Cairo University – Faculty of Engineering

Energy Research Center
Diploma in Control System
Project

AUTOMATIC LOAD FREQUENCY CONTROL

Presented to:

Prof. Dr. M. M . EL-METWALLY

Project group:   
 Eng. Mahmoud saad eldin
Eng. Hany ali hussein
eng. Osama othman

1 Load frequency control

 eng.mohammed shabka
eng.randa
eng.shimaa
eng.ibrahim

2 Load frequency control

Chapter 1:
INTRODUCTION
Chapter 2:
2. Load frequency control of single area system

2.1Dynamics of the power generating system

SPEED GOVERNOR 2.1.1
HYDRAULIC VALVE ACTUATOR 2.1.2
TURBINE – GENERATOR 2.1.3
STATIC PERFORMANCE OF SPEED 2.1.4
GOVERNOR
Closing the ALFC loop 2.1.5
Static Response of primary ALFC loop 2.1.6
Dynamic Response of ALFC loop 2.1.7
PROPORTIONAL PLUS INTEGRAL CONTROL 2.1.8
2.2Application (Matlab & Result )
2.3discussion
Chapter 3:
3. Load frequency control of Two area system

3.1Modeling of Tow area system

3.1.1 Static Response of primary ALFC loop
3.1.2 Dynamic Response of ALFC loop
3.1.3 Tie line Bias control for two area
3.2 Application (Matlab & Result )
3.3 Discussion

3 Load frequency control

Chapter 4:
Optimal load frequency control
4.1 : Optimal of single area
4.2 : Optimal of two area
4.3 : Application of optimal control

Chapter 5: Comparison between conventional and optimal load frequency control

Chapter 6: Conclusion
References :

4 Load frequency control

 Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION:

The main objective of power system operation and control is to maintain continuous
supply of power with an acceptable quality, to all the consumers in the system. The
system will be in equilibrium, when there is a balance between the power demand
and the power generated. As the power in AC form has real and reactive
components: the real power balance; as well as the reactive power balance is to be
achieved.

Thus steam input to turbine must be continuously regulated to match the active
power demand. The system frequency otherwise will change which is not desirable.
(A change in the electric power consumption will result in a deviation of the
frequency from its steady state value. The consumers require a value of frequency
and voltage constant. To maintain these parameters, controls are required on the
system and must guarantee a good level of voltage with an industrial frequency).

Excitation of the generator must also be maintained continuously to match the

reactive power demand; otherwise the voltage at various system buses may go
beyond the specified limit. Manual regulation is not possible. There are two basic
control mechanisms used to achieve reactive power balance (acceptable voltage
profile) and real power balance (acceptable frequency values). The former is called
the automatic voltage regulator (AVR) and the latter is called the automatic load
frequency control (ALFC) or automatic generation control (AGC). Thus, Voltage is
maintained by the control of excitation of the generator and frequency is maintained
by the elimination of the difference in power between the power provided by the
turbine and the power required by the load. It is known that although the loads are
time-variant, the variations are relatively slow. The controllers are set for a
particular operating condition and they take care of small change in load demand
without frequency and voltage exceeding the précised limits .As the change in load
demand becomes large, the controllers must be reset either manually or
automatically.

5 Load frequency control

 Load frequency control

The main purpose of operating the load frequency control is to keep uniform the
frequency changes during the load changes. During the power system operation
rotor angle, frequency and active power are the main parameters to change.
In multi area system a change of power in one area is met by the increase in
generation in all areas associated with a change in the tie-line power and a
reduction in frequency. In the normal operating state the power system demands
of areas are satisfied at the nominal frequency.

The basic role of ALFC is:

1. To maintain the desired megawatt output power of a generator

matching with the changing load
2. To assist in controlling the frequency of larger interconnection.
3. To keep the net interchange power between pool members, at the
predetermined values.

6 Load frequency control

 Chapter 2
Load frequency control of single area system

2.1Dynamics of the power generating system

The real power control mechanism of a generator is shown in Fig. 1. The main parts
are: 1) Speed changer 2) Speed governor 3) Hydraulic amplifier 4) Control valve. They
are connected by linkage mechanism. Their incremental movements are in vertical
direction. In reality these movements are measured in millimeters; but in our analysis
we shall rather express them as power increments expressed in MW or p.u. MW as the
case may be. The movements are assumed positive in the directions of arrows.
Corresponding to “raise” command, linkage movements will be: “A” moves
downwards; “C” moves upwards; “D” moves upwards; “E” moves downwards. This
allows more steam or water flow into the turbine resulting incremental increase in
generator output power. When the speed drops, linkage point “B” moves upwards and
again generator output power will increase.

Fig. 1 Functional diagram of real power control mechanism of a generator

7 Load frequency control

SPEED GOVERNOR 2.1.1

The output commend of speed governor is ΔPg which corresponds to movement

:ΔxC. The speed governor has two inputs
Change in the reference power setting, ΔPref (1
.Change in the speed of the generator, Δf, as measured by ΔxB (2
It is to be noted that a positive ΔPref will result in positive ΔPg A positive Δf will
result in linkage points B and C to come down causing negative ΔPg. Thus

Here the constant R has dimension hertz per MW and is referred as speed
regulation of the governor.
Taking Laplace transform of eq. 1 yields

The block diagram corresponding to the above equation is shown in Fig. 2.

Fig. 2 Block diagram of speed governor

HYDRAULIC VALVE ACTUATOR 2.1.2

The output of the hydraulic actuator is ΔPv. This depends on the position of main
piston, which in turn depends on the quantity of oil flow in the piston. For a small
change ΔxD in the pilot valve position, we have

The constant “kH” depends on the orifice, cylinder geometries and fluid pressure.
The input to ΔxD are ΔPg and ΔPv. It is to be noted that for a positive ΔPg, the
change ΔxD is positive. Further, for a positive ΔPv, more fuel is admitted, speed
increases, linkage point B moves downwards causing linkage points C and D to
move downwards resulting the change ΔxD as negative. Thus

8 Load frequency control

:Laplace transformation of the last two equations are

Eliminating ΔxD and writing ΔPv (s) in terms of ΔPg (s), we get

where TH is the hydraulic time constant given by

In terms of the hydraulic valve actuator’s transfer function GH (s), eq. 5 can be
written as

Hydraulic time constant TH typically assumes values around 0.1 sec. The block
diagram of the speed governor together with the hydraulic valve actuator is shown
.in Fig. 3

Fig. 3 Block diagram of speed governor together with hydraulic valve actuator

9 Load frequency control

TURBINE – GENERATOR 2.1.3

In normal steady state, the turbine power PT keeps balance with the
electromechanical air-gap power PG resulting in zero acceleration and a constant
.speed and frequency

During transient state, let the change in turbine power be ΔPT and the
. corresponding change in generator power be ΔPG
The accelerating power in turbine generator unit = ΔPT – ΔPG

(8) Thus accelerating power = ΔPT (s) - ΔPG (s)

.If ΔPT - ΔPG is negative, it will decelerate

The turbine power increment ΔPT depends entirely upon the valve power
increment ΔPv and the characteristic of the turbine. Different type of turbines will
have different characteristics. Taking transfer function with single time constant
for the turbine, we can write

The generator power increment ΔPG depends entirely upon the change ΔPD in
the load PD being fed from the generator. The generator always adjusts its output
so as to meet the demand changes ΔPD. These adjustments are essentially
.instantaneous, certainly in comparison with the slow changes in PT
We can therefore set

,In view of equations 8,9 and 10

the block diagram developed is updated as shown in Fig. 4. This corresponds to

.the linear model of primary ALFC loop excluding the power system response

10 Load frequency control

Fig. 4 Block diagram corresponding to primary loop of ALFC excluding power
system response

STATIC PERFORMANCE OF SPEED GOVERNOR .2.1.4

The present control loop shown in Fig. 4 is open. We can nevertheless obtain
some interesting information about the static performance of the speed governor.
The relationship between the static signals (subscript “0”) is obtained by letting

we obtain directly from Fig. 4

Note that at steady state, ΔPT is equal to ΔPG. i.e. ΔPT 0 = ΔPG 0
.We consider the following three cases

Case A

The generator is synchronized to a network of very large size, so large in fact, that
its frequency will be essentially independent of any changes in the power output
of this individual generator (“infinite” network). Since Δf0 = 0, the above eq.
becomes

Thus for a generator operating at constant speed,(or frequency) there exists a

.direct proportionality between turbine power and reference power setting

Thus for a generator operating at constant speed, (or frequency) there exists a
.direct proportionality between turbine power and reference power setting

ΔPT 0 = ΔPref 0 i.e. when the generator is operating at constant frequency, if the
speed changer setting is INCREASED,(DECREASED) turbine output power will
.increase ( decrease ) to that extent

11 Load frequency control

Case B

Now we consider the network as “finite”. i.e. its frequency is variable. We do,
however, keep the speed changer at constant setting. i.e. ΔPref = 0. From eq. (11)

The above eq. shows that for a constant speed changer setting, the static increase
.in turbine power output is directly proportional to the static frequency drop

The above eq. (13) can be rewritten as Δf 0 = - R ΔPT 0. This means that the plot
.of f 0 with respect to PT 0 (or PG 0) will be a straight line with slope of – R

We remember that the unit for R is hertz per MW. In practice, both the frequency
.and the power can be expressed in per unit

Case C

In general case, changes may occur in both the speed changer setting and
frequency in which case the relationship

For a given speed changer setting, ΔPref 0 = 0 and hence Δf0 = - R ΔPT 0. In a
= frequency-generation power graph, this represents a straight line with a slope
.R -

For a given frequency, Δf 0 = 0 and hence ΔPT 0 = ΔPref 0. This means that for
a given frequency, generation power can be increased or decreased by suitable
.raise or lower command
Thus the relationship

represents a family of sloping lines as depicted in Fig. 5, each line

.corresponding to a specific speed changer setting

12 Load frequency control

Fig. 5 Static frequency-power response of speed governor (R = 0.04 p.u.)
The thick line shows that corresponding to 100% rated frequency, the output power is
100 % of rated output. But for the new speed changer setting as shown by the dotted
line, for the same 100% rated frequency, output power is 50 % of rated output. Hence
the power output of the generator at a given frequency can be adjusted at will, by
suitable speed changer setting. Such adjustment will be extreme importance for
.implementing the load division as decided by the optimal policy

CLOSING THE ALFC LOOP .2.1.5

We observed earlier that the loop in Fig. 4 is “open”. We now proceed now to “close” it
by finding a mathematical link between ΔPT and Δf. As our generator is supplying
power to a conglomeration of loads in its service area, it is necessary in our following
.analysis to make reasonable assumptions about the “lumped” area behavior
:We make these assumptions

The system is originally running in its normal state with complete power .1
balance, that is, PG0 = PD0 + losses. The frequency is at normal value f 0. All
.rotating equipment represents a total kinetic energy of W0kin MW sec

By connecting additional load, load demand increases by ΔPD which we shall .2

refer to as “new” load. (If load demand is decreased new load is negative). The
generation immediately increases by ΔPG to match the new load, that is ΔPG =
.ΔPD

13 Load frequency control

It will take some time for the control valve in the speed governing system to act .3
and increase the turbine power. Until the next steady state is reached, the
increase in turbine power will not be equal to ΔPG. Thus there will be power
imbalance in the area that equals ΔPT - ΔPG i.e. ΔPT – ΔPD. As a result, the
speed and frequency change. This change will be assumed uniform throughout
the area. The above said power imbalance gets absorbed in two ways. 1) By the
change in the total kinetic K.E. 2) By the change in the load, due to change in
.frequency

Since the K.E. is proportional to the square of the speed, the area K.E. is

The “old” load is a function of voltage magnitude and frequency. Frequency

dependency of load can be written as

14 Load frequency control

 .The ΔP’s are now measured in per unit (on base Pr) and D in pu MW per Hz
.Typical H values lie in the range 2 – 8 sec
Laplace transformation of the above equation yields

15 Load frequency control

16 Load frequency control
Equation (22) represents the missing link in the control loop of Fig. 4. By adding
.this, block diagram of the primary ALFC loop is obtained as shown in Fig. 6

Fig. 6 Block diagram corresponding to primary loop of ALFC

Static Response of primary ALFC loop 2.1.6

The primary ALFC loop in Fig. 6 has two inputs ΔPref and ΔPD and one output Δf.

For uncontrolled case, (i.e. for constant reference input) ΔPref = 0 and the block
diagram shown in Fig. 6 can be simplified as shown.

17 Load frequency control

For a step load change of constant magnitude ΔPD = M, we have

Using the final value theorem, we readily obtain from eq. (27),

We introduce here the so-called Area Frequency Response Characteristic (AFRC) β,

defined as

DYNAMIC RESPONSE OF PRIMARY ALFC LOOP - UNCONTROLLED 2.1.7

CASE We know that

Finding the dynamic response, for a step load, is quite straight forward. Eq. (27) upon
inverse Laplace transformation yields an expression for Δf (t). However, as GH, GT
and Gp contain at least one time constant each, the denominator will be a third order
polynomial resulting in unwieldy algebra.

We can simply the analysis considerably by making the reasonable assumption that the
action of speed governor plus the turbine generator is “instantaneous” compared with
the rest of the power system. The latter, as demonstrated in Example 5 has a time

18 Load frequency control

constant of 20 sec, and since the other two time constants are of the order of 1 sec, we
will perform an approximate analysis by setting TH = TT = 0.

Making use of previous numerical values: M = 0.01 p.u. MW; R = 2.0 Hz / p.u. MW;
Kp = 100 Hz / p.u. MW; Tp = 20 sec.

19 Load frequency control

The approximate time response is purely exponential and is given by

Alternatively, the above result can be obtained from the reduced block diagram shown
in Fig. 6 a . Then

Fig. 7 shows this response. For comparison, the response with the inclusion of the time
constants TH and TT is also shown.

20 Load frequency control

It is to be observed that the primary loop of ALFC does not give the desired objective
of maintaining the frequency constant. We need to do something more to bring the
frequency error to zero. Before discussing the necessary control which can make the
frequency error to zero, we shall shed some light on to the physical mechanism in the
primary loop of ALFC.
2.1.8 PROPORTIONAL PLUS INTEGRAL CONTROL ( Secondary ALFC loop)

It is seen from the previous discussion that with the speed governing system installed
in each area, for a given speed changer setting, there is considerable frequency drop for
increased system load.
In the example seen, the frequency drop is 0.01961 Hz for 20 MW. Then the steady
state drop in frequency from no load to full load ( 2000 MW ) will be 1.961 Hz.

System frequency specification is rather stringent and therefore, so much change in

frequency cannot be tolerated. In fact, it is expected that the steady state frequency
change must be zero. In order to maintain the frequency at the scheduled value, the
speed changer setting must be adjusted automatically by monitoring the frequency
changes.

For this purpose, INTEGRAL CONTROLLER is included. In the integral controller

the frequency error is first amplified and then integrated. Further, a negative polarity is
also included so that a NEGATIVE frequency deviation will give rise to RAISE
command. The signal fed into the integrator is referred as Area Controlled Error
(ACE). For this case ACE =ΔF. Thus

Taking Laplace transformation

The gain constant KI controls the rate of integration and thus the speed of response of
the loop.

For this signal Δf (s) is fed to an integrator whose output controls the speed changer
position resulting in the block diagram configuration shown in Fig. 8.

21 Load frequency control

 Fig. 8 Block diagram corresponding to complete ALFC
As long as an error remains, the integrator output will increase, causing the speed
changer to move. When the frequency error has been reduced to zero, the integrator
output ceases and the speed changer position attains a constant value.

Integral controller will give rise to ZERO STEADY STATE FREQUENCY ERROR
following a step load change because of the reason stated above.

Referring to the block diagram of single control area with integral controller shown in
Fig. 8,

22 Load frequency control

 IN STATIC FREQUENCY DROP FOLLOWING A STEP LOAD CHANGE

Thus static frequency drop due to step load change becomes zero, which is a
desired feature we were looking. This is made possible because of the integral
controller that has been introduced.

IN DYNAMIC ANALYSIS

Let us assume time constants TH and TT as zero

23 Load frequency control

Then GH T = 1. For a step load change of ΔPD = M, from eq. (37) we get

Multiplying the numerator and denominator by s R( 1 + s Tp ) we get

Dividing the numerator and denominator by R Tp the above equation becomes

We obtain the time response Δf (t)upon Laplace inverse transformation of this

expression in the right hand side of above equation. Since response depends
upon the poles of the denominator polynomial, let us examine it.

A second order system of type as2 + bs + c = 0 will be stable if the coefficients

a, b and c are greater than zero. Since this condition is met with, the system
under consideration is STABLE.
For a second order equation s2 + bs + c = 0, the roots are

The nature of the roots depends on

24 Load frequency control

For critical case

25 Load frequency control

Now, both the roots are real, equal and negative. For this critical case

Super critical case

When b2 < 4 c the roots are complex conjugate and the solution is exponentially
damped sinusoidal. For this case the integral gain constant KI is obtained from

When the system is said to be super-critical. Due to damping present, the

final solution will tend to zero. However, the solution will be oscillatory type.

Sub-critical case

When b2 > 4 c the roots are real and negative. For this case, the integral gain constant
KI is given by

This case is referred as sub-critical integral control. In this case the solution contains
terms of the type and it is non-oscillatory. However, finally the
solution will tend to zero.

Thus the integral controller system is STABLE and ISOCHRONOUS i.e. following a
step load change, the frequency error always returns to zero. The dynamic response for
different values of KI are shown in Fig. 11.

In practical system TH and TT will not be zero; but will have small values. When TH =
80 m sec; TT = 0.3 sec and Tp = 20 sec., dynamic response for different integral gain
constant KI will be as shown in Fig. 12.

26 Load frequency control

27 Load frequency control
2.2Application :
Matlab simulation For uncontrolled single area by simulink fig. shown:
Simulink model of single area as shown in the fig. contains of a
model of a governer characteristic equation, turbine, load and a
kind of disturbance.
a case study :
Turbine time constant (Tτ)=0.5s,
Speed regulator time constant (τg)=0.2s,
Generator inertia constant (H)= 5s,
Speed regulation rate( R)=0.05

28 Load frequency control

From the previous fig. it is declared now the affection of the load disturbance change
where we have changed the disturbance to the system by 20 MW,50MWand 700 MW
where the drop in the trend show the affection of the load on the frequency curve in
this case the frequency curve goes down proportional with the amount of change in the
load applied to the system.

Matlab simulink for a controlled sinle area:

in this case we want to check the system stability in case we added an integral term
(controlled or compensated term ) to stop on the situation of the change in the
frequency at a constant disturbance and changing in the inertia and mass load
characteristic gain Kp by (kp=1.25,kp=1.5 ,kp=2)

-K-

From
Workspace

1 1 kp
0.2s+1 0.5s+1 12.5s+1

1 y

s To Workspace

Case study :
Turbine time constant (Tτ)=0.5s,
Speed regulator time constant (τg)=0.2s,
Generator inertia constant (H)= 6.25s,
Speed regulation rate( R)=0.05

29 Load frequency control

By applied the previous values to the simulink diagram and make the change in the
gain Kp we noticed that frequency behavior affected by the overshoots instantaneously
and the goes to stability depending on the values of the gain Kp

2.4 Discussions:
From the previous figures of the uncontrolled ad controlled simulation of
the single area load frequency control its clear that the effect of the
integrator term on the overshot and the stability of the system by changing
in the load disturbance the integration term reduces the overshoot time and also the
value of the over shoot .

30 Load frequency control

 Chapter 3
3.Load frequency control of Two area system

3.1 Modeling of Tow area system

SIMULATION OF TWO AREA CONTROL SYSTEM USING SIMULINK:

As long as the system frequency is equal to its specified value (the
assumption here),the difference between an area's actual interchange and
its scheduled interchange is known as the “area control error” (ACE) (the
area control error also includes a term dependent on the deviation in the
system frequency from the specified value; this frequency-dependent term
is not discussed here). The ACE is the single most important number
associated with control operations; it is continuously monitored. Anytime
the ACE is negative the area is “under generating” and needs to increase
its total generation. Conversely, if the ACE is positive, the area is “over
generating” and needs to decrease its generation. Over the last several
decades, practically all control areas have switched to an automatic
process known as “automatic generation control” (AGC). AGC
automatically adjusts the generation in an area to keep the ACE close to
zero, which in turn keeps the net area power interchange at its specified
value. Since the ACE has a small amount of almost random "ripple" in its
value due to the relentlessly changing system load, the usual goal of AGC
is not to keep the ACE exactly at zero but rather to keep its magnitude
close to zero, with an “average” value of zero. Modern power system
network consists of a number of utilities interconnected together & power
is exchanged between utilities over tie-lines by which they are connected.

31 Load frequency control

Automatic generation control (AGC) plays a very important role in
power system as its main role is to maintain the system frequency and tie
line flow at their scheduled values during normal period and also when the
system is subjected to small step load perturbations. Many investigations
in the field of automatic generation control of interconnected power
system have been reported over the past few decades. Literature survey
shows that most of the earlier work in the area of automatic generation
control pertains to interconnected thermal system and relatively
lesser attention has been devoted to automatic generation control (AGC)
of interconnected hydro-thermal systems involving thermal and hydro
subsystems of widely different characteristics]. These investigations
mostly pertain to two equal area thermal systems or two equal areas
hydrothermal systems considering the system model either in continuous
or continuous discrete mode with step loads perturbation occurring in an
individual area.
L

LFC in two- area system

The AGC of multi-area system can be realized by studying first the LFC for
a
two-area system

Consider these two areas represented by an equivalent generating units

interconnected by a lossless tie line with reactance Xtie . Each area is
represented
by voltage source behind an equivalent reactance as shown in figure

32 Load frequency control

During normal operation the real power transferred over the tie line is
given by:

Equation can be linearized for a small deviation in the flow ∆P12 from the
nominal value, that is:

Linear representation of the tie line

Ps: the slope of the power angle curve at the initial operating angle

Thus

33 Load frequency control

Then

34 Load frequency control

Block diagram representation of two area system with tie-line bias
control

3.1.1 Static Response of primary ALFC loop

35 Load frequency control

36 Load frequency control
37 Load frequency control
 3.1.2 Dynamic Response of ALFC loop

38 Load frequency control

 3.1.3Tie line Bias control for two area

39 Load frequency control

*-Static system response with tie line bias control :

40 Load frequency control

41 Load frequency control
 3.2 Application

for the purposes of simulation, for unequal two-area system

connected by a tie
line is suggested to have the following parameters on a 1000 MVA
common base.

42 Load frequency control

: By applying the previous data in the related simulink drawing below

-K-

Step 1

1 1 10s+0.6
Add
0.2s+1 0.5s+1
Add4

Add2
1
-K-
s

1
1 1
8s+0.9
0.3s+1 0.6s+1
Add1
Add3

-K-

Two area simulation figure

By varying the governor speed regulation for one area (R) we can notice its
affection on the power deviation for the two areas and the tie line between
them the related curve below declare how the change in the governor speed
regulation (R) can make a power deviation in the tie line between the two
areas and deviate also the power in the second area

43 Load frequency control

 Power deviation in two area tie line

Frequency deviation in two area tie line

44 Load frequency control

MATLAB Simulation for the Two area system with tie line biased control

20.6/20 1/0.05

Step 1
1 1 10s+0.6
1
0.3 0.2s+1 0.5s+1 Add
s
Add5 Add4 To Workspace1

y1

To Workspace

Add2
1
1/0.5
s

1 1 1 1
0.3
s 8s+0.9
0.3s+1 0.6s+1
Add6 Add1
Add3

16.9/16 1/0.0625

Tie line bias control for two area

Adding a biased gain B1=1/R1+D1 that gives the prefer ability for each
area to bear its own load and can share a part of the other load with amount
determined by the biased gain and that is appeared in the curves below

45 Load frequency control

Results

Power deviation in two area tie line biased control

Frequency deviation in two area tie line biased control

B1=1/R1+D1

46 Load frequency control

 4. OPTIMAL CONTROL DESIGN FOR THE LOAD FREQUENCY CONTROL
AGAINTST TO LOAD CHANGES

Optimal control is the branch of the modern control theory. The control
design process is realized depending on system variables and high
performance operation of the system in ensured . In the study, optimal
control design for the linear systems with quadratic performance (Linear
Quadratic Regulator (LQR) is established. The purpose of optimal regulator
design is to determine the optimal control rule u*(x,t). For the studied power
system, the performance index minimized from the first entry values to the
final state values is transferred. The performance index of the system is
selected to obtain the best process between the cost and performance of the
control system. Performance index is widely used in optimal control design
process. It is expressed as quadratic performance depended on minimum
fault and minimum energy criteria. The system is identified by the state
equation given below.

The problem faced during the system controls is to find the control rule K(t)
vector. The control rule vector below is expressed with the given equation.

The control rule vector minimizes the quadratic performance index values in
the dynamic system expression defined in equation . Linear Quadratic
Performance index value (J) is expressed as follows.

Where, Q is the positive semi-defined matrix and R is the real symmetric

matrix. If the marked minors of all the elements of Q matrix are not
negative, Q matrix is positive semi-defined matrix. Selection of Q and R
elements are determined according to the weighted relations of state
variables and control entries .

To obtain the above explained solution, we may use the Lagrange multiplies
method. With using of Lagrange multiplies method, limited problem
(λ)solution within definite limitations is made. Solution of this function
aims to minimize the below given limitless function.

47 Load frequency control

To calculate the optimal values, the above given equation is equalized to
zero and its partial derivatives are taken. (*) symbol in the following
expressions expresses the optimal values.

In optimal solution, when symmetric and positive semi-defined p(t) matrix

that is variable depending on time is considered, the following expression is
given.

expression is expressed as equation , it gives the optimal close cycle rule.

In solution of the above equation, Riccati equation solution is used. The

limit condition for the equation is p(tf)=0. For the time domain solution of
the Diccati equation, [τ,p,K,t,x]=riccati function is developed. Riccati
equation matrix p(τ), optimal feed-back gaining K(τ), and state response of
the system at the beginning x(t) are solved.
Optimal control gaining is the feed-back and time adjustable state variable.
In many practical
applications, it is sufficient to use the stable state feed-back gaining. For the
systems that do not change with linear time, •p=0. For the solution of
Riccati equation[k,p]=lgr2(A,B,Q,R] function in Matlab Control System
Toolbox is used [4] If we use the LQG control as optimal gaining, by using
the Linear Quadratic Regulator(lqry) function, we obtain K feed-back
gaining LQR design procedure is simpler and clearer than the traditional
control design. In traditional controller, the gaining matrix (K) may be
directly selected. The control experts prefer Q and R parameters to design
the optimal LQR. Then by using the Riccati

48 Load frequency control

equations, K feed-back gaining matrix is selected . If the system response is
not stable, the new Q and R weight matrixes are determined. This is an
important advantage for all the control cycles.

: Application
By solving the RICCATI equation in MATLAB using LQR function we can
obtain the single and two area optimal load frequency control .
Single area optimal program:
Tt = 0.5;
Tg = 0.4;
Tp = 12;
kp = 2;
R1= 0.05;
A = [-1/Tg 0 -1/(R1*Tg);1/Tt -1/Tt 0; 0 kp/Tp -1/Tp];
B= [ 0; 0; -kp/Tp];
C = [0 0 1];
D = 0;
Q = [1 0 0 ; 0 1 0;0 0 1];
R = 0.15;
[K S] = lqr (A, B, Q, R)
Af = A -B*K;
sys = ss (Af,B, C,D);
step(sys)
Results :
K =
1.4372 -0.1165 -28.9829

S =
0.1960 0.0724 -1.2935
0.0724 0.2582 0.1049
-1.2935 0.1049 26.0846

After analyzing the results we find out that the related curve show how can the optimal control
decrease the overshoots and affect the system stability .

49 Load frequency control

Single area optimal program:
A = [0.05 6 0 -6 0 0 0; 0 -3.33 3.33 0 0 0 0 ;-5.2083 0 -12.5 0 -0.545 0 0; 0.545
0 0 0 -0.05 0 0;0 0 0 6 -0.05 6 0;0 0 0 0 0 -3.33 3.33;0 0 0 0 -5.2083 0 -12.5];
B = [0 0;0 0;0 12.5;0 0;0 0;0 0;12.5 0]; BPL=B*PL;
C = [0 0 0 0 0 0 1];
D = 0;
Q = [1 0 0 0 0 0 0;0 1 0 0 0 0 0;0 0 1 0 0 0 0;0 0 0 1 0 0 0;0 0 0 0 1 0 0;0 0 0
0 0 1 0;0 0 0 0 0 0 1];
R = [1 0;0 1];
[K, P] = lqr2(A, B, Q, R)
Af = A - B*K
t=0:0.02:20;
[y, x] = step(Af, BPL, C, D, 1, t);
Results:
K =
0.2587 0.1618 0.0211 1.9479 0.6165 1.2311 0.6296
0.8336 1.4724 0.6685 -0.4770 0.0108 0.0997 0.0211

P =
0.6014 0.5082 0.0667 0.3635 0.0517 0.1087 0.0207
0.5082 0.7364 0.1178 -0.1081 0.0202 0.0642 0.0129
0.0667 0.1178 0.0535 -0.0382 0.0009 0.0080 0.0017
0.3635 -0.1081 -0.0382 5.8492 0.6154 0.8986 0.1558
0.0517 0.0202 0.0009 0.6154 0.4366 0.3839 0.0493
0.1087 0.0642 0.0080 0.8986 0.3839 0.6127 0.0985
0.0207 0.0129 0.0017 0.1558 0.0493 0.0985 0.0504

Af =
0.0500 6.0000 0 -6.0000 0 0 0
0 -3.3300 3.3300 0 0 0 0
-15.6278 -18.4044 -20.8567 5.9624 -0.6803 -1.2462 -0.2640
0.5450 0 0 0 -0.0500 0 0
0 0 0 6.0000 -0.0500 6.0000 0
0 0 0 0 0 -3.3300 3.3300
-3.2343 -2.0228 -0.2640 -24.3485 -12.9141 -15.3893 -20.3697

50 Load frequency control

If we regarded the frequency deviation curve for the Two area we
will find a big modification in the behavior of the frequency after
applying the optimal control to the system where the over shoots
happened in a little time and the amplitude of the overshoots
become more smaller than that in the conventional methods .

51 Load frequency control

Conclusions and further work :
1. Load frequency control investigated in this project has recently come

into question in operation of interconnected power networks. Frequency

is a sensitive parameter which affects the system operation so it is

controlled certainly. Therefore, power utilities consider the frequency

and active power balance throughout their networks to sustain the

interconnection. In interconnection between national/continental

networks, providing the constant frequency between areas is a serious

operational problem. Hence fast and no delay decision-making

mechanism have to be installed in network control units namely the LFC.

2. The load frequency control is achieved within tree levels, considering

many issues from maintaining constant frequency and the minimization

of losses through tie lines to the optimal dispatch of generation between

units or even areas.

3. The simulation techniques are very useful in studying and predicting the

response of control systems, giving the opportunity to optimize the

response and so the behavior of the system under study.

4. The great importance of the PID controllers is recognized, considering

the facilities it offers by the different combinations of its terms.

5. As a further work, study could be extended to consider methods of

optimal design of the gains of the PID controllers, like considering the

artificial intelligence methods or the fussy logic giving the opportunity to

obtain an optimal response of the control systems.

52 Load frequency control

6. The economic dispatch of generation plays a vital rule in the AGC,

and this issue could be studied as an extension of this project,

adding an additional dimension to the task of our project.

53 Load frequency control

REFERENCES:

[1]. Electric Machinery Fundamentals, By Stephen J. Chapman. 4th

Edition (2005).

[2]. Power System Analysis, by Hadi Saadat. 2nd Edition (2002).

[3]. PID Controllers, by K. J. Astrom and T. Hagglund (1995).

Modern Control Systems, by Richard C. Dorf and Robert H. Bishop.

9 Edition (2000).
th

[5]. Demos of MATLAB program (version 7.6).

[6]. Power Generation Operation and Control, by A.J. Wood and B.F.

Wollenberg, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1984.

[7]. Power System Stability and Control, by Kundur P, McGraw-Hill,

NewYork 1994.

[8]. Electric Energy Systems Theory: An Introduction, By Olle I.

Elgerd, University of Florida.

54 Load frequency control