmir region. It flows tributaries viz. Sutlej, Beas, Ravi Chenab and
through the regions of Ladakh, Baltistan and Gilgit Jhelum which are ultimately merging with river
and runs between the Ladakh Range and the Indus in Pakistan is the west flowing river. The
Zaskar Range. It crosses the Himalayas through a Jhelum (Vyeth in Kashmiri, Vetesta in Sanskrit and
5181 m deep gorge near Attock, lying north of the Hydaspes in Greek) is the main waterway of the
Nanga Parbat and later takes a bend to the south Kashmir valley. Jhelum river originates from a
west direction before entering Pakistan. It has a magnificent spring called “ChashmaVerinag”.
large number of tributaries in both India and The total geographical area of Jhelum basin upto
Pakistan and has a total length of about 2880 km Indo-Pakistan border is about34775 Sq.Kms. with
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a total length of 402 Kms. But the length of Jhelum hill (on sand stones and shales) and sub-montane
in India upto existing ceasefire line is about 165 soils in Dodadistt. Adnsub-mountain and mountain
Kms. With a catchment area of about17622 Sq. meadows in Udhampur district while in Jammu
Kms. and lies 32°-58'-42" to 35°-08'-02" north district, brown hill (on sand stones and shales) and
latitude and 73°-23'-32"to 75°-35'-57" east alluvial soils are generally found. The Chenab,
longitude and is mainly confined within the Kasmir Indus & Jhelum basin has characterized by a wide
Valley in India. The river Jhelum runs in the Valley variety of soils. The soils of the high Himalayas in
is surrounded by mountain ranges which risesto a the north are subject to continuous erosion and a
height of 5487 m on the north east. Peaks of these thick silt sediment layers are deposited to form a
mountainous range is mostly covered by snow wide valley plain.
cover from the month of October to May. The valley Ravi
is perched at an average elevation of1829 m above The Ravi originates near the Rotang pass in the
sea level and is approximately 135 Kms. in length Himalayas and follows a north-westerly course. It
and 32 to 40 Kms. in breadth. The Kuti and turns to the south-west, near Dalhousie, and then
Brahmasakal are the highest peaks at 4675 mts. in cuts a gorge in the DhaolaDhar range entering the
elevation in the basin. Punjab plain near Madhopur. It flows as a part of
Physiography the Indo-Pakistan border for some distance before
The topography of this alluvial valley is typical. The entering Pakistan and joining the Chenab river.
river banks as is usual with river running in alluvial Beas
plains are higher than the land behind them. The The Beas River is one of the major rivers under the
scenario of the valley of Jhelum basin looking Indus basin. It originates in the upper Himalayas
downward shows that the main streams and its from Beas Kund near Rohtang Pass in Himachal
tributaries flow between high definite banks Pradeshand flows in the east-west direction in
except small reach where the banks are low, ill- Himachal Pradesh till it emerges in theplains near
defined and swampy, which causes the floods and village Talwara in Hoshiarpur District of the Punjab
loss of property. State . The total length of its course upto Beas
Chenab River Dam at Pong is about 230 km. The catchment
River Chenab originates from Lahaul valley of H.P area of Beas river is about 12,560 sq. km out of
Snow bound mountains and have copious which only 777 sq. km is under permanent snow.
discharge all the year round and flow with steep
bed slopes in the mountain reaches with a series of
loops and bends, which can be economically
harnessed for hydel generation. Total economic
potential of Chenab Basin has been estimated to
the tune of 3600 MW (firm) & installed capacity of
11,400MW.
Physiography
Detailed soil survey in the Chenab basin has not
been carried out so far. However, in Himachal
Pradesh part predominant types of soils found are
sub- mountane in Chamba district, and sub-
montane, glaciers and eternal snow in Lahul and
The rest of the catchment area contributes water
Spitidistt. In J&K part, predominant soil are brown
on account of rainfall especially from the high
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rainfall zone of Dharamshala, Palampur watershed. Among the tributaries Subansiri,

andKangra. The bulk of the discharge of this Manas, Jiabharali, Pagladiya, Puthimari and
river is received between the months of June and Sankoshetc are snow fed. The breakup of
October due to concentration of rainfall in these catchment area in India is as follows:
months. The river is a tributary of Ravi. State Area
Sutlej River ARUNACHAL PRADESH 81,424 Sq.Km.
The Sutlej river rises near Rakastal which is fed by ASSAM (Excluding Barak 70,634 Sq.Km.
the lake Mansarovar in the Tibetan Plateau at an valley)
elevation level (EL) of about 4,572 M. The river NAGALAND 10,803 Sq.Km.
Sutlej is known as LangqenZagbo inside MEGHALAYA 11,667 Sq.Km.
Tibet/China. The River Sutlej travels about322 WEST BENGAL & SIKKIM 19,885 Sq.Km.
Kms inside the Tibetan Province and then enters Total 1,94,413 Sq.Km.
India near Shipkila (Tashigang-village) and further The Tibetan name of river is "TSANGPO" and
Sutlej River travels about 300 Kmsupto Bhakra Chinese name is "YALUZANGBU". The watershed
Dam. This large river has varying climatic and area is mostly on the northern side of the river in
topographic conditions. this region. After traversing a distance of about
The total catchment area is about 56,860 Sq. Kms; 1700 km eastwardly, the river changes its course
out of which only about20,000 sq. kms lie in India from east to south and then enters the Arunachal
.In the Indian region an area of about 9,000 sq. kms. Pradesh in Indian territory. Its name also changes
gets only snowfall, an area of about 5,500 Sq. Kms from "TSANGPO" to Siang and Dehang in Arunachal
gets both snow and rain andan area of about 5,500 Pradesh . The river then flows almost in Southern
sq. kms only rainfall. direction for another distance of about 200 km
The above catchment as described indicates that uptoPassighat. Before touching plains it is joined
perennial supplies in the river Sutlej are due to by two major Himalayan tributaries viz. Lohit and
large areas of catchment contributing snowmelt. It Debang. The combined flow of these rivers is
is estimated that more than 50 percent of the run- known as the Brahmaputra and passes through the
off in the Sutlej Rivers is from the snowmelt. The plains of Assam and Bangladesh before falling into
average annual total run-off of river Sutlej is about the Bay of Bengal. From Passighat to Dhubri where
16,000 MCM. The main tributaries in India are Ravi it travels in plains of Assam is well known as
and Beas Brahmaputra valley.
Brahmaputra River System
The river Brahmaputra covers a catchment area of
about 5,80,000 Sq.km. right from its origin in
Himalayan Lake Mansarovar at an elevation of
about 5,150 m in Tibet to the outfall in the Bay of
Bengal. It flows eastward in Tibet and south, south-
west in India and traverses a distance of about
2900 km out of which1,700km is in Tibet, 900 km
is in India and 300 km is in Bangladesh. In the
upper reaches, the river is fed by the glaciers and The river Brahmaputra receives a number of
in the lower reaches, it isjoined by a number of tributaries at its north and south banks, in the
tributaries which originates at different elevation catchment area in India. The major tributaries are
in thehills encircling the catchment forming as follow
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Tributaries from Tributaries from joining another hill stream Alaknanda, it is called
North bank South bank Ganga. The total length of river Ganga (measured
The Jiadhal The NoaDehing along the Bhagirathi and the Hooghly) up to its
The Subansiri The Buridehing outfall into Bay of Bengal is 2,525 km. The principal
The Siang The Debang tributaries joining the river from right are the
The Kameng (Jiabharali The Dikhow Yamuna and the Son. The Ramganga, the Ghaghra,
in Assam) the Gandak, the Kosi and the Mahananda join the
The Dhansiri(North) The Dhansiri(S) river from left. The Chambal and the Betwa are the
The Puthimari The Kopili
two other important sub- tributaries. The major
The Pagladiya The Digaru
part of basin in Indian territory is covered with
The Manas The Dudhnai
agricultural land accounting to 65.57% of the total
The Champamati The Krishnai
area and 3.47% of the basin is covered by water
The Saralbhanga
The Aie bodies.
The Sankosh State Drainage area
GANGES (sq. km.)
"The Ganga Above all, is the river of India which Uttar Pradesh 294364
has held India's heart captive and drawn un Madhya Pradesh 198962
counter millions to her banks since the dawn of Bihar 143961
history. The story of the Ganga from her source Rajasthan 112490
to the sea, from old times to new, is the story West Bengal 71485
of India's civilization and culture"-Jawaharlal Haryana 34341
Nehru(Discovery of India) Himachal Pradesh 4317
The Ganga basin outspreads in India, Tibet (China), U.T. of Delhi 1484
Nepal and Bangladesh over an area of 10,86,000 Total 861404
Sq.km. Yamuna River System
In India, it covers states of Uttar Pradesh, Madhya The River Yamuna originates from the Yamunotri
Pradesh, Rajasthan, Bihar, West Bengal, glacier, 6387m above mean sea level (msl), at the
Uttarakhand, Jharkhand, Haryana, Chhattisgarh, Bander poonch peak in the Uttarkashi district of
Himachal Pradesh and Union Territory of Delhi Uttarakhand. The catchment of the river extends to
draining an area of 8,61,452 Sq.km which is nearly states of Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, Himachal
26% of the total geographical area of the country. Pradesh, Haryana, Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh
The basin lies between east longitudes 73°2’ to and the entire union territory of Delhi. The river
89°5’ and north latitudes21°6’ to 31°21’ having flows 1211 km from here to its confluence with the
maximum length and width of approx. 1,543 km River Ganga at Allahabad. The main tributaries
and 1024 km. The basin is bounded by the joining the river include the Hindon, Chambal, Sind,
Himalayas on the north, by the Aravalli on the west, Betwa and Ken.
by the Vindhyas and Chota Nagpur plateau on the Narmada
south and by the Brahmaputra Ridge on the east. The Narmada or Nerbudda is a river in central
The Ganga rises in the Gangotri glacier in the India. It forms the traditional boundary between
Himalayas at an elevation of about 7,010 m in the North India and South India, and is a total of 1,313
Uttarkashi district of Uttarakhand. At its source, km (801 mi) long. Of the major rivers of peninsular
the river is called as the Bhagirathi. It descends India, only the Narmada, the Tapti and the Mahi run
down the valley upto Devprayag where after from east to west. It rises on the summit of
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Amarkantak Hill in Madhya Pradesh state, and for Asia's largest rail-cum-road bridge on the river
the first 320 kilometers (200 miles) of its course Godavari linking Kovvur and Rajahmundry is
winds among the Mandla Hills, which form the considered to be an engineering feat.
head of the Satpura Range; then at Jabalpur, Krishna River System
passing through the 'Marble Rocks', it enters the The Krishna is one of the longest rivers of India
Narmada Valley between the Vindhya and Satpura (about 1400 km in length). It originates at
ranges, and pursues a direct westerly course to the Mahabaleswar in Maharashtra, passes through
Gulf of Cambay. Its total length through the states Sangli and meets the sea in the Bay of Bengal at
of Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, and Gujarat Hamasaladeevi in Andhra Pradesh. The Krishna
amounts to 1312 kilometers (815 miles), and it River flows through the states of Maharashtra,
empties into the Arabian Sea in the Bharuch district Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh. The traditional
of Gujarat. source of the river is a spout from the mouth of a
Tapi statue of a cow in the ancient temple of Mahadev
The Tapi is a river of central India. It is one of the in Mahabaleshwar. Its most important tributary
major rivers of peninsular India with the length of is the Tungabhadra River, which itself is formed by
around 724 km; it runs from east to west. The Tapi the Tunga and Bhadra rivers that originate in the
River originates in the Betul district from a place Western Ghats. Other tributaries include
called Multai. It is one of only three rivers in theKoyna, Bhima, Mallaprabha, Ghataprabha,
peninsular India that run from east to west - the Yerla, Warna, Dindi, Musi and Dudhganga rivers.
others being the Narmada River and the Mahi Cauvery River System
River. The Tapi is the second largest westward The Cauvery (also spelled Kavery) is one of the
draining inter-state river basin. It covers a large great rivers of India and is considered sacred by the
area in the State of Maharashtra besides areas in Hindus. The headwaters are in the Western Ghats
the states of Madhya Pradesh and Gujarat. range of Karnataka state, and flows from Karnataka
Godavari River System through Tamil Nadu. It empties into the Bay of
The river with second longest course within India, Bengal. Its waters have supported irrigated
Godavari is often referred to as the Vriddh (Old) agriculture for centuries, and the Cauvery has been
Ganga or the Dakshin (South) Ganga. The name the lifeblood of the ancient kingdoms and modern
may be apt in more ways than one, as the river cities of South India. The source of the river is
follows the course of Ganga's tragedy. The river is Talakaveri located in the Western Ghats about
about 1,465 km (900 miles) long. It rises at 5,000 feet (1,500 m) above sea level. It flows
Trimbakeshwar, near Nasik and Mumbai (formerly generally south and east for around 800 km,
Bombay) in Maharashtra around 380 km distance emptying into the Bay of Bengal through two
from the Arabian Sea, but flows southeast across principal mouths. Its basin is estimated to be
south-central India through the states of Madhya 27,700 square miles (811,55 km²), and it has many
Pradesh, Karnataka, Orissa and Andhra Pradesh, tributaries including Shimsha, Hemavati,
and empties into the Bay of Bengal. At Arkavathy, Kapila, Honnuhole, Lakshmana Tirtha,
Rajahmundry, 80 km from the coast, the river splits Kabini, Lokapavani, Bhavani, Noyyal and Famous
into two streams thus forming a very fertile delta. Amaravati.
Some of its tributaries include Indravati River, Mahanadi River System
Manjira, Bindusara and Sabari. Some important The Mahanadi River system is the third largest in
urban centers on its banks include Nasik, the peninsula of India and the largest river of
Bhadrachalam, Rajahmundry and Narsapur. The Orissa state. The basin (80º30’–86º50’ E and
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19º20’–23º35’ N) extends over an area joins the Bay of Bengal after divided into different
approximately 1415,89 km2, has a total length of branches in the deltaic area. The main branches of
851 km. The basin is characterized by a tropical River Mahanadi meet Bay of Bengal at Paradip and
climate with average annual rainfall of142 cm Nuagarh (Devi estuary). The tidal estuarine part of
(NWDA, 1981) with 90% occurring during the SW- the river covers a length of 40 km and has a basin
monsoon. The river begins in the Baster hills of area of 9 km2. Based on physical characteristics,
Madhya Pradesh flows over different geological the estuary has been characterized as a partially
formations of Eastern Ghats and adjacent areas and mixed coastal plain estuary.
Factors Responsible for Location of Industries

▪ Many important geographical factors example, pig iron, produced by smelting
involved in the location of individual industry, serves as the raw material for
industries are of relative significance, e.g., steel making industry. Industries which use
availability of raw materials, power heavy and bulky raw materials in their
resources, water, labour, markets and the primary stage in large quantities are
transport facilities. usually located near the supply of the raw
▪ But besides such purely geographical materials.
factors influencing industrial location, ▪ It is true in the case of raw materials which
there are factors of historical, human, lose weight in the process of manufacture
political and economic nature which are or which cannot bear high transport cost or
now tending to surpass the force of cannot be transported over long distances
geographical advantages. because of their perishable nature. This has
Consequently, the factors influencing the been recognised since 1909 when Alfred
location of industry can be divided into two Weber published his theory of location of
broad categories i.e. industry.
▪ Geographical factors, and ▪ The jute mills in West Bengal, sugar mills in
▪ Non-geographical factors. Uttar Pradesh, cotton textile mills in
Geographical Factors: Maharashtra and Gujarat are concentrated
Following are the important geographical factors close to the sources of raw materials for
influencing the location of industries. this very reason.
1. Raw Materials: ▪ Industries like iron and steel, which use
▪ The significance of raw materials in very large quantities of coal and iron ore,
manufacturing industry is so fundamental losing lot of weight in the process of
that it needs no emphasizing. Indeed, the manufacture, are generally located near the
location of industrial enterprises is sources of coal and iron ore.
sometimes determined simply by location ▪ Some of the industries, like watch and
of the raw materials. electronics industries use very wide range
▪ Further we should bear in mind that of light raw materials and the attractive
finished product of one industry may well influence of each separate material
be the raw material of another. For diminishes. The result is that such
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industries are often located with no ▪ No one can deny that the prior existence of
reference to raw materials and are a labour force is attractive to industry
sometimes referred to as ‘footloose unless there are strong reasons to the
industries’ because a wide range of contrary. Labour supply is important in
locations is possible within an area of two respects (a) workers in large numbers
sufficient population density. are often required; (b) people with skill or
2. Power technical expertise are needed. Estall and
▪ Regular supply of power is a pre-requisite Buchanan showed in 1961 that labour costs
for the localisation of industries. Coal, can vary between 62 per cent in clothing
mineral oil and hydro-electricity are the and related industries to 29 per cent in the
three important conventional sources of chemical industry; in the fabricated metal
power. Most of the industries tend to products industries they work out at 43 per
concentrate at the source of power. cent.
▪ The iron and steel industry which mainly ▪ In our country, modem industry still
depends on large quantities of coking coal requires a large number of workers in spite
as source of power are frequently tied to of increasing mechanisation. There is no
coal fields. Others like the electro- problem in securing unskilled labour by
metallurgical and electro-chemical locating such industries in large urban
industries, which are great users of cheap centres. Although, the location of any
hydro-electric power, are generally found industrial unit is determined after a careful
in the areas of hydro-power production, for balancing of all relevant factors, yet the
instance, aluminum industry. light consumer goods and agro-based
▪ As petroleum can be easily piped and industries generally require a plentiful of
electricity can be transmitted over long labour supply.
distances by wires, it is possible to disperse 4. Transport:
the industry over a larger area. Industries ▪ Transport by land or water is necessary for
moved to southern states only when hydro- the assembly of raw materials and for the
power could be developed in these coal- marketing of the finished products. The
deficient areas. development of railways in India,
▪ Thus, more than all other factors affecting connecting the port towns with hinterland
the location of large and heavy industries, determined the location of many industries
quite often they are established at a point around Kolkata, Mumbai and Chennai.
which has the best economic advantage in ▪ As industrial development also furthers the
obtaining power and raw materials. improvement of transport facilities, it is
▪ Tata Iron and Steel Plant at Jamshedpur, difficult to estimate how much a particular
the new aluminum producing units at industry owes to original transport
Korba (Chhattisgarh) and Renukoot (Uttar facilities available in a particular area.
Pradesh), the copper smelting plant at 5. Market:
Khetri (Rajasthan) and the fertilizer factory ▪ The entire process of manufacturing is
at Nangal (Punjab) are near the sources of useless until the finished goods reaches the
power and raw material deposits, although market. Nearness to market is essential for
other factors have also played their role. quick disposal of manufactured goods. It
3. Labour: helps in reducing the transport cost and
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enables the consumer to get things at establishment of industries. There can be

cheaper rates. no industrial development in extremely
▪ It is becoming more and more true that hot, humid, dry or cold climate.
industries are seeking locations as near as ▪ The extreme type of climate of north-west
possible to their markets; it has been India hinders the development of
remarked that market attractions are now industries. In contrast to this, the moderate
so great that a market location is being climate of west coastal area is quite
increasingly regarded as the normal one, congenial to the development of industries.
and that a location elsewhere needs very Because of this reason, about 24 per cent of
strong justification. India’s modem industries and 30 per cent
▪ Ready market is most essential for of India’s industrial labour is concentrated
perishable and heavy commodities. in Maharashtra-Gujarat region alone.
Sometimes, there is a considerable material ▪ Cotton textile industry requires humid
increase in weight, bulk or fragility during climate because thread breaks in dry
the process of manufacture and in such climate. Consequently, majority of cotton
cases industry tends to be market oriented. textile mills are concentrated in
6. Water: Maharashtra and Gujarat. Artificial
▪ Water is another important requirement humidifiers are used in dry areas these
for industries. Many industries are days, but it increases the cost of
established near rivers, canals and lakes, production.
because of this reason. II. Non-Geographical Factors:
▪ Iron and steel industry, textile industries ▪ Now-a-days alternative raw materials are
and chemical industries require large also being used because of modern
quantities of water, for their proper scientific and technological developments.
functioning. Availability of electric power supply over
▪ Also, it requires 36,400 liters of water to wider areas and the increasing mobility of
produce one kwh of thermal electricity. labour have reduced the influence of
Further, it is worth noting that water used geographical factors on the location of
in industries gets polluted and is therefore industries.
not available for any other purpose. ▪ The non-geographical factors are those
7. Site: including economic, political, historical and
▪ Site requirements for industrial social factors. These factors influence our
development are of considerable modern industries to a great extent.
significance. Sites, generally, should be flat Following are some of the important non-
and well served by adequate transport geographical factors influencing the
facilities. Large areas are required to build location of industries.
factories. Now, there is a tendency to set up 1. Capital:
industries in rural areas because the cost of ▪ Modem industries are capital-intensive and
land has shot up in urban centres. require huge investments. Capitalists are
8. Climate: available in urban centres. Big cities like
▪ Climate plays an important role in the Mumbai, Kolkata, Delhi, and Chennai are
establishment of industries at a place. big industrial centres, because the big
Harsh climate is not much suitable for the capitalists live in these cities.
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2. Government Policies: original cause may have disappeared. This

▪ Government activity in planning the future phenomenon is referred to as inertia,
distribution of industries, for reducing sometimes as geographical inertia and
regional disparities, elimination of sometimes industrial inertia. The lock
pollution of air and water and for avoiding industry at Aligarh is such an example.
their heavy clustering in big cities, has 4. Efficient Organisation:
become no less an important locational ▪ Efficient and enterprising organisation and
factor. management is essential for running
▪ There is an increasing trend to set up all modem industry successfully. Bad
types of industries in an area, where they management sometimes squanders away
derive common advantage of water and the capital and puts the industry in
power and supply to each other the financial trouble leading to industrial ruin.
products they turn out. The latest example ▪ Bad management does not handle the
in our country is the establishment of a labour force efficiently and tactfully,
large number of industrial estates all over resulting in labour unrest. It is detrimental
India even in the small-scale industrial to the interest of the industry. Strikes and
sector. lock-outs lead to the closure of industries.
▪ It is of relevance to examine the influence Hence, there is an imperative need of
of India’s Five Year plans on industrial effective management and organisation to
location in the country. The emergence of run the industries.
suitable industries in south India around 5. Banking Facilities:
new nuclei of public sector plants and their ▪ Establishment of industries involves daily
dispersal to backward potential areas has exchange of crores of rupees which is
taken place due to Government policies. possible through banking facilities only. So
▪ The state policy of industrial location has a the areas with better banking facilities are
greater hand in the establishment of a better suited to the establishment of
number of fertiliser factories, iron and steel industries.
plants, engineering works and machine 6. Insurance:
tool factories including railway, shipping, ▪ There is a constant fear of damage to
aircraft and defence installations and oil machine and man in industries for which
refineries in various parts in the new insurance facilities are badly needed.
planning era in free India. Issues in Industrial Development in India
▪ We may conclude by noting that the The major challenges that have restricted
traditional explanation of a location of industrial growth inter-alia include the following:
industry at a geographically favourable 1. Inadequate infrastructure:
point is no longer true. Location of oil o Physical infrastructure in India
refinery at Mathura, coach factory at suffers from substantial deficit in
Kapurthala and fertilizer plant at terms of capacities as well as
Jagdishpur are some of the results of efficiencies. Rapid growth of the
government policies. economy has put further stress on
3. Industrial Inertia: infrastructure. Lack of quality
▪ Industries tend to develop at the place of industrial infrastructure has
their original establishment, though the resulted in high logistics cost and
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has in turn affected cost Workers in India are

competitiveness of Indian goods in overwhelmingly employed in low
global markets. productivity and low wage
2. Restrictive labour laws: activities.
o The tenor of labour laws has been 6. Challenges for trade:
overly protective of labour force in o Manufacturing sector especially
the formal sector. Though labour exporters are facing challenges of
protection and security are stagnant/shrinking global demand
required, the flipside is that it and rising protectionist tendencies
discourages employers from hiring around the world. Indian MSME
workers on a regular basis. It has sector is particularly facing tough
probably also led to entrepreneurs competition from cheap imports
choosing to stay away from labour from China and FTA countries.
intensive sectors and opt for highly 7. Inadequate expenditure on R&D and
capital or skilled-labour intensive Innovation:
technologies sectors. o Investments in these areas is
3. Complicated business environment: essential to ensure growth in
o Complex and time taking business industry. Public investments have
processes and clearances have been constrained by the demands
been a disincentive for businesses. from other public service demands
India also suffered from a complex and private investment is not
multi-layered tax system, which forthcoming as these involve long
with its high compliance costs and gestation periods and uncertain
its cascading effects adversely returns.
affects competitiveness of 8. Poor Performance of the Agricultural
manufacturing. Sector:
4. Slow technology adoption: o Industrial development in India is
o Indian industry has been a slow very dependent on the
adopter of new and advanced performance of the agricultural
technologies. Inefficient sector. Thus, the poor performance
technologies led to low of the agricultural sector resulting
productivity and higher costs from natural factors is also another
adding to the disadvantage of important factor responsible for
Indian products in international industrial stagnation in the
markets. country.
5. Low productivity: o Agriculture provides not only raw
o Productivity as measured by value materials and foodstuffs hut also
added per worker and average generates demand for the goods
wages in manufacturing in India produced by the industrial sector.
are only one-third of that in China. Thus, this poor performance of the
Differences in productivities across agriculture retards the
sectors and across firms within the development of industries in India.
same sector make matters worse.
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9. Dearth of Skilled and Efficient and Madhya Pradesh, but the

Personnel: ‘trickling down effects’ of such
o The country has been facing the investment were not also visible.
problem of dearth of technical and o Various fiscal incentives, capital
efficient personnel required for the subsidies and other facilities
industrial development of the introduced for industrial
country. In the absence of properly development of backward area
trained and skilled personnel, it has were mostly channelized to
become very difficult to handle develop industries in backward
such highly sophisticated areas of developed states leading to
computerized machineries a gross neglect of the demand of
necessary for industrial backward states.
development of the country. 11. Regime of State Controls:
o Moreover, inefficiency and o Lastly, industrial inefficiencies
insincerity of those personnel resulting in perpetuation of
engaged in industrial sector has regional state controls and
been resulting in huge wastage of regulatory mechanism are standing
resources of the industrial sector. in the path of industrialisation of
Moreover, social factors like the country. In recent years, the
immobility of labour and capital Government has undertaken some
and lack of proper initiative and serious measures to make
enterprises on the part of people of necessary economic reforms in the
India are also highly responsible for industrial structure of both the
this slow pace of industrialisation public as well as private sectors of
in the country. the country.
10. Regional Imbalances: o Although these measures are quite
o Concentration of industrial challenging in nature but these are
development into some few states expected to do much headway in
has raised another problem of removing various obstacles
imbalances in industrial mentioned above and also in
development of the country. attaining industrial development of
o Western region comprising the country further in the years to
Maharashtra and Gujarat attained come.
maximum industrial development 12. Poor Capital Formation:
whereas the plight, of the poor o Poor rate of capital formation is
states are continuously being considered as one of the major
neglected in the process of constraints which has been
industrialisation of the country in- responsible for slow rate of
spite of having a huge development industrial growth in India.
potential of their own. 13. Political Factors:
o Although a huge investment in the o During the pre-independence
public sector has been made in the period, industrial policy
backward states like Bihar, Orissa followed by the British rulers
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was not at all favourable for the recorded a slow growth rate. This
interest of the country. Thus, clearly reveals a ‘distortion of
India remained a primary output structure’ of Indian
producing country during 200 industries, resulting in a
years of British rule which recessionary tendency in the
ultimately retarded the market of these luxury products in
industrial development of the recent years.
country in its early period. 16. Concentration of Wealth:
14. Gaps between Targets and o The pattern of industrialisation in
Achievements: the country has been resulting in
o In the entire period of planning concentration of economic power
excepting 1980s, industrial in the hands of few large industrial
sector could not achieve its houses and thus flailed to achieve
overall targets. During the first the objective of planning in
Three Plans, against the target reducing concentration of wealth
of 7, 10.5 and 10.7 per cent and economic power. As for
industrial growth rate, the example, Tatas with 38 companies
actual achievements were 6, substantially increased their assets
7.2, 9 per cent respectively. from Rs. 375 crores in 1963- 64 to
Since the Third Plan onwards, Rs. 14,676 crores in 1991-92.
the gap between the targets and o The assets of Birlas also increased
achievements widened. from Rs. 283 crores in 1963- 64 to
o It is only during the Sixth and Rs. 6,775 crores in 1990-91.
Seventh Plan, the industrial Similarly, other large business
sector could achieve its targets. houses are also multiplying their
Again, in first part of 1990s the assets at a very faster rate and are
industrial sector again failed tightening their stronghold on the
miserably to achieve its target. economy.
This trend is all along against 17. Industrial Sickness:
the smooth industrial o Another peculiar problem faced by
development of the country. the industrial sector of the country
15. Elite Oriented Consumption: is its growing sickness due to bad
o In recent years, a strong tendency and inefficient management. As per
to produce rich men’s goods has the RBI estimate, a total number of
been established among the large sick industrial units in India were
industrial houses. Accordingly, the 1,71,316 as on 31st March, 2003
production of “white goods” like and these sick industrial units had
refrigerators, washing machines, involved an outstanding bank
air conditioners etc. expanded credit to the extent of Rs. 34,815
substantially along with the other crores.
luxury products. o The RBI estimate further disclosed
o But the production of commodities that every seventh small scale unit
for mass consumption has in India was sick at the end of
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December 1983. Thus, this growing impartially and methods should be developed
sickness of industrial units has accordingly for their solution.
resulted in a huge problem in the 2. Development of Research and
path of industrial development of Technology
the country. In developed countries, continuous research is
18. Under-Utilization Of Capacity: done on industrial problems and production
▪ Many industries suffer from substantial processes etc. New avenues of development are
underutilization of capacity. In fact, the explored through research on scientific and
average level of capacity utilisation is technical subjects. Now work has been started on
50-60 per cent. This shown that there is this subject here also.
enough scope of, increasing net output 3. Increase in Power Resources
of industries. The factors behind this India has insufficient power resources. Thus,
state of affairs are: expansion of power resources and establishment
(i) Raw material shortages of new units should be done. The government
(ii) Outdated and worm out should pay attention to this side to encourage
machinery and equipment industrial development. Power cuts have to be
(iii) Government policies done from time to time which adversely affects
(iv) Demand recession production. Thus, solution of this problem is
(v) Labour problems necessary.
(vi) Discriminate grabbing of 4. Proper Use of Natural Resources
industrial licences and creation India has sufficient natural resources but due to
of capacities by private their improper use industrial development has not
entrepreneurs. been done. Thus, for industrial development
It is also to be understood that these factors work proper use of natural resources is necessary. Those
in tandem to increase costs of goods and services. areas should be explored where possibilities of
They are strongly entwined, one feeds into another industrial development are more.
thereby exacerbating the disadvantages. The nexus 5. Establishment of Specialized
needs to be broken at more than one link to ensure Institutions
that the spin-off is in the positive direction. Much importance has been paid to establishment
Recommendations FOR INDUSTRIAL of specialized organizations and institutions to
development IN INDIA provide steadiness to industrial development.
1. Suppression of Industrial Disputes Various institutions are established in several
It is completely true that a satisfied labor is a states for the development of special Industries,
valuable wealth of an organisation. A satisfactory but various other organisations are required in
and efficient system of arbitration of Industrial relation to this.
disputes is very necessary. Through the Industrial 6. Efficient System of Industrial
Disputes Act, 1947 efforts are made to establish Management
Industrial peace but it is insufficient. Efforts should Educated and skilled managers are required to run
be made to popularize the Group Discussion the industrial organisations properly, who are able
method. The policy of worker’s participation in to understand the complicated problems of
management should be strictly followed. The industrialization and solve them quickly.
reasons for the disputes should be analysed 7. Encourage Capital Formation
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For industrial development funds are very India lacks funds completely. Thus, to establish
necessary, though India completely lacks it. Thus, Industries in India, foreign investors should be
savings should be encouraged more for capital attracted. For this, government should provide
formation. them better facilities. In this way, new industries
8. Encouragement to Private Sector would be established, unemployment would be
The government should provide more and more eliminated and foreign exchange be earned.
facilities to the private sector so that the 10. Rational Taxation Policy
entrepreneurs come forward to invest more and A proper taxation policy also has an important
new industries can be established and old place in industrial development. Inappropriate
industries are modernized. taxation, causes problems for industrial
organisations, in their development. It is necessary
9. Earnings in Foreign Exchange that the needed areas have a liberal taxation policy
to motivate them.
Important Geophysical Phenomenon

Earthquake
An earthquake (also known as a quake, tremor fault tend to move in opposite directions. As the
or temblor) is the perceptible shaking of the overlying rock strata press them, the friction
surface of the Earth, resulting from the sudden locks them together. However, their tendency to
release of energy in the Earth's crust that creates move apart at some point of time overcomes the
seismic waves. friction. As a result, the blocks get deformed and
At the Earth's surface, earthquakes manifest eventually, they slide past one another abruptly.
themselves by shaking and sometimes This causes a release of energy, and the energy
displacement of the ground. When theepicentre waves travel in all directions. The point where the
of a large earthquake is located offshore, the energy is released is called the focus of an
seabed may be displaced sufficiently to cause a earthquake,alternatively, it is called the
tsunami. Earthquakes can also trigger landslides, hypocentre. The energy waves travelling in
and occasionally volcanic activity. different directions reach the surface. The point on
In its most general sense, the word earthquake is the surface, nearest to the focus, is called epicentre.
used to describe any seismic event — whether It is the first one to experience the waves. It is a
natural or caused by humans — that generates point directly above the focus.
seismic waves. Earthquakes are caused mostly by An instrument called ‘seismograph’ records the
rupture of geological faults, but also by other waves reaching the surface. Earthquake waves are
events such as volcanic activity, landslides, mine basically of two types — body waves and surface
blasts, and nuclear tests. An earthquake's point of waves. Body waves are generated due to the
initial rupture is called its focus or hypocentre. The release of energy at the focus and move in all
epicentre is the point at ground level directly above directions travelling through the body of the earth.
the hypocentre. Hence, the name body waves. The body waves
The release of energy occurs along a fault. A fault is interact with the surface rocks and generate new
a sharp break in the crustal rocks. Rocks along a set of waves called surface waves. These waves
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move along the surface. The velocity of waves reported. Such a zone is called the ‘shadow zone’.
changes as they travel through materials with The study of different events reveals that for each
different densities. The denser the material, the earthquake, there exists an altogether different
higher is the velocity. Their direction also changes shadow zone.
as they reflect or refract when coming across
materials with different densities.
There are two types of body waves. They are called
P and S-waves. P-waves move faster and are the
first to arrive at the surface. These are also
called‘primary waves’. The P-waves are similar to Shadow Zone as light throwing zone:
sound waves. They travel through gaseous, liquid (b)
and solid materials. S-waves arrive at the surface
with some time lag. These are called secondary
waves. An important fact about S-waves is that they
can travel only through solid materials. This
characteristic of the S- waves is quite important. It
has helped scientists to understand the structure of
the interior of the earth. Reflection causes waves to
rebound whereas refraction makes waves move in
different directions. The variations in the direction
of waves are inferred with the help of their record (a)
on seismograph. The surface waves are the last to
report on seismograph. These waves are more
destructive. They cause displacement of rocks, and
hence, the collapse of structures occurs.
Different types of earthquake waves travel in
different manners. As they move or propagate, they
cause vibration in the body of the rocks through
which they pass. P-waves vibrate parallel to the
direction of the wave. This exerts pressure on the
material in the direction of the propagation. As a (a) and (b) show the shadow zones of P and S-
result, it creates density differences in the material waves. It was observed that seismographs located
leading to stretching and squeezing of the material. at any distance within 105° from the epicentre,
Other three waves vibrate perpendicular to the recorded the arrival of both P and S-waves.
direction of propagation. The direction of However, the seismographs located beyond145°
vibrations of S-waves is perpendicular to the wave from epicentre, record the arrival of P-waves, but
direction in the vertical plane. Hence, they create not that of S-waves. Thus, a zone between 105° and
troughs and crests in the material through which 145° from epicentre was identified as the shadow
they pass. Surface waves are considered to be the zone for both the types of waves. The entire zone
most damaging waves. beyond 105° does not receive S- waves. The
Earthquake waves get recorded in seismographs shadow zone of S-wave is much larger than that of
located at far off locations. However, there exist the P-waves. The shadow zone of P-waves appears
some specific areas where the waves are not as a band around the earth between 105° and145°
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away from the epicentre. The shadow zone of S- Seismic activity (Earthquake) is one of the most
waves is not only larger inextent but it is also a little important sources of information about the
over 40 per cent of the earth surface. interior of the earth.
Tsunami:
A tsunami also known as a seismic sea wave is a can be enormous and they can affect entire ocean
series of waves in a water body caused by the basins; the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami was among
displacement of a large volume of water, generally the deadliest natural disasters in human history
in an ocean. with at least 230,000 people killed or missing in 14
Causes: countries bordering the Indian Ocean.
Below is a sequential illustration of Tsunami
caused by tectonic movement:
Tectonic plate boundary before earthquake.
Earthquakes, volcanic eruptions and other

underwater explosions (including detonations of
underwater nuclear devices), landslides, glacier
calving, meteorite impacts and other disturbances
Overriding plate bulges under strain, causing
above or below water all have the potential to
tectonic uplift.
generate a tsunami.
Characteristics:
Unlike normal ocean waves which are generated by
wind or tides which are generated by the
gravitational pull of the Moon and Sun, a tsunami is
generated by the displacement of water. Tsunami
waves do not resemble normal undersea currents
or sea waves, because their wavelength is far
longer.
Tsunamis generally consist of a series of waves
with periods ranging from minutes to hours,
arriving in a so-called "internal wave train" Wave
heights of tens of meters can be generated by
large events. Although the impact of tsunamis is
limited to coastal areas, their destructive power
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Volcanoes and volcanic landforms

A volcano is a place where gases, ashes and/or Along with lava, large quantities of pyroclastic
molten rock material – lava – escape to the ground. material and ashes find their way to the ground.
A volcano is called an active volcano if the materials This material accumulates in the vicinity of the vent
mentioned are being released or have been openings leading to formation of layers, and this
released out in the recent past. The layer below the makes the mounts appear as composite volcanoes.
solid crust is mantle. It has higher density than that Caldera
of the crust. The mantle contains a weaker zone These are the most explosive of the earth’s
called asthenosphere. It is from this that the molten volcanoes. They are usually so explosive that when
rock materials find their way to the surface. The they erupt they tend to collapse on themselves
material in the upper mantle portion is called rather than building any tall structure. The
magma. Once it starts moving towards the crust or collapsed depressions are called calderas. Their
it reaches the surface, it is referred to as lava. The explosiveness indicates that the magma chamber
material that reaches the ground includes lava supplying the lava is not only huge but is also in
flows, pyroclastic debris, volcanic bombs, ash and close vicinity.
dust and gases such as nitrogen compounds, Flood Basalt Provinces
sulphur compounds and minor amounts of These volcanoes outpour highly fluid lava that
chlorine, hydrogen and argon. flows for long distances. Some parts of the world
Volcanoes are covered by thousands of sq. km of thick basalt
Volcanoes are classified on the basis of nature of lava flows. There can be a series of flows with some
eruption and the form developed at the surface. flows attaining thickness of more than 50 m.
Major types of volcanoes are as follows: Individual flows may extend for hundreds of km.
Shield Volcanoes The Deccan Traps from India, presently covering
Barring the basalt flows, the shield volcanoesare most of the Maharashtra plateau, are a much larger
the largest of all the volcanoes on the earth.The flood basalt province. It is believed that initially the
Hawaiian volcanoes are the most famous examples. trap formations covered a much larger area than
These volcanoes are mostly made more than 50 m. the present.
Individual flows may extend up of basalt, a type of Mid-Ocean Ridge Volcanoes
lava that is very fluid for hundreds of km. The These volcanoes occur in the oceanic areas. There
Deccan Traps from when erupted. For this reason, is a system of mid-ocean ridges more than 70,000
these volcanoes are not steep. They become km long that stretches through all the ocean basins.
explosive if somehow water gets into the vent; The central portion of this ridge experiences
otherwise, they are characterised by low- frequent eruptions. We shall be discussing this in
explosivity. The upcoming lava moves in the form detail in the next chapter.
of a fountain and throws out the cone at the top of Volcanic landforms
the vent and develops into cinder cone. Intrusive Forms
Composite Volcanoes The lava that is released during volcanic eruptions
These volcanoes are characterised by eruptions of on cooling develops into igneous rocks. The cooling
cooler and more viscous lavas than basalt. These may take place either on reaching the surface or
volcanoes often result in explosive eruptions. also while the lava is still in the crustal portion.
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Depending on the location of the cooling of the lava, As and when the lava moves upwards, a portion of
igneous rocks are classified as volcanic rocks the same may tend to move in a horizontal
(cooling at the surface) and plutonic rocks (cooling direction wherever it finds a weak plane. It may get
in the crust). The lava that cools within the crustal rested in different forms. In case it develops into a
portions assumes different forms. These forms are saucer shape, concave to the sky body, it is called
called intrusive forms. lapolith. A wavy mass of intrusive rocks, at times, is
Batholiths found at the base of synclines or at the top of
A large body of magmatic material that cools in the anticline in folded igneous country. Such wavy
deeper depth of the crust develops in the form of materials have a definite conduit to source beneath
large domes. They appear on the surface only after in the form of magma chambers (subsequently
the denudational processes remove the overlying developed as batholiths). These are called the
materials. They cover large areas, and at times, phacoliths. The near horizontal bodies of the
assume depth that may be several km. These are intrusive igneous rocks are called sill or sheet,
granitic bodies. Batholiths are the cooled portion of depending on the thickness of the material. The
magma chambers. thinner ones are called sheets while the thick
Lacoliths horizontal deposits are called sills.
These are large dome-shaped intrusive bodies with Dykes
a level base and connected by a pipe-like conduit When the lava makes its way through cracks and
from below. It resembles the surface volcanic the fissures developed in the land, it solidifies
domes of composite volcano, only these are located almost perpendicular to the ground. It gets cooled
at deeper depths. It can be regarded as the localised in the same position to develop a wall-like
source of lava that finds its way to the surface. The structure. Such structures are called dykes. These
Karnataka plateau is spotted with domal hills of are the most commonly found intrusive forms in
granite rocks. Most of these, now exfoliated, are the western Maharashtra area. These are
examples of lacoliths or batholiths. considered the feeders for the eruptions that led to
Lapolith, Phacolith and Sills the development of the Deccan traps.
Cyclone
A cyclone is caused by atmospheric disturbances counter-clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere
around a low-pressure area and is usually and clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere.
accompanied by violent storms and severe
weather conditions. Intense tropical storms are Origination and strength of Cyclones
called Hurricanes over the Atlantic Ocean and Cyclones originate over the sea and travel about
Typhoons over the Pacific Ocean. 300 to 500 km a day, drawing heat energy from the
Definition ocean waters. A fully matured cyclone releases
The word Cyclone is derived from a Greek word energy equivalent to few hydrogen bombs. The
cyclos, meaning coiling of snake. Tropical cyclone is diameter of a cyclone varies from 150 to 1000
a deep low pressure area wherein the central kilometres but their effects dominate thousands of
pressure falls 6 to 8 hPa (hectopascal) from the square kilometres of the ocean surface.
surroundings. Tropical Cyclones
Strong winds spiral around the centre and pick up Tropical cyclones are violent storms that originate
speeds of 62 kmph or more. These winds rotate over oceans in tropical areas and move over to the
coastal areas bringing about large scale destruction
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caused by violent winds, very heavy rainfall and

storm-surges. This is one of the most devastating
natural calamities. They are known as Cyclones in Extra Tropical Cyclones
the Indian Ocean, Hurricanes in the Atlantic,
Typhoons in the Western Pacific and SouthChina
Sea, and Willy-willies in the Western Australia.
Tropical cyclones originate and intensify over
warm tropical oceans. The conditions favourable
for the formation and intensification of tropical
storms are: (i) Large sea surface with temperature
higher than 27° C; (ii) Presence of the Coriolis
force; (iii) Small variations in the vertical wind
speed; (iv) A pre-existing weak-low-pressure area
or low-level-cyclonic circulation; (v) Upper The systems developing in the mid and high
divergence above the sea level system. latitude, beyond the tropics are called the middle
The energy that intensifies the storm, comes from latitude or extra tropical cyclones. Thepassage of
the condensation process in the towering front causes abrupt changes in the
cumulonimbus clouds, surrounding the centre of weatherconditions over the area in themiddle and
the storm. With continuous supply of moisture high latitudes.
from the sea, the storm is further strengthened. On
reaching the land the moisture supply is cut off and
the storm dissipates. The place where a tropical
cyclone crosses the coast is called the landfall of the
cyclone. The cyclones, which cross 20° N latitude
generally, re-curve and they are more destructive
A mature tropical cyclone is characterised by the
strong spirally circulating wind around the centre,
called the eye. The diameter of the circulating
system can vary between 150 and 250 km.
The eye is a region of calm with subsiding air.
Around the eye is the eye wall, where there is a
strong spiralling ascent of air to greater height
reaching the tropopause. The wind reaches
maximum velocity in this region, reaching as high
as 250 km per hour. Torrential rain occurs here.
From the eye wall rain bands may radiate and
trains of cumulus and cumulonimbus clouds may
drift into the outer region. The diameter of the
storm over the Bay of Bengal, Arabian sea and Extra tropical cyclones form along the polar front.
Indian ocean is between 600 - 1200 km. The system Initially, the front is stationary. In the northern
moves slowly about 300 -500 km per day. The hemisphere, warm air blows from the south and
cyclone creates storm surges and they inundate the cold air from the north of the front. When the
coastallow-lands. The storm peters out on the land. pressure drops along the front, the warm airmoves
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northwards and the cold air move towards, south The warm air is completely lifted up and the front
setting in motion an anticlockwise cyclonic is occluded and the cyclone dissipates.
circulation. The cyclonic circulation leads to a The processes of wind circulation both at the
well developed extra tropical cyclone, with a warm surface and aloft are closely interlinked. The
front and a cold front. extra tropical cyclone differs from the tropical
The plan and cross section of a well-developed cyclone in number of ways. The extra tropical
cyclone is given in Figure. There are pockets of cyclones have a clear frontal systemwhich is not
warm air or warm sector wedged between the present in the tropical cyclones. They cover a larger
forward and the rear cold air or cold sector. The area and can originate over the land and sea.
warm air glides over the cold air and a sequence of Whereas the tropical cyclones originate only over
clouds appear over the sky ahead of the warm front the seas and on reaching the land they dissipate.
and cause precipitation. The cold front approaches The extra tropical cyclone affects a much larger
the warm air from behind and pushes the warm air area as compared to the tropical cyclone. The wind
up. As a result, cumulus clouds develop along the velocity in a tropical cyclone is much higher and it
cold front. The cold front moves faster than the is more destructive. The extra tropical cyclones
warm front ultimately overtaking the warm front. move from west to east but tropical cyclones, move
from east to west.
Changes in critical geographical features

Human Impact on Climate changes
In its Fifth Assessment Report, the ▪ Carbon dioxide (CO2). A minor but very
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, a important component of the atmosphere,
group of 1,300 independent scientific experts from carbon dioxide is released through natural
countries all over the world under the auspices of processes such as respiration and volcano
the United Nations, concluded there's a more than eruptions and through human activities
95 percent probability that human activities over such as deforestation, land use changes,
the past 50 years have warmed our planet. and burning fossil fuels. Humans have
The industrial activities that our modern increased atmospheric CO2 concentration
civilization depends upon have raised atmospheric by more than a third since the Industrial
carbon dioxide levels from 280 parts per million to Revolution began. This is the most
400 parts per million in the last 150 years. The important long-lived "forcing" of climate
panel also concluded there's a better than 95 change.
percent probability that human-produced ▪ Methane. A hydrocarbon gas produced
greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide, methane both through natural sources and human
and nitrous oxide have caused much of the activities, including the decomposition of
observed increase in Earth's temperatures over the wastes in landfills, agriculture, and
past 50 years. especially rice cultivation, as well as
▪ Most climate scientists agree the main ruminant digestion and manure
cause of the current global warming trend management associated with domestic
is human expansion of the "greenhouse livestock. On a molecule-for-molecule
effect", warming that results when the basis, methane is a far more active
atmosphere traps heat radiating from greenhouse gas than carbon dioxide, but
Earth toward space.
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also one which is much less abundant in the taking in carbon dioxide for
atmosphere. photosynthesis. Historically, carbon dioxide levels
▪ Nitrous oxide. A powerful greenhouse gas have been balanced; the CO2 being produced was
produced by soil cultivation practices, in turn being absorbed. Deforestation not only
especially the use of commercial and creates more CO2, but it also destroys one of the
organic fertilizers, fossil fuel combustion, very things that helps absorb it!
nitric acid production, and biomass The silver lining here is that ocean acidification is
burning. just one more symptom of ailments that people are
▪ Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). Synthetic already aware of. Most people know that
compounds entirely of industrial origin deforestation is bad for the environment. And
used in a number of applications, but now most people know that they should try to drive less,
largely regulated in production and release and consume less energy. Ocean acidification
to the atmosphere by international brings the problem into the ocean, and to a world
agreement for their ability to contribute to many people are not familiar with.
destruction of the ozone layer. They are Human Impact on Ground Water
also greenhouse gases.
▪ On Earth, human activities are changing the
Depletion
Groundwater is a valuable resource throughout the
natural greenhouse. Over the last century
world. Where surface water, such as lakes and
the burning of fossil fuels like coal and oil
rivers, are scarce or inaccessible, groundwater
has increased the concentration of
supplies many of the hydrologic needs of people
atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2). This
everywhere. It is the source of drinking water for
happens because the coal or oil burning
about half the total population and nearly all of the
process combines carbon with oxygen in
rural population, and it provides over 50 billion
the air to make CO2. To a lesser extent, the
gallons per day for agricultural needs.
clearing of land for agriculture, industry,
Groundwater depletion, a term often defined as
and other human activities has increased
long-term water-level declines caused by sustained
concentrations of greenhouse gases.
groundwater pumping, is a key issue associated
Human impact on Ocean with groundwater use.
Acidification Groundwater depletion is primarily caused by
Ocean acidification is occurring because too much sustained groundwater pumping. Some of the
carbon dioxide is being released into the negative effects of groundwater depletion:
atmosphere. Carbon dioxide is nothing new, and ▪ Drying up of wells
its presence in moderate quantities is not a ▪ Reduction of water in streams and lakes
concern. The rate at which we are pumping it into ▪ Deterioration of water quality
our atmosphere is a concern, however. There are ▪ Increased pumping costs
two major sources for this influx of atmospheric ▪ Land subsidence
CO2: fossil fuel emissions and deforestation. Pumping groundwater at a faster rate than it can be
Fossil fuel emissions are the gases that are spewed recharged can have some negative effects of the
out of most cars, airplanes, power plants, and environment and the people who make use of the
factories that are burning fossil fuels (coal, oil or water:
gas). Since the industrial revolution, fossil fuel Lowering of the water table
consumption has risen exponentially to create ▪ The most severe consequence of excessive
many climate change-related issues, including groundwater pumping is that the water
ocean acidification. table, below which the ground is saturated
Deforestation is a two-fold issue. Burning down with water, can be lowered. For water to be
forests is similar to burning fossil fuels, it emits a withdrawn from the ground, water must be
lot of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. Forests pumped from a well that reaches below the
are important because large expanses of plantlife water table. If groundwater levels decline
(even in the ocean) are known to be "carbon sinks”, too far, then the well owner might have to
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deepen the well, drill a new well, or, at least, from saltwater intrusion. All of the water in
attempt to lower the pump. Also, as water the ground is not fresh water; much of the
levels decline, the rate of water the well can very deep groundwater and water below
yield may decline. oceans is saline. In fact, an estimated 3.1
Increased costs for the user million cubic miles (12.9 cubic kilometres)
▪ As the depth to water increases, the water of saline groundwater exists compared to
must be lifted higher to reach the land about 2.6 million cubic miles (10.5 million
surface. If pumps are used to lift the water cubic kilometres) of fresh groundwater.
(as opposed to artesian wells), more Under natural conditions the boundary
energy is required to drive the pump. Using between the freshwater and saltwater
the well can become prohibitively tends to be relatively stable, but pumping
expensive. can cause saltwater to migrate inland and
Reduction of water in streams and lakes upward, resulting in saltwater
▪ There is more of an interaction between the contamination of the water supply.
water in lakes and rivers and groundwater Human impact on pollution
than most people think. Some, and often a Water Pollution
great deal, of the water flowing in rivers One of the biggest impacts humans have on aquatic
comes from seepage of groundwater into systems is excess nutrient inputs. Nutrients, like
the streambed. Groundwater contributes nitrogen and phosphorus, are essential to the
to streams in most physiographic and health and survival of aquatic plants and animals.
climatic settings. The proportion of stream However, humans introduce large quantities of
water that comes from groundwater inflow nutrients, primarily through overuse of fertilizers.
varies according to a region's geography, Too many nutrients can rapidly reduce water
geology, and climate. quality by causing overgrowth of certain bacteria
▪ Groundwater pumping can alter how water and algae that use the oxygen necessary for other
moves between an aquifer and a stream, species to survive. Even more problematic is that
lake, or wetland by either intercepting these nutrients can be transported downstream to
groundwater flow that discharges into the other streams, rivers and bays. Therefore,
surface-water body under natural nutrients can reduce water quality in places far
conditions, or by increasing the rate of removed from where they were first introduced.
water movement from the surface-water Air Pollution
body into an aquifer. A related effect of The majority of air pollution is the result of human
groundwater pumping is the lowering of activities. For example, increased fossil fuel
groundwater levels below the depth that combustion from motor vehicles, industrial
streamside or wetland vegetation needs to factories and power plants all pump large
survive. The overall effect is a loss of quantities of air pollutants, such as carbon
riparian vegetation and wildlife habitat. monoxide, ozone and nitrous oxides, into the
Land subsidence atmosphere. Other air pollutants, such as lead-
▪ The basic cause of land subsidence is a loss based compounds, can lead to serious health
of support below ground. In other words, effects like cancer, or other types of reproductive
sometimes when water is taken out of the effects and birth defects.
soil, the soil collapses, compacts, and drops.
This depends on a number of factors, such
as the type of soil and rock below the
surface. Land subsidence is most often
caused by human activities, mainly from
the removal of subsurface water.
Deterioration of water quality
▪ One water-quality threat to fresh
groundwater supplies is contamination
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lost but when the tree canopies are present; no

excess vapor is lost.
But with the continued acts of deforestation, water
vapor is lost and the water cycle is broken. In
return, no rainfall will take place because of the
absence of trees. The whole process may end up in
the emergence of a desert. Some of the worst desert
conversion rates in sub-Saharan Africa have been
associated with deforestation in west and central
African forests.
Deforestation 2. Increase of the Greenhouse Effect
Deforestation is clearing Earth's forests on a In the normal circumstances, trees are always
massive scale, often resulting in damage to the significant in the absorption of the greenhouse
quality of the land. Forests still cover about 30 gases such as carbon dioxide, nitrogen and many
percent of the world’s land area, but swaths half the others. A research by the Global Forest Research
size of England are lost each year. Assessment revealed that deforestation resulted in
The world’s rain forests could completely vanish in the release of approximately a billion ton of carbon
a hundred years at the current rate of dioxide in 2010. With the cutting of trees which
deforestation. The biggest driver of deforestation is results in the depletion of the forest cover, the
agriculture. Farmers cut forests to provide more concentration of the greenhouse gases increases
room for planting crops or grazing livestock. Often, the rate of global warming.
small farmers will clear a few acres by cutting This leads to the inevitable climate change and
down trees and burning them in a process known adverse weather patterns such as severe flooding
as slash and burn agriculture. or drought. Some of the adverse greenhouse
Logging operations, which provide the world’s effects are the increased incidences of La Nina and
wood and paper products, also cut countless trees El Nino. Increase of the greenhouse effect also
each year. Loggers, some of them acting illegally, raises the levels of evaporation and
also build roads to access more and more remote evapotranspiration and the higher temperatures
forests—which leads to further deforestation. cause extended dry spell periods and the
Forests are also cut as a result of growing urban exacerbation of drought conditions.
sprawl as land is developed for dwellings. 3. Melting of the Icebergs
How Deforestation Affects Climate Change Deforestation in the cold Polar Regions also lead to
1. It Reduces Soil Moisture and Leads to the disturbance of the ice caps. Eventually, there is
Desertification increased melting which further leads to the rise in
In normal circumstances, the soil contains the ocean or sea level. Climatic change is also a
moisture. The moisture needs to be conserved and consequence of this activity. When such trees are
this can only be done successfully if there is forest cut and the ice begin to melt, there is that alteration
cover. The crucial role that the trees play is that in the weather pattern which also extend to the
they cover the soil and prevent the soil from losing change in the climatic conditions in the Polar
the watervapor. When the soil is heated, vapor is Regions. With the melting of the icebergs, there is
the rise of sea levels which might give rise to
intense flooding.
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Miscellaneous
Floods
▪ Inundation of land and human settlements Assam, West Bengal and Bihar are among
by the rise of water in the channels and its the high flood-prone states of India.
spill-over presents the condition of ▪ Apart from these, most of the rivers in the
flooding. Unlike other natural disasters, the northern states like Punjab and Uttar
causes of floods are wellestablished. Floods Pradesh, are also vulnerable to occasional
are relatively slow in occurrences and floods. It has been noticed that states like
often, occur in well-identified regions and Rajasthan, Gujarat, Haryana and Punjab are
within expected time in a year. also getting inundated in recent decades
▪ Floods occur commonly when water in the due to flash floods. This is partly because of
form of surface run-off exceeds the the pattern of the monsoon and partly
carrying capacity of the river channels and because of blocking of most of the streams
streams and flows into the neighbouring and river channels by human activities.
low-lying flood plains. At times, this even ▪ Sometimes, Tamil Nadu experiences
goes beyond the capacity of lakes and other flooding during November-January due to
inland water bodies in which they flow. the retreating monsoon. Consequence and
▪ Floods can also be caused due to a storm Control of Floods Frequent inundation of
surge (in the coastal areas), high intensity agricultural land and human settlement,
rainfall for a considerably longer time particularly in Assam, West Bengal, Bihar
period, melting of ice and snow, reduction and Eastern Uttar Pradesh (flooding
in the infiltration rate and presence of rivers), coastal areas of Orissa, Andhra
eroded material in the water due to higher Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Gujarat (cyclone)
rate of soil erosion. and Punjab, Rajasthan, Northern Gujarat
▪ Though floods occur frequently over wide and Haryana (flash floods) have serious
geographical area having disastrous consequences on the national economy and
ramifications in many parts of the world, society.
floods in the South, Southeast and East ▪ Floods do not only destroy valuable crops
Asian countries, particularly in China, India every year but these also damage physical
and Bangladesh, are frequent and equally infrastructure such as roads, rails, bridges
disastrous. Once again, unlike other natural and human settlements. Millions of people
disasters, human beings play an important are rendered homeless and are also
role in the genesis as well as spread of washed down along with their cattle in the
floods. floods. Spread of diseases like cholera,
▪ Indiscriminate deforestation, unscientific gastro-enteritis, hepatitis and other water-
agricultural practices, disturbances along borne diseases spread in the flood-affected
the natural drainage channels and areas. However, floods also make a few
colonisation of flood-plains and river-beds positive contributions. Every year, floods
are some of the human activities that play deposit fertile silt over agricultural fields
an important role in increasing the which is good for the crops.
intensity, magnitude and gravity of floods. ▪ Majuli (Assam), the largest riverine island
Various states of India face heavy loss of in the world, is the best example of good
lives and property due to recurrent floods. paddy crops after the annual floods in
Rashtriya Barh Ayog (National Flood Brahmaputra. But these are insignificant
Commission) identified 40 million hectares benefits in comparison to the grave losses.
of land as flood-prone in India. The Figure ▪ The Government of India as well as the
7.6 shows the flood-affected areas in India. state governments are well aware of the
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menace created by floods every year. How plains can be the other steps. This is
do these governments generally respond to particularly true in western and northern
the floods? Construction of flood protection parts of the country which experience
embankments in the flood-prone areas, flash-floods. Cyclone centres may provide
construction of dams, afforestation and relief in coastal areas which are hit by a
discouraging major construction activities storm surge.
in the upper reaches of most of the flood-
creating rivers, etc. are some steps that
need to be taken up on urgent basis.
▪ Removal of human encroachment from the
river channels and depopulating the flood
Landslides
▪ Have you ever read about the blocking of intense human activities, particularly those
roads to Srinagar or disruption of rail related to construction of roads, dams, etc.
services by stones falling on the Konkan are included in this zone.
Railway track? It happens due to landslide, ▪ High Vulnerability Zone: Areas that have
which is the rapid sliding of large mass of almost similar conditions to those included
bedrocks. Disasters due to landslides, are in in the very high vulnerability zone are also
general, far less dramatic than due to included in this category. The only
earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, tsunamis difference between these two is the
and cyclones but their impact on the combination, intensity and frequency of the
natural environment and national controlling factors. All the Himalayan states
economy is in no way less severe. and the states from the north-eastern
▪ Unlike other disasters that are sudden, regions except the plains of Assam are
unpredictable and are largely controlled by included in the high vulnerability zones.
macro or regional factors, landslides are ▪ Moderate to Low Vulnerability Zone:
largely controlled by highly localised Areas that receive less precipitation such as
factors. Hence, gathering information and Trans-Himalayan areas of Ladakh and Spiti
monitoring the possibilities of landslide is (Himachal Pradesh), undulated yet stable
not only difficult but also immensely cost- relief and low precipitation areas in the
intensive. Aravali, rain shadow areas in the Western
▪ It is always difficult to define in a precise and Eastern Ghats and Deccan plateau also
statement and generalise the occurrence experience occasional landslides.
and behaviour of a landslide. However, on ▪ Landslides due to mining and subsidence
the basis of past experiences, frequency are most common in states like Jharkhand,
and certain causal relationships with the Orissa, Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh,
controlling factors like geology, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka,
geomorphic agents, slope, land-use, Tamil Nadu, Goa and Kerala.
vegetation cover and human activities, ▪ Other Areas: The remaining parts of India,
India has been divided into a number of particularly states like Rajasthan, Haryana,
zones. Landslide Vulnerability Zones. Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal (except
▪ Very High Vulnerability Zone : Highly district Darjiling), Assam (except district
unstable, relatively young mountainous KarbiAnglong) and Coastal regions of the
areas in the Himalayas and Andaman and southern States are safe as far as landslides
Nicobar, high rainfall regions with steep are concerned.
slopes in the Western Ghats and Nilgiris, Consequences of Landslides
the north-eastern regions, along with areas ▪ Landslides have relatively small and
that experience frequent ground-shaking localised area of direct influence, but
due to earthquakes, etc. and areas of roadblock, destruction of railway lines and
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channel blocking due to rock-falls have far- roads and dams, limiting agriculture to
reaching consequences. valleys and areas with moderate slopes,
▪ Diversion of river courses due to landslides and control on the development of large
can also lead to flood and loss of life and settlements in the high vulnerability zones,
property. It also makes spatial interaction should be enforced. This should be
difficult, risky as well as a costly affair, supplemented by some positive actions like
which, in turn, adversely affects the promoting large-scale afforestation
developmental activities in these areas. programmes and construction of bunds to
▪ Mitigation: It is always advisable to adopt reduce the flow of water. Terrace farming
area-specific measures to deal with should be encouraged in the North Eastern
landslides. Restriction on the construction hill states where Jhumming (Slash and
and other developmental activities such as Burn/Shifting Cultivation) is still prevalent.
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OFFICERS IAS ACADEMY

(IAS Academy by IAS Officers)

Wishing you all the very best

Director Associate Director

Approach to Answer Writing

Your Answer reflects Your personality in Mains

Key words and their Import

Key Word Approach to Answers

Key Word Approach to Answers

Structure of the earth As indicated earlier, the earthquake wave

1. Antarctica and the surrounding oceanic

Lateral Slipping Plate Movement:

Lapolith, Phacolith and Sills

Gneissoid, granite, syenite, slate, schist, marble,

Mechanical disruption and reorganisation of the

are abrasion, crystallization, thermal insolation,

produced by respiration. Carbon dioxide

Deep Sea Plain Submarine Canyons

phenomenon is referred to as ENSO (El Nino ▪ Latitudinal variation of atmospheric

Geographical features and their locations

(b) Overgrazing: practices, for instance, occur only under

of ridge and furrow during irrigation which lessens 5. Contour Farming:

Distribution of Key Natural Resources

zone of the Western Ghat, long stretch of area is

Distribution of minerals in the Continents ▪ Copper, iron ore, chromium, uranium,

crores. In contrast with declining lead production,

Distribution of Coal: creteceous period. The Permian series coal is

rainfall zone of Dharamshala, Palampur watershed. Among the tributaries Subansiri,

Factors Responsible for Location of Industries

enables the consumer to get things at establishment of industries. There can be

2. Government Policies: original cause may have disappeared. This

has in turn affected cost Workers in India are

9. Dearth of Skilled and Efficient and Madhya Pradesh, but the

Important Geophysical Phenomenon

Tectonic plate boundary before earthquake.

Earthquakes, volcanic eruptions and other

Volcanoes and volcanic landforms

caused by violent winds, very heavy rainfall and

Changes in critical geographical features

lost but when the tree canopies are present; no

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