Surveying-I Units of measurement & theory of errors

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Chapter Two
Units of Measurements and Theory of Errors
2.1. Introduction

A unit of measurement is a definite magnitude of a physical quantity, defined and adopted by

convention and/or by law, that is used as a standard for measurement of the same physical
quantity. Any other value of the physical quantity can be expressed as a simple multiple of the
unit of measurement. For example, length is a physical quantity and meter is a unit of length that
represents a definite predetermined length.

There are two main systems of measurements

I. M.K.S. (meter, kilogram, second) Metric system (SI = System International)
The SI was developed in 1960 from the old meter-kilogram-second system, rather than
the centimeter-gram-second system, which, in turn, had a few variants. International System of
Units (abbreviated SI from the French le Système International d'unités) is the modern form of
the metric system and is generally a system devised around seven base units (i.e. meter,
kilogram, second, ampere, Kelvin, candela, and mole) and the convenience of the number ten.
It is the world's most widely used system of measurement, both in everyday commerce and
in science.
The older metric system included several groups of units. Because the SI is not static, units are
created and a definition is modified through international agreement among many nations as the
technology of measurement progresses, and as the precision of measurements improves. Metric
unit system is easy to handle because everything is a multiple or a fraction of ten.

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Surveying-I Units of measurement & theory of errors
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Table 2.1 The Seven SI base Units

Name Unit symbol Quantity Symbol

meter m length l

kilogram kg mass m

second s time t

ampere A electric current I

Kelvin K thermodynamic T
temperature

candela cd luminous intensity Iv

mole mol amount of substance n

II. F.P.S. (Foot, Pound, Second) British system

The imperial system is one of many systems of English or foot-pound-second units, so named
because of the base units of length, mass and time. Although most of the units are defined in
more than one system, some subsidiary units were used to a much greater extent, or for different
purposes, in one area rather than the other.
2.2 SI Units of different Units of measurement

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Fundamentals of Surveying Units of measurement & theory of errors
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i. The unit of length is the base unit meter (m) 1 Decimeter = 10-1m = 1dm
1 Decameter = 101m = 1dam 1 centimeter = 10-2m = 1cm
1 hectometer = 102m = 1hm 1 Millimeter = 10-3m = 1mn
1 kilometer = 103m = 1km 1 micrometer = 10-6m = 1Mm
1 mega meter = 106m = 1Mm 1 nano meter = 10-9m = 1nm
1 giga meter = 109m = 1Gm 1 Pico meter = 10-12m = 1pm
1 tetrameter = 1012m = 1Tm

ii. The SI unit for area, is the derived units meter square
1 hectare = 104m2 = 100 X 100 m = 1 ha
1 square kilometer = 10 6 m 2 = 1000m X 1000m = 1km2 = 100 ha
iii. The SI unit for volume is the derived unit cubic meter (m3)
1000 cu millimeter = 1 cubic centimeter meter
1000 cu centimeter = 1 cubic decimeter
1000 decimeters = 1 cubic meter
iv. The SI units for plane Angles
There are three systems in use for angular unit, namely sexagesimal graduation, centesimal
graduation and radian.
a. Sexagesimal graduation: a circle is divided in to 360 parts
1 full circle = 3600 (degrees)
10 = 1/360 full circle = 2π/360 rad = π/180 rad
10 = 60’ (minutes) and 1’ = 60 ‘’ (seconds)
b. Centesimal graduation: The circle is divided in to 400 parts.
1 full circle = 400 gon/grad
1 gon = 1/400 full circle = 2π/400rad = π/200rad
1 gon = 100 c gon (centigon)
1 c gon = 10 milli gon (million)
1 mgon = 10cc (centicentigon)
c. Radian: - The radian (rad is the basic unit of measurement of angles; one radian is
defined as the angle subtended at the center of a circle by an arc length exactly equal to
the radius of the circle. The circumference of a circle equals 2π radians in a circle :
360 0 = 2π radian and
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Fundamentals of Surveying Units of measurement & theory of errors
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1 radian = 57.30

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2.3 Conversion of Units
We can convert measurements from one unit to another unit within the same system (English or
Metric) or between the two systems. To convert measurements, it is necessary to know conversion
factors between measurements. A conversion factor is a clever way of writing 1 as a fraction in
which the numerator is equal to the denominator but the numerator and the denominator have
different units.
2.3.1 Conversion of length
1 inch = 2.54 cm
1 foot = 0.30 48m
1mile = 1.6093 km
2.3.2 Conversion of area
1 sq. in = 6.4516 sq. cm
1 sq. Ft = 0.0929 sq. cm
2.3.3 Conversion of Volume
Conversion of volume
1 sq. mile = 2.59 sq. km
1 cu. In = 16.387 cu.cm
1 cu ft = 0.0283 cu.m
2.3.4 Conversion of Angles
Examples
I. From gon to degree
48.0488 gon
48.0488 gon X 9/10 = 43.24390
II. From degree to gon
43.24390 X 10/9 = 48.048 gon
III. From Degree decimal value to degree, minute, second (0, ’, ”)
43.24390 =
430+0.24390 = 430 +14’+0.6340’X60
= 430 + 0.2439X60 = 430+14’+38”
= 430 +14.6340’ = 43014’38”
= 430+0.6340’
IV. From degree, minutes, seconds (0, ’, ”) to decimal value
430 14’ 38” = 430 +14’/60+38”/3500 = 43.24390
2.4 Scale
A plan graphical represents the features on or near the earth’s surface as projected on a horizontal
plane. A map generally shows Natural and man made features on the earth’s surface with
additional information such as relief’s, hachure and contour lines to indicate undulation on the
ground. The plan of a house, school, factory, bridge, road, dam or the map of a town, city country
can not be prepared in full size on a drawing sheet.
Hence, a reduced measuring instrument to measuring instrument to measure the line or
measurement is used which is the drawing sheet with the help of the scale, to a reduced size, this
operation being known as drawing to scale.
2.4.1 Scale of a map
Scale of a map is the ratio of the distance marked on the map to the corresponding distance on
the ground. A map is a scaled graphic representation of a portion of the earth's surface. The scale
of the map permits the user to convert distance on the map to distance on the ground or vice
versa. The ability to determine distance on a map, as well as on the earth's surface, is an
important factor in planning and executing military missions. Scales of a map are generally
classified as large, medium and small. A large scale map shows the features in a bigger size than
a small scale map. Large denominator numbers refer to small scale, where as small denominator
numbers are indicative of a large scale.
Large scale: 1: 1000 or more, example 1:500
Medium scale: 1:1000 to 1:10,000, example 1: 5,000
 Small Scale 1: 10000 or less, example 1:50,000
2.4.2 Representations of Scale
The following methods are used to represent a scale of a map:
I. By statement (e.g.- engineer’s scale)
II. By representative fraction
III. By graphical Scale
I. By statement (Engineer’s Scale)-According to this representation, a specified
distance on the map represents the corresponding distance on the ground.
For example 1cm = 100 meters, that means 1 cm on the map represents 100m on the ground.
II. By Representative Fraction (RF)-it is the ration between the distance on the
map (plan) and the distance on the ground.
This scale is usually written as a fraction and is called the representative fraction. The RF is
always written with the map distance as 1 and is independent of any unit of measure (yards,
meters, inches, and so forth).
R= Dm/Dg Where: Dm = map distance
Dg = corresponding actual distance on the ground
Note: The unit in the numerator and denominator must be the same (scale is unit less).
Example: 1:5000 or 1/5000, that means 1 cm on the map represents 5000 cm on the ground.
III. By graphical Scale: A graphical Scale is a ruler printed on the map so that its
map distance corresponds to a convenient unit of length on the ground and it is used to convert
distances on the map to actual ground distances . It is also used to determine straight line
distance between two points on a map.
2.5 Types of measuring scale
1. Plain Scale- represents either two units or only one unit and its fraction. It consists of a line
divided in to suitable numbers of equal parts or units, the first of which is subdivided in to
smaller parts.

5km 3hm

10 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
hectometer kilometer

2. Comparative scale- The scales having the common representation fraction but graduated
comparatively to read different units called comparative scales, such as the scales showing
 comparatively inches and centimeters, miles and kilometers, degree and radians, time and
distance traveled, etc. The advantage is that measurements are taken directly in the desired
unit with out any calculations.

centimeter

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

0 1 2 3 4
inch

3. Diagonal Scale - A diagonal scale represents either three units or only one unit and its
fraction up to second place of decimal point. It consists of a line divided in to suitable
number of equal parts. The first part is subdivided into suitable number of equal parts,
each of which is further divided into smallest parts by diagonals.

325m

100 0 100 200 300 400

meters meters

4. Vernier Scale - A vernier scale is, an additional, scale which allows a distance or angle
measurement to be read more precisely than directly reading a uniformly divided straight
or circular measurement scale. It is a sliding secondary scale that is used to indicate
where the measurement lies when it is in between two of the marks on the main scale

2.6 Measurements and Theory of Errors

2.6.1. Introduction
In ordinary life, most of us are accustomed to counting but not as much to measuring. Surveying
is concerned with measurements of quantities that are exact or true values may not be
determined, such as distances, elevations, volumes directions etc, if a person were to measure the
width of his desk with a ruler divided in to tenths of an inch, he could estimate the width to
hundredths of an inch. If he were to use a ruler graduated in hundredths of an inch, he could
estimate the width to thousandths of an inch; and so on. Obviously, with better equipment he can
estimate an answer that is closer to the exact value but will never be able to determine the value
absolutely.
Thus a fundamental principle of surveying is that no measurement is exact and the true value of
the quantity being measured is never known. (Exact or true values do exist, but they can not be
determined).
2.6.2. Necessity for Accurate Surveys
The surveyor must have the skill and judgment necessary to make very accurate measurements.
This fact is obvious when one is thinking in terms of the construction of long bridges tunnels.
Tall buildings, and missile sites or the setting of delicate machinery, but it can be just as
important in land surveying.
A few decades ago land princes were not extremely high except in and around the largest cities.
If the surveyor gained or lost a few feet in a lot or a few acres in a farm, it was usually not
considered to be a matter of great importance.
The instruments used for surveying before this century were not very good compared to today’s
equipment, and it was probably impossible for the surveyor to do the quality of work expected of
today’s surveyor. Today, land prices are in most areas very high, and evidently the climb has only
begun. In many areas of high population and in many popular resort areas, land is sold by so
many dollars per square foot; therefore, the surveyor must be able to do splendid work.
2.6.3. Accuracy and Precision
The terms accuracy and precision are constantly used in surveying, yet their correct meanings are
a little difficult to grasp. In an attempt to clarify the distinction, the following definitions are
presented:
Accuracy refers to the degree of perfection obtained in measurements. It denotes
how close a given measurement is to the true value of the quantity. Precision or
apparent accuracy is the degree of refinement with which a given quantity is
measured. In other words, it is the closeness of one measurement to another. If a
quantity is measured several times and the values obtained are very close to each
other, the precision is said to be high.
In measuring distance, precision is defined as the ratio of the error of the measurement to the
distance measured and it is reduced to fraction having a numerator of unity.
Example:- If a distance of 4200 ft is measured and the error is later estimated to equal 0.7ft, the
precision of the measurement is 0.7/4200 = 1/6000. This means that for every 6000ft
 measured, the error would be one ft, if the work were done with this same degree of
precision.
2.6.4. Errors and Mistakes
Surveying deals with the measurement of distance and angles. The true value of such quantities
is never known. The true value of a quantity is never known. The true value of a quantity is a
value, which is absolutely free from all types of errors. The true value cannot be determined
because some errors always creep in the measured quantities. The errors occur because the
instrument cannot be absolutely perfect. Moreover, a surveyor cannot take the observations
correctly because of human limitations. Further, a change in climatic conditions also limits the
accuracy of the measurement. A major concern in surveying is the precision of the work.
The ever present difference between measured quantities and the true magnitude of those
quantities are classified here in as either mistakes or errors. A mistake (or blunder) is a difference
from a true value cased by the inattention of the surveyor. For instance, he/she may read a
number as a 6 when it is actually 9, may record the wrong quantities in the field notes, or may
add a column or numbers incorrectly. An error is a difference from a true value caused by the
imperfection of the person’s senses, by the imperfection of his equipment, or by weather effects,
Errors can not be eliminated but they can be minimized by careful work, combined with the
application of certain numerical corrections. The result is that all measurements are imperfect.
2.6.5- Sources of Errors
There are three sources of errors; people, instrument and nature. Accordingly, errors in
measurement are generally said: personal, instrumental, and natural, however, some errors do
not clearly fit in to one of these categories and may be due to a combination of factors.
1. Personal errors occur due to human limitations, such as sense of sight and touch.
For instance, in estimating the fractional part of a scale, the surveyor cannot read it perfectly
and will always be either a little large or a little small.
2. Instrumental errors occur because instruments can not be manufactured perfectly and the
different parts of instruments can not be adjusted exactly with respect to each other.
Moreover, with time the wear and tear of the instruments causes errors.
3. Natural errors are caused by changes in natural phenomena, such as temperature, wind,
humidity, refraction, and magnetic field. For example if a tape has been calibrated at 20c,
but the field temperature is 30 c there will be a natural error due to temperature variation.
2.6.6. Types of Errors
In surveying, errors can be broadly classified into the following two types.
 1. Systematic or cumulative errors
2. Accidental or random errors
1. Systematic errors: Systematic errors follow some well-defined mathematical or physical
law or system. The magnitude and the sign of the systematic errors can be determined and a
suitable correction can be applied to the measured quantity. A systematic error will always
have the same sign and magnitude under the same conditions. For example, if a 30m steel
tape has been standardized at a temperature of 20c but the field temperature is 30c the tape
will be about 3.5mm too long. This means when the measured distance is 30m, the actual
(real) distance is 30.0035m.
There is a systematic error of -3.5mm in every 30m-tape length.
The systematic errors are cumulative in nature. For example, if in the above case the total
distance is 300m (i.e. 10 tape lengths) the total systematic error will be 35mm for a field
temperature of 30c.
2. Accidental errors: Accidental errors are random in nature and occur beyond the control of
the surveyor. Random errors do not follow any fixed pattern or law. These errors can be
positive or negative. These errors tend to cancel themselves in a series of measurements, and
are, therefore, also called compensating errors. For instance, when a person reads an angle
with a surveying instrument, he or she can not read it perfectly, one time he or she will read a
value that is too large and the next time will read a value that is too small since these errors
are just as likely to have different signs as the other, they tend to a certain degree to cancel
each other or compensate for each other.
Accidental errors occur due to:
 Imperfection in the instruments
 Human limitation or
 Change in atmospheric conditions
Errors, which remain in the measured quantities after mistakes and systematic errors have been
eliminated or corrected, are generally the accidental errors.
Mistakes occur in measurements due to carelessness inattention, inexperience or poor judgment
of the surveyor.
For example, if the surveyor reads 13m on a tape as 31m, it would be a mistake.
2.6.7 Definitions
After all mistakes and systematic errors have been detected and removed from the
measurements, there will still remain some errors in the measurements, called the random errors
or accidental errors. The random errors are treated using probability models. Theory of errors
deals only with such type of observational errors. The following definitions should be clearly
understood.
2.6.7.1 - The standard deviation (¶)
The standard deviation is defined as

�= �
�v 2 Where, V= variations (Xi -X)
( n - 1) n = number of observations
The standard deviation is also known as the root-mean square (R.M.S) error of a measurement.
The standard deviation is generally used as an indicator to describe the reliability of a set of
repeated measurements.
The smaller the value of the standard deviation, the greater the precision and vice versa.

2.6.7.2 - Most probable error

The most probable error is defined as that error for which there is an equal chance that the true
error will be less than the probable error or will be more than the probable error.
In other words, the probability of the true error being less than the probable error is 50% and the
probability of the true error being greater than the probable error is also 50%.This error is also
called 50% error, expressed as E50.
The most probable error is given by:
e = 0.6745¶
2.6.7.3 - Standard error
Is the probability of the error to occur between + ¶ and - ¶ it has a percentage of 68.3% this error
is called the standard error. It is also represented as E68.3. In other words, the standard error is
the same as the standard deviation. The standard error establishes the limits with in which
measurements are expected to fall 68.3% of the time.
2.6.7.4 - Standard error of the mean (¶ m)
The standard error of the mean (¶m) of a number of observations of the same quantity is given
by

�= �
�v2
n ( n - 1)
It is also known as root- mean - square (R-M-S) error of the mean. The standard error of the
mean indicates that the probability of the mean value to be between +¶m and -¶m is 68.3%.
2.6.7.5 - Maximum error
It is impossible to estimate absolutely maximum error, as it would occur at infinity. In surveying
generally 99.9% error (E 99.9) is taken as the maximum error. It corresponds to a range of +3.29¶
and -3.29¶. The Maximum error is often used to separate mistakes (gross errors) from the
random errors. If any measurement deviates from the mean by more than ±3.29¶ it is considered
as a mistake, and that measurement is rejected.
2.6.7.6 - Different percentage Errors
Sometimes, the following percentages of error are also required
(a). 90% Error (E90) = + 1.645¶
 (b). 95% Error (E95) = + 1.96¶
(c). 95.5% Error (E95.5) = + 2.0¶
(d). 99.7% Error (E99.7) = + 3.0¶
2.6.7.7 - Most probable error of the mean (Em) of a number of observation of the same
quantity is given by

Em = �0.6745
�v 2

n ( n - 1)

Example-1 There is a standard error of +10¶ seconds for a measured angle of 710 30' 20".
Determine the range for which there are 50% chances that the true value would lie in that range
Also determine the range for the standard error and 99.7% error

�0.6745
�v2
Soln Most probable error = ( n - 1)
=�0.6445 X 10 �7"
Example 3- Measurements of a line were taken ten times with a steel tape and found to be as
under
100.54m 100.56m 100.38m 100.36m 100.39m
100.46m 100.48m 100.32m 100.47m 100.52m
Assuming that the measurements have been corrected for all systematic errors, determine:
1. Standard deviation(¶)
2. Standard error of the mean (¶m)
3. 95.5% error
4. Most probable value
5. Most probable error

No Measured length Residual (V) V2

(Xi- X) (4)

(1) (2) (3)

1 100.54m + 0.09 8.1X10-3
2 100.56m -0.11 12.1X10-3
3 100.38m -0.07 4.9X10-3
4 100.36m -0.09 8.1X10-3
5 100.39m -0.06 3.6X10-3
6 100.46m +0.01 0.1X10-3
7 100.48m +0.03 0.9X10-3
8 100.32m -0.13 16.9X10-3
9 100.47m +0.02 0.4X10-3
10 100.52m +0.07 4.9X10-3
X=100.448 60.0X10-3
Solution:
100.448
= 100.448m
Most probable value = mean value =
�100.45m
Residual (V) = Measured value - mean value
The residuals have been calculated in column (3) the values of V2 are given in column (4)
The standard deviation (¶)
�v 2
¶=+ ( n - 1) Or

60 x10 -3
¶= + ( 10 - 1) = + 0.08m

�v 2
The standard error of the mean, ¶m = + n ( n - 1) Or

60 x10-3
¶m = + 10 ( 10 - 1) = + 0.025m

95.5% error = + 2¶ = + 0.16m

Most probable error = + 0.6745 ¶= + 0.054m
Example 4

An angle is measured with a standard deviation of + 2" calculate the most probable error
determine 95% error and the maximum error
�v2
Most probable error = 0.6745 X n -1

= 0.6745 X¶= + 1.349"

95% error (E95) = + 1.96¶= + 3.92"

Maximum error (E99.9) = +3.29¶ = + 6.58"

Example

A distance is measured a large number of times and its 90% error is ± 0.8225cm.
What is the standard deviation? What is the percentage error for ± 1.50 cm?

Solution:
E90 = + 1.645¶
¶= ± 0.50 cm
99.7% error is equal to 3¶ = + 1.50 cm
The required percentage error is 99.7%