CHAPTER 2

MATERIALS IN MECHANICAL DESIGN

ENGR. WILLIAM R. SALAZAR, PME

INSTRUCTOR
 MATERIALS IN MECHANICAL DESIGN

qSatisfactory performance of machine

components and systems depends greatly
on the materials that the designer
specifies.
q It is the designer's responsibility to specify
suitable materials for each component of a
mechanical device.
 MATERIALS IN MECHANICAL DESIGN

OBJECTIVES OF
THIS CHAPTER
 MATERIALS IN MECHANICAL DESIGN
qFACTORS TO BE CONSIDERED BY THE
DESIGNER IN CHOOSING MATERIALS:
1. The weight
2. The size
3. The shape of the machine member
4. The load that the machine member must be
carried
5. The cost of the material
6. Cost of fabricating the machine element from
each material
7. Any properties of the material peculiar to the use
to which the member will be put.
 MATERIALS IN MECHANICAL DESIGN
q PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

Ø Machine elements are very often made from one of the

metals or metal alloys such as steel, aluminum, cast
iron, zinc, dtanium, or bronze. This section describes the
important properties of materials as they affect
mechanical design.

Ø Strength, elastic, and ductility properties for metals,

plastics, and other types of materials are usually
determined from a tensile test in which a sample ofthe
material, typically in the form of a round or flat bar, is
clamped between jaws and pulled slowly until it breaks
Ø in tension.
MATERIALS IN MECHANICAL DESIGN
 MATERIALS IN MECHANICAL DESIGN
q MAJOR ENGINEERING PROPERTES OF
MATERIALS WHICH USUALLY ARE OF
IMPORTANCE TO THE DESIGNER:
1. STRENGTH 10. CORROSION
RESISTANCE
2. STIFFNESS
11. FRICTIONAL
3. DUCTILITY
PROPERTIES
4. TOUGHNESS
12. INTERNAL VIBRATIONAL
5. RESILIENCE DAMPING PROPERTIES
6. FATIGUE RESISTANCE 13. HARDNESS
7. SHOCK RESISTANCE 14. HARDINABILITY
8. WEAR RESISTANCE 15. MACHINABILITY
9. CREEP 16. FORMABILITY
CHARACTERISTICS
 MATERIALS IN MECHANICAL DESIGN
q MAJOR ENGINEERING PROPERTES OF
MATERIALS WHICH USUALLY ARE OF
IMPORTANCE TO THE DESIGNER:
§ FABRICATION OF
17. CASTABILITY
MATERIALS
18. WELDABILITY
-The designer must keep in
19. ABILITY TO BE SURFACE mind the available fabrication
FINISHED I AN methods and the effects of
ACCEPTABLE MANNER each on the properties ofhe
20. EFFECTS OF HIGH AND finished member.
LOW TEMP UPON THE v Castings - used for members
BEHAVIOR OF THE of intricate shape that would
MATERIAL be difficult to manufacture by
21. VISUAL APPEARANCE other methods
 MATERIALS IN MECHANICAL DESIGN
§ Die Casting - When cast during the introduction
in metal molds under and solidification of the
pressure, the product molten casting materials.
are called die castings,
they are more accurate
in size andhape than
are ordinary casting,
and in many cases they
require no machining.
§ Centrifugal Casting- are
made by rapidly
revolving the molds
 MATERIALS IN MECHANICAL DESIGN
• Although casting are desirable for many parts of the intricate
shape, they present many problem of design.
a) Shrinkage during cooling period
b) Non uniform cooling of irregular thick and thin sections,
bringing residual stresses which may cause some casting
to rupture before they can be put to service.
c) To warp during machining operation.
(Important casting should be annealed or normalized to
relieve these stresses)
vHot - working of ductile material by rolling, forging
and similar process refines the grain and generally
improves the properties.
 MATERIALS IN MECHANICAL DESIGN
q PROPERTIES OF test in which a sample of
METALS the material, typically in the
Machine elements are form of a round bar or flat
very often made from of bar is clamped in between
the metals or alloys such jaws and pulled slowly until
as steel, aluminum or it breaks in tension.
bronze. The data from such tensile
§ TENSILE TEST: tests are often shown on
Strength, elastic and stress - strain diagrams.
ductility properties of
metals and other types of
materials are usually
determined from a tensile
 MATERIALS IN MECHANICAL DESIGN
TENSILE TESTS:
§ PROPERTIES OF METALS
• Strength, elastic, and
ductility properties for
metals, plastics, and
other types of materials
are usually determined
from a tensile test in
which a sample of the
material, typically in the
form of a round or flat bar,
is clamped between jaws
and pulled slowly until it
breaks in tension.
MATERIALS IN MECHANICAL DESIGN
 MATERIALS IN MECHANICAL DESIGN
Important Mechanical Properties from a Tensile Test
• YIELD STRENGTH,SY
TENSILE STRENGTH, Sυ § That portion of the stress-strain
diagram where there is a large
The peak of the stress-strain increase in strain with little or no
curve is considered the ultimate increase in stress is called the yield
tensile .strength (su). sometimes strength
called the ultimate .strength or
§ This property indicates that the
simply the tensile strength.
material has, in fact, yielded or
Ultimate Tensile Strength: elongated plastically, permanently,
This is the highest and to a large degree.
value of stress on the stress- Yield Strength: This is the value of stress at
strain curve. the yield point, calculated by plotting young's
modulus at a specified percent of offset
(usually offset = 0.2%).
MATERIALS IN MECHANICAL DESIGN
MATERIALS IN MECHANICAL DESIGN
 MATERIALS IN MECHANICAL DESIGN
§ YIELD STRENGTH § YIELD POINT (YP)
Ø A stress level at which - The stress at which
permanent deformation alow or medium carbon
of the part occurs. steel undergoes amarked
Ø This property indicates elongation with out an
that the material has in increase in yield.
fact yielded or elongated - Is the point where the
plastically, permanently material experience an
and to a large degree. appreciable elongation or
Ø The property is called yielding without any
the YIELD POINT rather increase in load.
than the yield strength.

MATERIALS IN MECHANICAL
• Yielding - A slight
increase in stress above
the elastic limit will result
in a breakdown of the
material and cause it to
deform permanently.
• The stress that causes
yielding is called yield
stress or yield point (y)
or (Sy) and the
deformation that occurs
is called plastic
deformation.
• There is DESIGN
no pronounced yield
point, but the material has
actually yielded at or near
the stress level indicated as
Sy.
• YIELD POINT -is determined
by the offset method. A line
is drawn parallel to the
straight line portion of the
curve and is offset to the
right by a set amount usually
0.20 % strain(0.002in/in) The
intersection of this line and
the stress strain curve
defines the materials yield
strength.
 MATERIALS IN MECHANICAL DESIGN
q PROPORTIONAL LIMIT
§ The point on the stress-
strain curve where it
deviates from a straight
line is called the
proportional limit.
§ That is, at or above that
stress value, stress is no
longer proportional to
strain.
§ Below the proportional limit.
Hooke's law applies: Stress
is proportional to strain.
§ In mechanical design,
materials are rarely
used at stresses above
the proportional limit.
v Hooke's Law
- States that within
proportional limit, the
stress in the material is
directly proportional to
the strain. (This law was
observed by Robert
Hooke in 1678)
 MATERIALS IN MECHANICAL DESIGN
§ Below the proportional
limit, stress  or S is
proportional to strain Ɛ or
e, and the proportionality
constant is called the
Modulus of elasticity, E.
S = E(Ɛ)
where:
E = is the slope(S/Ɛ) of the
straight part
Ɛ = Strain, is in/in
(dimensionless)
Ø RUPTURE STRENGTH -
Also known as breaking
strength is the strength of
material at failure.
Ø PLASTICITY - Ability of a
metal to be deformed
considerably without
rupture.
- is the property of a material
by virtue of ehich permanent
deformation will occur.
 MATERIALS IN MECHANICAL DESIGN
q ELASTIC LIMIT qELASTIC LIMIT
§ At some point, called the - Is the maximum stress
elastic limit, a material
to which a test specimen
experiences some amount of
plastic strain and thus will not maybe subjected without
return to its original shape the permanent
after release of the load. deformation.
§ Below that level, the material
behaves completely
elastically. - Is a limit beyond which
§ The proportional limit and the
the material will no longer
elastic limit lie quite close to go back to its original
the yield strength. Because shape or form upon the
they are difficult to determine, removal of the load.
they are rarely reported
 MATERIALS IN MECHANICAL DESIGN
q MODULUS OF Ɛ = strain, in/in
ELASTICITY IN (dimensionless)
TENSION, (E):
E = is the slope of the
-For the part of the stress-
strain diagram that is
straight line
straight, stress is portion of the
proportional to strain, and diagram, in psi or
the value E is the constant MPa
of proportionality. Ø The modulus of elasticity
E = stress/ strain indicates the stiffness of
= /Ɛ or S/Ɛ the material, or its
where: resistance to deformation.
σ or S = stress in psi or Pa or MPa
MATERIALS IN MECHANICAL DESIGN
MATERIALS IN MECHANICAL DESIGN
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MATERIALS IN MECHANICAL DESIGN
 MATERIALS IN MECHANICAL DESIGN
qDUCTILITY AND
PERCENT ELONGATION
Ø Ductility is the degree to
which a material will
deform before ultimate
fracture.
Ø The opposite of ductility
is brittleness.
Ductility - that property
that permits permanent
deformation before fracture
in tension or ductility is the
property of a material by
virtue of which it may be
plastically elongated.
Ø BRITTLENESS:
-Is the tendency to fracture
without appreciable
deformation.
§ When ductile materials are
used in machine members
impending failure is detected
early and sudden failure is
unlikely.
§ Ductile materials -normally
resist the repeated loads on
machine elements better
than brittle mterials.
 MATERIALS IN MECHANICAL DESIGN
v PERCENT ELONGATION
-Percent elongation is the usua measure of ductility
of the material after fracture in a standard test.

Ø The percent elongation is the difference between

the final length and the original length divided by
the original length, converted to a percentage.

% elongation = Lf - Lo/Lo x 100 %

Ø Theoritically: A material is considered ductile if its

percent elongation is greater than 5 %.
 MATERIALS IN MECHANICAL DESIGN
v PERCENT ELONGATION

§ For Practical Reason:

It is advisable to use a material with a value of 12 %
or higher for machine member subject to repeated
loads or shock or impact.
v PERCENT REDUCTION IN AREA:
- Is another indication of ductility
- Original cross-sectional area at the break for the
tensile test specimen is composed.
 MATERIALS IN MECHANICAL DESIGN
q SHEAR STRENGTH, Sys and Sus

Yield Strength and the Ultimate Strength in shear (sys and sus
respectively) are important properties of materials. But these
values are seldom reported.

Following formulas are used for its estimates:

ESTIMATES FOR sys and sus:
sys = sy/2 = 0.5 sy = Yield strength in shear
sus = o.75 su = ultimate strength in shear
 MATERIALS IN MECHANICAL DESIGN
q POISSON'S RATIO, ( υ • Poisson's ratio, usually
or μ) denoted by υ (nu) the
Greek letter mu. (The
- The ratio of the shortening
Greek letter mu, μ, is
strain to the tensile sometimes used for this
strain. ratio.
Ø When a material is • Typical ranges of values
subjected to a tensile for Poisson's ratio are
strain, there is a 0.25-0.27 for cast iron.
simultaneous shortening 0.27-0.30 for steel, and
0.30-0.33 for aluminum
of the cross-sectional and titanium.
dimensions perpendicular
to the direction of the
tensile strain.
 MATERIALS IN MECHANICAL DESIGN
q MODULUS OF vSimple relationship
ELASTICITY IN SHEAR, G between E, G. and
vThe modulus of elasticity Poisson's ratio:
in shear (G) is the ratio
of shearing stress to
G = E/ 2(1 + υ)
shearing strain.
ü The property indicates a
materials stiffness under (Valid within the elastic
the shear loading, that is, range of material)
the resistance to shear
deformation.
 MATERIALS IN MECHANICAL DESIGN
q HARDNESS Ø BRINNEL HARDNESS
Ø The resistance of a TESTER
material to indentation - Employs a hardened steel ball
by a penetrator is an 10 mm in diameter as the
penetrator under a load of
indication of its hardness
3000kg force.
Ø Devices used to measure - The load causes a permanent
hardness indentation in the test material
Ø 1. Brinell Hardness and the diameter of the
Tester(BHN or HB) indentation is related to the
Brinnel Hardness Number,
Ø 2. Rockwell Hardness abbreviated BHN or HB.
Tester (B, Rb, HRB)
 MATERIALS IN MECHANICAL DESIGN

q HARDNESS ROCKWELL HARDNESS

For Steels
Hardness Value Ranges:
HB 100 - For Annealed Low
Carbon Steel
HB 700 - For High Strength high
alloy steels in the as
quenched condition.
- In the high ranges, above HB
500, the penetrator is sometimes
made of tungsten carbide rather
than steel.
• For softer metals, a 500 kg load The Rockwell C scale is
is used.
TESTER - uses a hardened
steel ball with a 1/16 inch
diameter.
vFor softer metals- 100 kg
force and the resulting
hardness is listed as
Rockwell B, RB, HRB.
vFor harder metals(Such
as heat-treated alloy
steels):
used. A load of 150 kg
 MATERIALS IN MECHANICAL DESIGN

q HARDNESS 0.5 HB = Approximate

tensile strength, ksi
force is placed on a
diamond penetrator (a
brake penetrator) made in
a sphere -conical shape.
Rockwell C hardness is
stimes referredto as Rc or
HRC.
§ APPROXIMATE
RELATIONSHIP
(Between Hardness
and Strength for steel)
 MATERIALS IN MECHANICAL DESIGN

q MACHINABILITY q IMPACT STRENGTH

q TOUGHNESS, IMPACT ENERGY
§ Machinability is related § Toughness is the ability of a
to the ease with which a material to absorb applied
material can be machined energy without failure.
to a good surface finish § Parts subjected to suddenly
with reasonable tool life. applied loads, shock, or
impact need a high level of
§ Production rates are
toughness.
directly affected by
§ Charpy and Izod tests - the
machinability. two most widely used testing
methods for impact strength
of metals and plastics
 MATERIALS IN MECHANICAL DESIGN
q FATIGUE STRENGTH loading to determine
OR ENDURANCE their ability to resist such
STRENGTH repeated loads.
§ Parts subjected to
repeated applications of
§ The resulting data are
loads or to stress
reported as the fatigue
conditions that vary with
strength, also called
time over several
the endurance
thousands or millions of
strength of the
cycles fail because
material
ofthe phenomenon of
fatigue.
§ Materials are tested
under controlled cyclic
 MATERIALS IN MECHANICAL DESIGN

q CREEP § You should check for

§ When materials are creep when the
subjected to high loads operating temperature
continuously, they may of a loaded metal
experience progressive member exceeds
elongation over time. approximately 0.3 {Tin)
§ This phenomenon, where:
called creep, should be § Tin is the melfing
considered for metals temperature expressed
operating at high as an absolute
temperatures. temperature
 MATERIALS IN MECHANICAL DESIGN
• Effect of high temperature
on materials:
structural changes that
vThe selection of the proper will further affect the
design stress for members strength will take place.
subjected to high
temperatures is dependent
upon two properties of the 2nd - The change in size
material. at high teperatures and
the gradual deformation,
Ø The strength of the
or creep, that
materialis modified by
accompanies strss at high
temperature, and if the
temperature.
temperature is maintained for
a sufficient period of time,
 MATERIALS IN MECHANICAL DESIGN
§ CREEP § The effect of continued
high temperature on the
- Is the term used in referring to structure of the metal is
the continous increase in the to temper it and increase
strain, or derotmation, of any its ctility and thus the
mterial subjected to stress. creep rate.

§ The rate of creep varies with

the stress, temperature and
time.
 MATERIALS IN MECHANICAL DESIGN
q CREEP STRENGTH
-Creep strength of a
material usually is defined
as the constant stress to
which a material is loaded,
at a specified time, that
will cause a further
elongation or creep of a
given percentage of the
original unstressed length.
q EFFECT OF LOw TEMPERATURE
ON MATERIALS
-As the temperature is
decreased, plain carbon steel
and low carbon steels reach a
condition where the impact
resistance becomes very
rapid and then steel become
very brittle
 MATERIALS IN MECHANICAL DESIGN

q EFFECT OF HIGH further affect the strength will

TEMPERATURE ON
TEMPERATURE
- The selection of the proper
design stress for members
subjected to high temperatures
is dependent upon two
properties of the material.
take place.
SECOND - The change in
size at high temperatures
and the gradual deformation,
that accompanies stress at
high temperature.

FIRST - The strength of the

material is modified by
temperature and if the
temperature is maintained for
a suffiient period of time,
structural changes that will
 MATERIALS IN MECHANICAL DESIGN
q PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
Density, coefficient of § Its usual units are kg/m3
thermal expansion, in the Sl and lb/in3 in
thermal conductivity, the U.S. Customary Unit
System, where:
and electrical
resistivity. - the pound unit is taken to
be pounds-mass.
§ SPECIFIC WEIGHT or
§ DENSITY, ρ WEIGHT DENSITY- Is
§ Density is defined as the used to indicate weight
mass per unit volume of per unit volume of
a material. (kg/m3 , lb/in3) material.(N/m3 , lb/in3 )
 MATERIALS IN MECHANICAL DESIGN
q PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
§ COEFFICIENT OF
THERMAL ExPANSION, where:
(α ) LO = Original Length
§ The coefficient of thermal ΔT = Change in
expansion is a measure of temperature
the change in length of a § THERMAL
material subjected to a CONDUCTIvITY.
change in temperature. Thermal conductivity
 = Change in length / LO is the property of a
(ΔT) material that
= Strain / (ΔT) indicates its ability to
transfer heat.
= Ɛ/ (ΔT)
 MATERIALS IN MECHANICAL DESIGN
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
§ THERMAL
CONDUCTIvITY.
§ Where machine elements
operate in hot
environments or where
significant internal heat is
generated, the ability of
the elements or of the
machine's housing to
transfer heat away can
affect machine
performance.
q ELECTRICAL RESISTIvITY
§ For machine elements that
conduct electricity while carrying
loads,the electrical resistivity of the
material is as important as its
strength.
§ Electrical resistivity is a measure of
the resistance offered by a given
thickness of a material; it is
measured in ohm-centimeters (Ω •
cm).
§ Electrical conductivity - a measure
of the capacity of a material to
conduct electric current, is
sometimes used instead of
resistivity
 MATERIALS IN MECHANICAL DESIGN
q TABULATED PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
-TABLE OF THE MOST IMPORTANT EGINEERING
PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS COMMONLY USED IN
MACHINE DESIGN ARE USED AS REFERENCE. THE
TABULATED PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS MUST BE
CONSIDERED AS AVERAGE VALUES ONLY.
qSTANDARD SPECIFICATION FOR DESIGNATING
MATERIALS
vSeveral organization and government agencies and
a few large manufacturer have established standard
specifications for designating and describing the
various materials which are widely used by the
designer.
 MATERIALS IN MECHANICAL DESIGN
• These specifications are very useful in assisting the
designer to make intelligent selection of materials.
Ø COMMONLY USED SETS OF SPECIFICATIONS:
1) AISI - American Iron and Steel Institute
2) SAE - Society of Automotive Engineers
3) AA - Aluminum Association -Specification of aluminum and
its alloys
4) ASTM - American Society for Testing and Materials
5) ASA - American Standards Association(for wide variety of
materials)
6) AN - Joint Speification for US Army and Navy
7) MIL - Joint specification common to three US military
forces
 MATERIALS IN MECHANICAL DESIGN

CLASSIFICATION OF
q Order has been brought to
METALS AND ALLOYS
q Various industry associations
take responsibility for setting
standards for the classification
of metals and alloys. Each has
its own numbering system,
convenient to the particular
metal covered by the standard
the classification of metals
by the use of the Unified
Numbering Systems (UNS)
as defined in the Standard E
527-83 (Reapproved 1997).
Standaid Practice for
Numbering Metals and
Alloys (UNS), by the
American Society for Testing
and Materials, or ASTM
 MATERIALS IN MECHANICAL DESIGN

§ Besides listing materials Ø The Aluminum

under the control of ASTM Association (AA)
itself the UNS coordinates Ø The Amencan Iron and
designations of the Steel Institute (AISI)
following: Ø The Copper Development
Association (CDA)
Ø The Society of Automotive
Engineers (SAE)
 MATERIALS IN MECHANICAL DESIGN
List of Organizations that create standards for voluntary codes:
 MATERIALS IN MECHANICAL DESIGN

q CARBON AND ALLOY STEEL

v Steel is possibly the most widely used material for
machine elements because of its properties of high
strength, high stiffness, durability, and relafive ease of
fabrication. Many types of steels are available.
vSteel - refers to an alloy of iron, carbon, manganese, and
one or more other significant elements.
Ø Carbon has a very strong effect on the strength, hardness,
and ductility of any steel alloy. The other elements affect
hardenability, toughness, corrosion resistance,
machinability, and strength retention at high temperatures.
 MATERIALS IN MECHANICAL DESIGN
q FUNCTIONS OF -hardenability agent in low
ALLOYING ELEMENTS or medium carbon
(Chemical Symbols) deoxydized steels.
1. Aluminum(Al) - is an 3. Chromium(Cr) -
efficient deoxidizer, an improves hardenability
alloy in nitriding steels economically,
(nitralloys), and it resistance to corrosion
promotes fine grain (with other alloys)
size. strength at high
2. Boron(B) - in very small temperatures, and
amounts (0.001%) or wearing properties
less is an economical (high carbon).
 MATERIALS IN MECHANICAL DESIGN
FUNCTIONS OF ALLOYING 8. Manganese (Mn) -
ELEMENTS (Chemical Symbols)
improves strength and
4. Cobalt (Co) - improves increases
red hardness hardenability
5. Columbium (Cb) - is moderately,
often used to stabilize counteracts
stainless steel brittleness from sulfur
6. Copper (Cu) - improves 9. Molybdenum (Mo) -
steels resistance to increases
atmospheric corrosion. hardenability
7. Lead (Pb) - improves markedly and
machinability, but affects economically, tends to
different alloys differently counteract temper
 MATERIALS IN MECHANICAL DESIGN
- temper brittleness - distortion. It is the most
improving creep strength element for reducing the
brittleness of steel at low
and red hardness, it wear
temperature.
by forming abrasion
11. Phosphorous (P) -
resistant particles increases hardenability,
10.Nickel (Ni) - strengtens strengthens low carbon
unquenched and steels, improves
annealed and annealed machinability of free
cutting steels, and
steels,toughens steel
improves resstance to
(especially at low corrosion.
temperatures and
simplifies heat
treatment by lessening
 MATERIALS IN MECHANICAL DESIGN
12. Seleneum (Se) - - purpose deoxidizer and
improves machinability promote fine grain.
of stainless steel, also 14. Tantalum (Ta) - is a
added to leaded stabilizer
rsulfurized carbon
15.Titanium (Ti) - is used
steels for the same
for deoxidation and for
purpose.
stabilizing austenitic
13. Silicon (Si) - stainless steels, it
strengthens low alloy increases the
steels and improves hardiness and
resistance to high strength of low carbon
temperature oxidation; steel and improves
it is a good general creep strength
 MATERIALS IN MECHANICAL DESIGN
16. Tungsten (W) - -increases
increases hardinability hardinability strongly
markedly in small when dissolved, and
amounts and improves results in retentionof
hardness and strength strength and hardness
at high temperature. at high temperature, it
17.Vanadium (V) - is the most effective
promotes fine grain element in retarding
structure, improves the softening during
ratio of endurance tempering.
strength to ultimate
strength of medium
carbon steels,
MATERIALS IN MECHANICAL DESIGN
 MATERIALS IN MECHANICAL DESIGN
q AISI AND SAE
q SAE SPECIFICATION
DESIGNATION OF
FOR STEEL:
STEEL:
§ AISI SPECIFICATION
§ SAE designate
FOR STEELS material the same as
-Designate mterials by use of AISI except the letter
four digit number(Five digit in prefixes and suffixes
few cases) with one or two- are ommited.
letter prefix and occasionally
a one - lettersuffix.
Example: C1045, NE8615,
4620H, etc.
 MATERIALS IN MECHANICAL DESIGN
§ BOTH AISI AND SAE: 8- National Emergency
A. 1st Digit - Indicates the Steel(Also called
class of steel triple alloy steel
1-Carbon Steel 9- Silico-Manganese
steel(Also sometimes
2- Nickel steel
called National
3-Chrome-Nickel Steel Emergency Steel)
4- Molybdenum Steel
5- Chromium Steel B. 2nd Digit - Indicates the
6- Chrome-Vanadium approximate percentage of
7- Tungsten Steels the principal alloying
element present in the
steel.
 MATERIALS IN MECHANICAL DESIGN
C. 3rd, 4th, (Sometimes C. Basic open-hearth
5th) digit-Represent a carbon steel
number 100 times the D. Acid open hearth
carbon steel
approximate percentage
of carbon present in the E. Electric furnace steel
steel. F. Indicates free
machining steel
Ø FOR AISI SYSTEM -One or
two letter prefix, indicates the NE - Electric furnace steel
method of producing steel. H - Indicate stels with
A. Basic open-hearth alloy more restricted
steel hardinability limits
than are commonly
B. Acid Bessemer Carbon obtainable
steel
MATERIALS IN MECHANICAL DESIGN
q IMPORTANCE OF
CARBON
Ø Although most steel alloys
contain less than 1.0%
carbon, it is included in the
designation because of its
effect on the properties of
steel.
Ø As carbon content
increases, strength and
hardness also increase
under the same condifions
of processing and heat
treatment.
 MATERIALS IN MECHANICAL DESIGN
q CLASSIFICATION OF q CLASSIFICATION OF
FERROUS MATERIALS STEEL:
-Where Iron is the principal -Steels maybe classified as:
component element, ferrous 1. Plain Carbon steel - Only
materials are classified alloying element in steel is
according to their carbon carbon.
content. 2. AlloySteels
a) Wrought Iron - contains 3. Special Purpose Steel
less that 0.1 % carbon Alloy Steel - contains one or
b) Steel - Carbon content more of the alloying elements
between 0.1 %and 2 %. in excess of the percentage
c) Cast Irons -Carbon indicated.
content exceeding 2 %. a. 1.65 % manganese
b. 0.6 % copper or silicon
 MATERIALS IN MECHANICAL DESIGN
c. 3.99 % Aluminum, § SPECIAL PURPOSE
Boron or Chromium STEEL
d. Any percentage of -Is a material produced
Cobalt, Molybdenum, to meet certain special
Nickel, Titanium, conditions in fabrication
Tungsten, Vanadium, or in use such as free
Zirconium. machining, heat
e. Any other element resistance, corrosion
which is intentionally resistance, impact
add to obtain a resistance and tool
desired alloying steels.
effect.
 MATERIALS IN MECHANICAL DESIGN
q CLASSIFICATION OF PLAIN unresponsive to heat treatment.
CARBON STEEL
-Is one in which is neither an 2. MEDIUM CARBON
alloy steel nor a special STEEL
purpose steel. Plain carbon i. Between 0.3 and 0.5 %
steel are divided according to Carbon inclusive. Are
their carbon content: stronger and tougher than
1. LOW-CARBON STEEL the low-carbon steels,
machine well, and respond
i. Is one having fewer than 30
to heat treatment.
points of carbon (0.30%).
ii. Are soft, very ductile, easily
machined, easily welded by
any process, and since the
carbon content is too low, .
 MATERIALS IN MECHANICAL DESIGN

q CLASSIFICATION OF PLAIN Ø The higher the carbon

CARBON STEEL
content , the more
3. HIGH-CARBON STEEL -
Over 0.5 % carbon. difficult it is to weld
Respond readily to heat these steels.
treatment. In the heat Ø Steel castings are more
treated state, they may difficult to produce than
have a very high strengths
iron castings and are
combined with hardness,
but are not so ductile as more expensive, but
the medium-carbon steels. are stronger and
In the higher the extreme tougher.
hardness is accompanied
by excessive brittleness.
 MATERIALS IN MECHANICAL DESIGN
q CONDITIONS OF STEELS 1. Hot Rolling - is
AND HEAT TREATMENT usually used to create
-The final properties of a bar of materials of a
steels are are dramatically particular shape and
affected by way the steels dimension.
are produced. § Tubing can be
A. Hot working process- manufactured by hot
are meant such rolling strip or plate
process as Rolling, § Seamless tubing is
Forging, Hot extrusion, manufactured by roll-
in which the metal is piercing a solid heated
heated above its rod with a piercing
recrystallization mandrel.
temperature.
 MATERIALS IN MECHANICAL DESIGN
2. Extrusion - is the 3. Forging - is the hot
process by which great working of metal by
pressure is applied to a hammering process, or
heated metal billet or forging machines.
blank, causing it to flow - Forging produces a
through a restricted refined grain structure that
orifice. results in increased
- This process is more strength and ductility.
common with materials of
low melting point, such as
aluminum, copper,
magnesium, lead, tin and
zinc.
 MATERIALS IN MECHANICAL DESIGN

qCOLD WORKING 1. Cold Drawing-In the

PROCESS: drawing process,the
A. Cold Working - meant hot rolled bars are first
the forming of the cleared of scale and
metal while at low then drawn by pulling
temperature (usually them through a die that
room temperature) reduces the size about
- In contrast to parts 0.03 to 0.06 mm. This
produced by hot working, process does not
cold-worked parts have a remove material from
bright new finish, are the bar but reduces, or
more accurate and “draws” down the size.
require less machining.
 MATERIALS IN MECHANICAL DESIGN

Ø Cold working results in a - capable of producing a

large increase in yield wide variety of shapes.
strength, an increase in 3. Roll Threading - is the
ultimate strength and process of rolling
hardness, and a threads by squeezing
decrease in ductility. and rolling a blank
2. Heading - is a cold between two serated
working process in dies.
which the metal is 4. Spinning - is the
gathered, or upset. This operation of working
operation is commonly sheet material around
used to make screw and a rotating form into a
rivet heads and is circular shape.
 MATERIALS IN MECHANICAL DESIGN

q ALLOY GROUPS
 MATERIALS IN MECHANICAL DESIGN

q CONDITIONS FOR STEELS AND

HEAT TREATMENT
MATERIALS IN MECHANICAL DESIGN
MATERIALS IN MECHANICAL DESIGN
MATERIALS IN MECHANICAL DESIGN
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