Professional Documents
Culture Documents
A N D A N A LY S I N G
SAFETY RISKS
I D E N T I F Y I N G A N D A N A LY S I N G S A F E T Y R I S K S
IDENTIFYING
Unidentified safety risks could take an enterprise by surprise and really harm its financial
future. Identifying and Analysing Safety Risks maps out a path for business owners, entrepre-
A N D A N A LY S I N G
neurs and safety practitioners to accurately and systematically identify, assess and eliminate
these risks in their organisation. SAFETY RISKS
To create the context, the authors discuss the origins of safety risks and explain the legal
requirements that must be met to ensure a safe working environment. Most of the book is
dedicated to the analysis and assessment of safety risks: the process and scope of safety risk
assessments and the ultimate evaluation of safety risks. The role that cross-functional teams
play in safety risk assessment is explained in detail. The book concludes with practical guide-
lines on developing and implementing safety controls.
Safety management students, safety officers and practitioners, managers and business
owners will find this book an informative and practical resource.
Editor
Leonie Louw
Contributors
Elriza Esterhuyzen
Leonie Louw
Dr Sarel Smit
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any
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electronically supplied publications, a person may engage in fair dealing with a copy of
this publication for his or her personal or private use, or his or her research or private
study. See section 12(1)(a) of the Copyright Act 98 of 1978.
The authors and the publisher believe on the strength of due diligence exercised that
this work does not contain any material that is the subject of copyright held by another
person. In the alternative, they believe that any protected pre-existing material that
may be comprised in it has been used with appropriate authority or has been used in
circumstances that make such use permissible under the law.
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Learning outcomes
After studying this chapter, you should be able to:
• be conversant with the nature of safety risks
• list different types of safety risks
• clarify the nature of different types of safety risks
• provide the requirements to deal with unacceptable safety risks
• explain the relationship between the different types of safety risks.
Key terms
Acceptable safety risk Safety risk
Add-on safety risk Situational safety risk
Inherent safety risk Speculative safety risk
Pure safety risk Tolerable safety risk
Residual safety risk Unacceptable safety risk
1.1 Introduction
Everybody wants to be and feel safe. They do not want to be involved in situations
that threaten their life or bring harm to their body and health or damage to their
belongings or property. In order to feel in control of one’s safety, one has to be
able to identify and assess the threat a situation in life poses to one’s safety. This
applies to all situations in life, especially in the working environment. The threats a
situation offers can be regarded as risks that can jeopardise the safety of the people
involved and the surroundings of the situation.
This chapter provides an understanding of the nature and different types of
safety risks that can apply in any working environment.
Definition
Safety risk means an outcome we want to achieve is threatened by a condition in a
situation in life (Fischhoff & Kadvany 2011:22). Safety risk means the involvement
of a person in a situation to achieve one or more objectives presents the possibility
or chance that the person could instead end up with harm to their health or damage
to their property (assets) or the environment (Blunden & Thirlwell 2013:7).
Safety in the workplace always has to do with achieving work (service or production)
objectives without experiencing any loss. Safety risk can refer to a high certainty
of loss that can be very bad or severe (Stephenson 1991:9). Safety risk can produce
extremely bad, unwanted effects (Geller 1998:52). Safety risk refers to ‘a chance of
bad consequences’ (Stranks 2010:97). According to Fuller & Vassie (2004:5), safety
risk shows the possible consequences of loss, while Manuele (1993:115) states that
safety risk always relates to possible loss.
Actually, safety risk is always associated with a specific situation in life and
relates to harm to people and damage to property and the environment (Manuele
1993:115). A safety risk indicates that no certainty exists that the conditions in a
situation will achieve the desired outcome (Smit & Esterhuyzen 2014:141).
Definition
The purpose of safety risk assessment in the workplace is to understand how
serious the safety risk is that will or could harm people, or cause damage to assets
or the environment. Safety risk assessment provides the necessary basis to plan and
implement safety measures to make it safe in the workplace. Without a safety risk
assessment, a good plan cannot be made to prevent loss in the workplace.
manual work, office work, driving, operating and so on. Working night shifts
sets other tough requirements, such as keeping awake.
• Correct mindset: Employees have to be aware of safety risks in all situations
they have to handle during their shifts. Employees must as far as possible
think: ‘Safety’. This will help them to be prepared for any safety risk they
have to deal with during their shift.
• Know how to work in a team: Employees need to know how to work in
a team. They must be able to work together with their team members. Not
being able to work together may put the employees and their team members
in situations with unacceptable safety risks. This could end up with bad
results, such as an accident, injury or damage to property.
Whenever employees miss out on any of the above-mentioned requirements, the
safety risks will be unacceptable for them and can lead to bad results. Unacceptable
safety risks also apply to all objects or substances and the environment. Objects such
as machines, buildings, structures, equipment and many more items can be damaged
by unacceptable risks. When the safety risk in a situation will damage any one or
more objects in the situation, the safety risk is unacceptable. Unacceptable safety risks
also apply to the environment. Whenever safety risks in a given situation will damage
any element of the ecosystem in the environment, the safety risk is unacceptable.
basically indicates the possibilities that the conditions in a specific situation can
cause losses. These losses can mean harm to the person and people, and damage to
property, assets or infrastructure in the situation or the environment. The type of
safety risk does not matter when it comes to eliminating or minimising the safety
risk. The different types of safety risks require different ways of making the safety
risks safe and preventing loss in the workplace. There exists a difference between
acceptable and unacceptable safety risks. The difference lies in the fact that
acceptable safety risk in a situation does not require any action to make a situation
safe. On the other hand, unacceptable safety risk in a situation needs action to make
it safe for employees, property or the environment. Residual safety risk represents
the final safety risk that cannot be eliminated in a particular situation.
1.8 Conclusion
Safety risks are a natural part of all business operations. Safety risks are classified
into different types. Understanding each type of safety risk is important in order
to identify each one correctly. Understanding the nature and type of safety risks as
well as putting safety first requires having a good understanding of where safety
risks come from.
Self-assessment questions
1. Explain what the term ‘safety risk’ means.
2. What is your understanding of acceptable safety risks and unacceptable safety
risks?
3. Discuss the requirements for handling safety risks successfully.
4. Explain the difference between inherent safety risks and add-on safety risks.
5. Why are safety risks always situationally bound? Explain.
6. Explain residual safety risks and their relation to other types of safety risks.
References
Blunden T & Thirlwell J. 2013. Mastering Operational Risk. 2nd ed. Harlow: Pearson.
Fischhoff B & Kadvany J. 2011. Risk: A Very Short Introduction. Cape Town: Oxford University
Press.
Fuller CW & Vassie LH. 2004. Health and Safety Management. London: Prentice Hall.
Geller ES. 1998. Working Safe: How to Help People Actively Care for Health and Safety.
Boca Raton: CRC Press.
Germain GL, Bird DJ & Labuschagne CJ. 2011. Safety, Health, Environment and Quality.
Georgia: International Risk Control America and IRCA Global.
Glendon AI, Clarke SG & McKenna EF. 2006. Human Safety and Risk Management. 2nd ed.
Boca Raton: Taylor & Francis Group.
Grimaldi JV & Simonds RH. 1989. Safety Management. 5th ed. Homewood: Irwin.
Grose VL. 1987. Managing Risk: Systematic Loss Prevention for Executives. Englewood
Cliffs: Prentice Hall.
Manuele FA. 1993. On the Practice of Safety. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold.
Smit SJ & Esterhuyzen E. 2014. The Basics of Safety Hazards and the Origins of Safety Risk.
Pretoria: Business Print.
Stephenson J. 1991. System Safety 2000: A Practical Guide for Planning, Managing, and
Conducting System Safety Programs. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold.
Stranks J. 2010. Health and Safety at Work: An Essential Guide for Managers. 9th ed.
London: Kogan Page.
Tolbert GD. 2005. Residual risk reduction. Professional Safety, 50(11): 25–33.
Valsamakis AC, Vivian RW & Du Toit GS. 1992. The Theory and Principles of Risk
Management. Durban: Butterworths.
Van Fleet E. 2000. Debunking safety myths. In GS Swartz (ed). Safety Culture. Chicago:
National Safety Council.
Learning outcomes
After studying this chapter, you should be able to:
• describe the nature of safety hazards
• explain the different common characteristics of safety hazards
• introduce the modes of safety hazard interaction
• clarify the origins of safety risks
• elicit the contribution of safety hazard characteristics to safety risks.
Key terms
Compound safety hazard Origin of safety risk
Consistent Potential safety risk
Density Shape
Energy exchange Size
Inconsistent Symmetry
Interaction/interface Tangibility
Mingle safety hazard Texture
Modes of interaction Weight
Multiple safety hazard
2.1 Introduction
The analysis of safety risks in a business needs to take notice of where safety
risks originate. The understanding of the origins of safety risks provides a clear
understanding of what safety control measures need to be put into place and
how they should operate or function. It is necessary to determine the origin of
a safety risk in a situation thoroughly and scientifically. This means that careful
and thorough reasoning must take place about where and how a safety risk in a
situation started. Once the origin of safety risk has been determined, then decisions
about the magnitude and severity can be made. This chapter explains where, when
and how safety risks originate in a situation.
main reason is because all things are made of matter (material). All matter is tangible.
This means that safety hazards are things and that they are tangible (touchable or
‘contactable’). Because of their tangibility, safety hazards can create circumstances
that can cause harm or damage. The circumstances that can cause harm or damage
relate to safety risks. The ability to create circumstances for loss relates to the
different characteristics of safety hazards (Smit & Esterhuyzen 2014:45–48). All
safety hazards have the same characteristics. The nature of safety hazards and their
characteristics differ in many respects. The difference mainly has to do with the
nature of their structure and the way they work (function). All things (which are
also safety hazards) come in three different forms. The forms are solids, fluids and
gases. Solids are hard. Liquids flow and are soft. Gases are like wind; they are mostly
unseeable and intangible (untouchable). Remember: All things (solids, liquids and
gases) are safety hazards because they can cause harm and damage.
The different characteristics of safety hazards appear in Table 2.1. The table
indicates six characteristics that have to do with the structure or build of safety
hazards. Additionally, the table also shows three functioning (working) characters of
safety hazards. Safety hazards create safety risks in all situations in life. The safety
risks that safety hazards create are directly related to the structure and functioning
of safety hazards. The characteristics of safety hazards create and contribute to
safety hazards in a situation. When the safety risks in a particular situation are
analysed, the safety hazards in the situation also need to be analysed. This analysis
helps to identify and understand the contribution of the characteristics of safety
hazards to the safety risks in the situation. Humans are safety hazards too. They
have all the common nine characteristics that all other objects as safety hazards
have. Humans have one additional safety hazard, namely inconsistency. This
characteristic of inconsistency is unique to humans, because it belongs to humans
only. No other safety hazard has such a characteristic.
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Functioning Explanation
characteristic
Symbol Au Cu AL O N Pb
All of these elements are tangible objects (substances) because they are made of matter
(Crowell 2006:86). These pure elements with their tangible material base means
that they can cause loss. Therefore, these pure elements are single safety hazards.
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As single safety hazards, all of these elements have the common characteristics of a
safety hazard. Although single safety hazards have common characteristics, single
safety hazards may differ greatly in their structure and functioning. Oxygen (a gas)
and copper (a solid) differ in structure and in functioning.
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is that because all things or substances are already safety hazards, there is no room
for potential safety hazards. A potential safety hazard does not exist, not anywhere.
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Example
A human’s or an animal’s stomach is a safety hazard. When the stomach is empty, it
is in the dormant mode of safety hazard interaction. However, it has the potential
to interact and exchange energy with other safety hazards. Food is a safety
hazard. When food arrives in the stomach, the safety hazards start to interact and
exchange energies.
Example
A piece of electrical wire or cord is a compound safety hazard. It is lying on the floor.
The floor is a safety hazard. The two safety hazards are interacting and exchanging
gravitational energy. The wire is in dormant mode of safety hazard interaction
because it has the potential to interact with electrical current should it be coupled
to a source of electrical energy.
Example
An electrical heater is a safety hazard. It is coupled to a source of electrical power
not providing any heat. The source of electrical power is a safety hazard. The source
is not switched on. This means that the source and heater are dormant and armed
but in the non-interactive mode of safety hazard interaction.
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Example
The wheel of a vehicle is a safety hazard. The brake disk, brake pad and road are
safety hazards. When the vehicle is moving, the wheel is running on the road. The
wheel and road are interacting and exchanging energies. The road and wheel are
both in the active mode of safety hazard interaction. However, the brake disk and
brake pad are in the non-interactive mode of safety hazard interaction. They will
become active the moment the driver steps on the brake pedal.
Example
A human’s body, hands and clothes are safety hazards. When clapping hands harshly
together, the safety hazard interaction and energy exchange stings both hands and
heats both hands. The safety hazard interaction and energy exchange of wearing
clothes result in heating the clothes and heating the body.
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Example
Magnets are safety hazards. Two magnets will be drawn to one another when the
south pole of one of the magnets (safety hazard) are pointed towards the north
pole of the other magnet (safety hazard) over a short distance. Both safety hazards
are in the reactive mode of safety hazard interaction.
Example
Two metal plates, an electrical welding machine, a welding rod and a human are
safety hazards. When welding the two metal plates together, the human, electrical
welding machine, welding rod and two metal plates interact and exchange energies.
The synergistic interaction between all these safety hazards results in a metal strip
that holds the two plates together.
Example
Sulphuric acid used in swimming pools and water are both safety hazards. Pouring
water (safety hazard) onto sulphuric acid (safety hazard) results in the water bouncing
back (Helmenstine 2014:1). The acid is in the antagonistic mode of safety hazard
interaction, because it opposes the interaction and energy exchange with water.
Safety hazards can use any one or more modes of safety hazard interaction when
they interact with other safety hazards. This applies to all types of safety hazards,
namely, single, compound and multiple safety hazards.
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include potential energy. Potential energy can be seen as energy that is ‘stored’
in objects, substances or safety hazards. Potential energies are not active. Stored
energies have the potential to do work whenever they are put into action. Potential
energies are inherent to safety hazards (Smit & Esterhuyzen 2014:134).
Inherent energies can be put into action through the exchange of energies
between safety hazards during their interaction.
Example
A match has potential thermal energy. This potential energy is inherent to matches.
However, matches cannot burn by themselves. Once rubbed against another safety
hazard (matchbox) by another safety hazard (human), a match ignites and works in
the form of a flame that brings (generates) heat or thermal energy. The flame with
its thermal energy (heat) creates safety risk that can result in harm or damage. On
the same basis, the potential inherent heat energy of a fire or cigarette lighter can
result in harm or damage.
When safety hazards interact, they exchange energies. During the process of energy
exchange, other energies are formed or created as well as other safety hazards. The
outcome of safety hazard interaction depends on the nature and number of the safety
hazards as well as the processes of the energy exchange between the safety hazards
in a particular situation. The energy exchange between safety hazards will occur in
certain ways and patterns. These ways and patterns of safety hazard interaction and
energy exchange happen according to specific natural laws. Natural laws operate
on the basis of symmetry (Crowell 2006:72). Symmetry means that natural laws
will force safety hazards to interact and exchange energies with other selected or
chosen safety hazards in a prescribed manner. Symmetry binds the functioning of
safety hazards in their interaction and energy exchange. Natural laws never change
and make the functioning of safety hazards consistent under all circumstances.
Consistency through natural laws flows from symmetry and results in:
• the pre-determined process of safety hazard interaction and energy exchange
• with particular safety hazards
• which are bound by specific natural laws.
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Example
The dry solid surface of an athletic track will provide a firm grip to the jogging
shoes of an athlete. However, they will be challenged by a lack of grip between the
same shoes and the same surface that is iced up and wet. The iced up, wet surface
and jogging shoes interact differently from the jogging shoes and the dry athletic
track. The nature and process of the interaction and energy exchange between the
two groups of safety hazards are symmetrically determined. The functioning of the
different safety hazards during the safety hazard interaction and energy exchange
is consistent with the natural laws that apply to each of the different safety hazards.
Definitions
Structural characteristics have to do with the built appearance of the safety
hazards.
Functioning characteristics relate to how the safety hazards work.
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Example
An employee who blows the dust (safety hazard) from his face and body (safety
hazards) by using compressed air (safety hazard) can be injured by small pieces of
solid stone or metal (safety hazards) in the air. The difference in density between
a solid and liquid has a different effect on the safety risk. The difference in density
between a brick and water falling on the head of an employee creates a different
safety risk with different effects. The igniting of petrol fumes will have a different
effect (safety risk) compared to the igniting of petrol fluid. The fumes could explode.
The fluid will only burn.
• Size or volume
The size of safety hazards can contribute to safety risk. Size contributes to the
effect of the safety risk in the outcome of safety hazard interaction and energy
exchange in a specific situation. Big safety hazards do not mean bigger safety risk.
Small safety hazards do not mean little safety risk. The effects of size on safety
risk can become greatly negative in the case of the unplanned outcomes of safety
hazard interaction and energy exchange. The contribution of size to safety risk may
vary from almost none to the extreme.
Example
Transporting a prefabricated three-bedroom home on a low-bed truck requires
careful planning. An issue to consider is the volume or size of the home and the
trailer to carry the home. The size sets different requirements on the volume in
terms of length, breadth and height. Each of these contributes to the safety risk
that goes with the interaction of the home, truck, trailer and road. If the home
is not strapped well to the carrier and partially slides off the carrier, the size of
the home will create safety risk that will badly affect the planned outcome of
transporting the home safely.
• Weight
Weight refers to heaviness. The weight of safety hazards contributes to safety risk
during the interaction and energy exchange of safety hazards in any situation in
life. The contribution of weight on the effects of safety risk varies from very small
to extremely big. It does not mean that the heavier the safety hazard is, the bigger
the safety risk. It all depends on the circumstances in a particular situation.
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Example
When transporting the home in the example above, the safety risk associated with
the weight of the home needs to be considered. The weight sets a safety risk that
requires a rig strong enough to carry the home and to pull the trailer and home.
Weight has effects on the interaction and energy exchange of the home, trailer and
truck as safety hazards. When the badly strapped home partially slides, say halfway
off the trailer, the weight of the home makes a major change in the safety risk that
needs to be dealt with. The effect of the size of a small mobile toilet on the safety
risk that goes with its transportation is greatly different.
• Shape
Shape has to do with form. The form or shape of safety hazards contributes to the
safety risk and is related to their interaction and energy exchange in a particular
situation. Safety hazards can come in a wide range of different shapes, such as
sharp, thin, round, square, diamond, tube, hexagon, v-shape, spearhead, pointed,
twisted, spiral and so on. Each shape contributes to safety risk in a unique way.
Example
Using a flat-point screwdriver to fix a flat-headed nail to a door sets different
safety risks than using a round, flat-headed building hammer.
• Surface or texture
Surface or texture relates to the complete outer edge of safety hazards. Safety
hazards can have different types of surfaces, such as smooth, rough, wrinkled,
grooved, knuckled, embossed, perforated, sticky, humped and so on. The difference
in surface of safety hazards contributes differently to safety risks during safety
hazard interaction and energy exchange.
Example
The smooth surface of an aluminium ladder sets specific safety risk with regard to
climbing it with soft, smooth leather shoes. The smoothness of the shoes and ladder
contributes to the safety risk that goes with the interaction and energy exchange of
the safety hazards. The smoothness of both objects enhances slipping. Tough, hard,
grooved rubber shoes contribute fewer safety risks when climbing an aluminium
ladder. The grooved rubber shoes contribute less safety risk during safety hazard
interaction and energy exchange as a result of a better grip.
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Example
A stove (safety hazard) provides heat (potential energy) to boil (do work) water
(safety hazard).
• Interaction
Safety hazards are almost always in contact with other safety hazards. When they
make contact, they usually interact. When safety hazards are in the dormant or
armed mode of safety hazard interaction, they do not interact. A lack of interaction
only happens when there is no natural law or laws that force safety hazards to
interact. Safety hazards exchange energies when they interact. It is during energy
exchange that safety hazards create safety risks. Therefore, safety hazard interaction
always contributes to safety risks. The interaction of safety hazards happens when
they are in one or more modes of safety hazard interaction.
Example
To boil water requires a pot with water and heat from a heat source such as a stove.
It is planned that the pot and stove as well as the pot and water interact when
exchanging energy (electricity). Switching the stove on creates safety risk because
of the heat of the stove that can harm a human or damage the pot. When the water
is boiling, it can also create safety risk that can threaten the humans and assets.
If the stove is not switched on, there will be no interaction and energy exchange
between the different safety hazards involved.
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• Consistency
All safety hazards are regulated by natural laws. Different natural laws regulate
different safety hazards differently. This regulation may differ from situation to
situation. However, the regulation is consistent according to the situation. The
consistent functioning of safety hazards under specific conditions contributes to
safety risks.
Example
When heating water with a heat source, the heat source and water exchange energy
(thermal energy). At the point where the water has received enough energy, it will
boil. Every time water is heated long enough with enough energy, it will boil. The
natural law related to water being heated regulates the functioning that water
will consistently boil every time. However, dissolving salt in the water changes
the circumstances in the situation. The water and salt mixture is a new compound
hazard. This means that the interaction between the safety hazards will be different.
When heated, the new mixture will consistently boil, but it will take more thermal
energy. Therefore, the water will boil at a higher temperature. Water that is boiling
presents a challenging safety risk.
• Inconsistency
Inconsistency only relates to the human as a safety hazard. Humans are very
frequently inconsistent in their behaviour and thoughts. Humans can do what they
want when they want. There is no natural law that regulates the human mind
and conduct. The characteristic of human inconsistency contributes very much to
safety risk.
The contribution of human inconsistency to creating safety risks relates to
human nature, human perceptions about safety risks and cultural elements (Smit
& Esterhuyzen 2014:148–151). It is common human nature to change one’s mind
according to the particular circumstances in a particular situation. A change of
mind may change a human’s conduct. Sometimes a human may not identify safety
risk or misjudge a safety risk. A human may have inappropriate perceptions or
change their perception about safety risk, which could lead to handling safety
risk inconsistently. Sometimes organisations form perceptions about safety risks,
which become part of the organisational culture. Culture elements can become
organisational factors that cause employees to misjudge, oversee or disregard
safety risk and its harming and damaging threats. This could lead to employees
acting unsafely because of latent conditions (Reason 1997:17).
Definition
Latent failures mean that conditions exist that can lead to failures, for example,
unsafe acts, but these conditions do not exist openly and explicitly.
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Example
A driver may stop at a red traffic light because it is a traffic regulation. However,
if the driver is in a hurry they may skip the red light. In the same manner, many
employees who are working in a noise zone disregard the compulsory sign to wear a
pair of earplugs or earmuffs. The employees may also not take serious notice of the
supervisor who frequently reprimands them to adhere to the safety sign. They may
think that the safety risk of loss of hearing will not happen to them, because none
them have experienced any hearing loss as yet.
2.8 Conclusion
This chapter explained the nature and basic characteristics of safety risks. The
focus was on when and how safety risk starts or originates during the process
of interaction and energy exchange of safety hazards. The contributions of the
characteristics of safety risks during the process of safety hazard interaction and
energy exchange were dealt with.
Self-assessment questions
1. Explain the differences between a single, a compound, a multiple and a potential
hazard.
2. Clarify the different characteristics of a safety hazard.
3. Compare the safety hazards consistency and inconsistency.
4. Explain the origins of safety risks.
5. List the modes of safety hazard interaction and explain the interactive mode.
References
Crowell B. 2006. Discover Physics, Light and Matter. California: Fullerton.
Glendon AI, Clarke SG & McKenna EF. 2006. Human Safety and Risk Management. 2nd ed.
Boca Raton: Taylor & Francis Group.
Grimaldi JV & Simonds RH. 1989. Safety Management. 5th ed. Homewood: Irwin.
Helmenstine AM. 2014. Do you add sulphuric acid to water or water to sulphuric acid?
About Education. Available: http://chemistry.about.com/od/chemistrystudentfaqs/f/
sulfuricwater.htm. (Accessed May 2014).
Manuele FA. 1993. On the Practice of Safety. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold.
McDonald GL & McDonald EL. 1994. A Taxonomy of Fatalities in the Primary Aluminium
Industry. Crestmead: Geoff McDonald & Associates.
Reason J. 1997. Managing the Risks of Organizational Accidents. Cornwall: Ashgate.
23
Smit SJ & Esterhuyzen E. 2014. The Basics of Safety Hazards and the Origins of Safety Risk.
Pretoria: Business Print.
Stranks J. 2006. The Manager’s Guide to Health and Safety at Work. 8th ed. Derby: Kogan Page.
Van Fleet E. 2000. Debunking safety myths. In GS Swartz (ed). Safety Culture. Chicago:
National Safety Council.
Wikipedia. Forms of energy. Available: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forms_of_energy.
(Accessed October 2016).
Zumdahl SS & Zumdahl SA. 2007. Chemistry. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company.
24
Learning outcomes
After studying this chapter, you should be able to:
• explain the legal basis of safety risk assessment in the workplace
• describe the legal responsibilities of the employer and employee regarding
safety risk assessment
• clarify the basis of safety risk assessment
• explain the different purposes of safety risk assessment.
Key terms
Financial consideration Post-incident
Humanitarian obligation Pre-incident
Legal directive Safety policy
Legislative safety risk directive
3.1 Introduction
The protection of people involved in any business is legally prescribed. Different
legal requirements apply in this regard. The analysis and assessment of safety risks
needs to take sincere notice of specific legislative prescriptions. Applying particular
legal requirements plays a big role in making the working environment safe.
permanent disability; unforeseen medical costs; loss of income; loss of life; and bad
experiences as a result of any of the preceding conditions.
It is important that the business makes every effort to ensure that no person
experiences any of these bad effects as a result of an unsafe working environment.
No person should put the health or life of his fellow employees at serious risk and
allow them to experience harm and damage of any kind. No work is worth losing
one’s health or life. Experiencing any type of harm or damage can lead to a lack of
personal motivation and a lack of morale of the employees.
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Definitions
Risk is defined as the probability that harm and damage will happen (OHS Act, s 1).
Safety risk refers to threats of the outcome that society values on the interaction
and energy exchange of safety hazards (Fischhoff & Kadvany 2011:22; Smit &
Esterhuyzen 2014:2). This description ties up neatly with the term ‘safety risk’ as
explained in Chapter 1.
27
policy must give full recognition of the importance that a safety risk assessment is
fundamental in all business processes.
28
It is quite clear that the employer cannot do justice to performing all legal responsibilities
without performing a safety risk assessment of all plant or business operations. This
applies to before the commencement of and during business operations.
29
30
The results of the post-incident safety risk assessment produce a framework for
making valid conclusions about the causes of the incident. These results also supply
a basis for corrective actions to prevent the re-occurrence of the incident under
scrutiny and similar incidents across all business activities.
3.5.2 Safety risk assessment provides a framework for monitoring safety risks
Safety risk assessment produces information about the current status of safety
risks and safety risk control in particular situations in the workplace (Blunden
& Thirlwell 2013:82). The outcome of the assessment of safety risks and safety
risk control establishes documentation (a report) on safety risks in the working
environment. This documentation enables a business to design and develop
programmes to monitor the existence of safety risks in different work situations.
The effectiveness of measures implemented to control these safety risks can also be
monitored. The documentation presents a basis for communicating the status and
position of safety risks in the workplace (Blunden & Thirlwell 2013:83).
31
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3.6 Conclusion
In this chapter, it is argued that safety risk assessment is based on humanitarian,
financial and ethical foundations. Safety risk assessment implies specific legal
requirements and responsibilities for the employer and employees involved in a
business. The different foci and advantages that a safety risk assessment holds
for a business are briefly articulated. In conclusion, it is clear that safety risk
assessment is an indispensible process of managing health and safety in the
workplace effectively.
33
Self-assessment questions
1. Explain the legal responsibilities of the employer on safety risk assessment in a
business.
2. Clarify the relation between the legal safety responsibilities and safety risk
assessment of employees.
3. Explain the three bases of safety risk assessment.
4. State the purposes of safety risk assessment in a business context.
References
Bever DL. 1984. Safety: A Personal Focus. St. Louis: Times Mirror/Mosby College Publishing.
Blunden T & Thirlwell J. 2013. Mastering Operational Risk. 2nd ed. Harlow: Pearson.
Fischhoff B & Kadvany J. 2011. Risk: A Very Short Introduction. Hampshire: Oxford
University Press.
Fuller CW & Vassie LH. 2004. Health and Safety Management. London: Prentice Hall.
Grimaldi JV & Simonds RH. 1989. Safety Management. 5th ed. Homewood: Irwin.
Smit SJ & Esterhuyzen E. 2014. The Basics of Safety Hazards and the Origins of Safety Risk.
Pretoria: Business Print.
Stranks J. 2006. The Manager’s Guide to Health and Safety at Work. 8th ed. Derby: Kogan Page.
Legislation
Acts
Mine Health and Safety Act 29 of 1996.
Occupational Health and Safety Act 85 of 1993.
Regulations
GN R929. Occupational Health and Safety Act, 1993. General Administrative
Regulations. 2003. Government Gazette 25129 of 25 June 2003.
34
Learning outcomes
After studying this chapter, you should be able to:
• define safety risk assessment
• explain the parts of safety risk assessment
• calculate the level of safety risk
• clarify the criteria of safety risk assessment.
Key terms
Active and latent failures Evaluating risk levels
Assessment plan Reviewing
Benchmarking Rigorous analysis
Control measures Safety risk assessment
Criteria Stakeholders
4.1 Introduction
Prevention of harm to people and damage to assets, property and the environment is
an essential part of making the workplace safe. Making the workplace safe requires
that applicable safety control measures must be used. Safety control measures
can only be put in place once the nature of safety risks in the workplace have
been assessed.
This chapter intends to explain the nature, process, focus areas and evaluation
of a safety risk assessment.
Definition
Safety risk assessment represents a process during which the safety risk that is a
threat in the workplace is identified, estimated and evaluated (Fuller & Vassie 2004:8).
The identification, analysis and evaluation of safety risk are the main activities in
the process of safety risk assessment. Performing safety risk assessment is stating
the possibility that the outcomes of the interaction and energy exchange of safety
hazards will result in harm or damage. The most common starting point to a safety
risk assessment is the safety hazard information approach (Stranks 2006:214). Safety
risk assessment includes the identification, analysis and evaluation of threats on
the work activities in a business (Blunden & Thirlwell 2013:231). The involvement
of humans as safety hazards with other safety hazards in the workplace needs to
be fully recognised.
Definition
Safety addresses the planned and purposeful interaction of safety hazards in
business operations.
Safety risk assessment must identify and analyse the nature of all safety hazard
interactions and energy exchange in all the different situations in a workplace. The
safety risk in a specific situation in the workplace is assessed by determining whether
the planned and unplanned interaction and energy exchange of safety hazards in the
situation offer any threats to human and non-human safety hazards involved in the
situation. One or more threats that offer safety risks are identified. The level of these
safety risks needs to be assessed and eventually be evaluated. Safety risk assessment
also needs to identify the presence and effects of safety control measures on the
identified safety risk in this situation. Safety risk is always situationally determined.
The reason is that safety risk is always linked to a specific situation in which safety
hazards interact and exchange energies. Therefore, safety risk assessment is also
always directly linked to a specific situation.
Safety risk assessment always integrates input from different sources to
validate the outcomes of this assessment. It is important to remember that a safety
risk assessment requires confirmation of the sources of safety risk, pathways of
energies, exposures to threats, and the relevance and strengths of causal relations
(Fischhoff & Kadvany 2011:63). The role of the human and non-human safety
hazards, their interactions and energy exchange as well as the contributions of
their safety hazard characteristics need to be clarified.
36
Each of these aspects of the safety risk assessment process will be dealt with in
more detail. The different aspects enhance the identification and understanding of
the following:
37
have the potential to cause harm (Ridley 2008:43). The common characteristics
of these safety hazards need to be understood. This applies to single, compound
and multiple safety hazards. The hazardous properties of the substances of
safety hazards need to be identified and analysed (Ridley 2008:143). Safety risk
assessment starts with the identification and analysis of safety hazards involved in
workplace activities in a business (Stranks 2006:111). The common characteristics
of non-human safety hazards are tangibility, density, size, weight, shape, texture,
energy, interaction and consistency. Understanding humans as hazards and their
characteristics are included in this identification and analysis. Humans as safety
hazards have the additional characteristic of inconsistency (Smit & Esterhuyzen
2014:70, 96).
The identification and analysis of safety hazards and their characteristics sets
the basis for understanding the inherent safety risks that safety hazards pose. These
inherent safety risks can be regarded as gross safety risks that involve interaction
and thus safety control (Blunden & Thirlwell 2013:92). Safety hazards bring this
inherent safety risk to situations as part of their basic make-up. Therefore, safety
hazards need to be identified and analysed in order to identify the potential to
cause loss (Reese 2009:90).
38
39
40
41
risks are an essential part of everyday life. Residual safety risks remain at a tolerable
and acceptable level after the implementation of applicable safety controls. Safety
directives must focus on the reduction of the likelihood of any unwanted occurrence,
the fierceness of the energy or energies that operate during the process of safety
hazard interaction and energy exchange, the exposure of human and non-human
safety hazards during the process, and the severity or seriousness of effects of
the residual safety risk should something unlikely or unwanted occur (Grimaldi &
Simonds 1989:279).
The intention of directives is to achieve a safety risk level that is as low as
reasonably practicable, where the emphasis is on reducing safety risks to such a
level that it can be considered negligible for all purposes (Fuller & Vassie 2004:20).
Safety directives that flow from safety risk assessment must as far as possible
consider legal requirements that apply to the interaction and energy exchange of
safety hazards and energy exchange in all situations in the working environment
(Ridley 2008:79). Identifying, evaluating and controlling safety hazards stipulates
the essence of safety practice in order to make all situations in the working
environment safe or preventing harm to people and damage to property or the
environment (Manuele 1993:119). The control of safety hazards is achieved by
implementing measures that practically ensure that the interaction and energy
exchange of safety hazards in the workplace do not reach the level of unacceptable
safety risk. The input of members of a selected cross-functional team (CFT) plays
an important role in providing directives for safety controls. (See Chapter 6 for
information on the role of CFTs in a safety risk assessment.)
42
43
44
4.5 Conclusion
Safety risk assessment forms a crucial part of safety management. This chapter
focused on the aspects of safety risk assessment, the process of the evaluation of
the outcome of safety risk assessment and the criteria of safety risk assessment.
45
Self-assessment questions
1. Define a safety risk assessment.
2. List the aspects of safety risk assessment.
3. Explain the process of safety risk evaluation for matrices.
4. Clarify the criteria of safety risk assessment.
5. Calculate the safety risk levels in a situation in a business where the potential
likelihood value is 3 and the severity value is 2 for harm and 3 for damage.
References
Blunden T & Thirlwell J. 2013. Mastering Operational Risk. 2nd ed. Harlow: Pearson.
Crowell B. 2006. Discover Physics, Light and Matter. California: Fullerton.
Deming WA. 1982. Quality, Productivity, and Competitive Position. Cambridge: MIT Press.
Fischhoff B & Kadvany J. 2011. Risk: A Very Short Introduction. Cape Town: Oxford University
Press.
Fuller CW & Vassie LH. 2004. Health and Safety Management. London: Prentice Hall.
Germain LG, Arnold RA, Rowan JR & Roane JR. 1998. Safety, Health, Environment and
Quality Management: A Practitioner’s Guide. Loganville: Georgia International Risk
Control America.
Goetsch DL. 2010. The Basics of Occupational Safety: A Guide for Safety Management. New
Jersey: Prentice Hall.
Grimaldi JV & Simonds RH. 1989. Safety Management. 5th ed. Homewood: Irwin.
Manuele FA. 1993. On the Practice of Safety. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold.
Reason J. 2005. Managing the Risk of Organisational Accidents. Burlington: Ashgate.
Reese CD. 2009. Occupational Health and Safety Management: A Practical Approach.
2nd ed. Boca Raton: CRC Press.
Ridley J. 2008. Health and Safety in Brief. 4th ed. Amsterdam: Elsevier.
Smit SJ & Esterhuyzen E. 2014. The Basics of Safety Hazards and the Origins of Safety Risk.
Pretoria: Business Print.
Stranks J. 2006. The Manager’s Guide to Health and Safety at Work. 8th ed. Derby: Kogan Page.
Stranks J. 2010. Health and Safety at Work: An Essential Guide for Managers. 9th ed.
London: Kogan Page.
Thygerson AL. 1986. Safety. 2nd ed. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall.
Zumdahl SS & Zumdahl SA. 2007. Chemistry. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company.
46
Learning outcomes
After studying this chapter, you should be able to:
• discuss the different forms of safety risk assessment
• describe the contexts of safety risk assessment
• explain the scope of safety risk assessment.
Key terms
Baseline safety risk assessment Multidisciplinary safety risk assessment
Continuous safety risk assessment Sufficient safety risk assessment
Issue-based safety risk assessment Suitable safety risk assessment
5.1 Introduction
Safety risk assessment has to cover all sections of a business. Each different
section has specific aspects or characteristics that apply to safety risk that has to be
assessed. Different aspects of a business require different forms or types of safety
risk assessment. The approach or focus of safety risk assessment differs with regard
to different forms or types of safety risk assessment. This chapter explains each
form of safety risk assessment. In addition, this chapter covers the contexts and
scope of safety risk assessment.
regard to general business issues are in place. The form or type of safety risk
assessment that applies to the very basic business operations is called baseline
safety risk assessment.
A baseline safety risk assessment comprises obtaining a complete overview
of organisational safety risks with regard to the general business operations. It
provides a basic understanding of safety risks that are present in all areas of
operation. A baseline safety risk assessment observes the energies that create safety
risks. Therefore, a safety risk assessment identifies the safety hazards and business
operations that serve as sources of energies (Smit & Esterhuyzen 2014:64).
The purpose of a baseline safety risk assessment is to establish the priorities and
to develop systems of work for future safety risk control. This baseline safety risk
assessment will need to be comprehensive and may well lead to further, separate,
more in-depth safety risk assessment studies. The baseline safety risk assessment
should be reviewed periodically, perhaps every one or two years, to ensure that it
is still relevant and accurate.
Baseline safety risk assessment provides an overview of an organisation-wide
safety risk assessment. It provides a safety risk profile to an organisation that
allows the organisation to prioritise the focus in safety and health management in
the workplace. A baseline safety risk assessment also focuses on the interaction of
hazards and energy exchange in determining the basic overview of organisational
safety risk levels. The focus, however, is organisation-wide, and not just restricted
to an area, situation or task. The safety risk assessment process starts with company
policy and thereafter assesses whether all safety risks are assessed, what controls
are in place, what systems of work are current and how effectively these systems of
work are managed to sustain health and safety in the workplace at all times. Owing
to the extensive exercise that a baseline safety risk assessment implies, the safety
risk assessment will be conducted by a team of well-informed and experienced
people. This module does not deal with such a major focus and major process of a
safety risk assessment.
The department that provides the plans and layout of different sections, systems
and processes of a business and its operations provides information that should
be thoroughly scrutinised during the baseline safety risk assessment process. A
baseline safety risk assessment needs to cover all the applicable sections listed in this
documentation. The business needs an overall view of the general safety risks basis of
its business operations. This basis can be well represented in a line graph that depicts
the baseline safety risk assessment values in each section that was analysed.
48
each situation in which safety hazard interaction and energy exchange occurs.
Practically, for example, a baseline safety risk assessment will check the total
process of the assembling of vehicles. An issue-based risk assessment will look
into every single assembly stage with due attention to every separate work activity
that comprises the interaction and exchange of energies of safety hazards. This
will include the role of an employee or employees during each stage and in work
activities.
Issue-based safety risk assessment focuses on the nature of each activity in depth
with attention to the:
• nature of each activity
• nature of the safety hazards involved, including people
• characteristics of the safety hazards involved
• nature of the safety hazards interaction and energy exchange
• specific involvement of the person or people
• actual safety risks created by the interaction and energy exchange
• the contribution or role of the safety hazard characteristics in generating a
safety risk
• nature of all installed safety control measures and their control effects
• evaluation of the safety risk level or levels in the particular situation and
activity
• controls needed for successful control should existing safety control not meet
the required safety standard or standards.
Issue-based safety risk is the only form of safety risk that delivers an extensive
and detailed overview on the total and specific safety risks associated with work
activities and work situations.
In the case where circumstances change and needs arise, separate safety risk
assessment studies will need to be conducted on specific aspects or sections of a
business operation. These will normally be associated with changes and innovation
in business operations. Additional safety risk assessment will need to be carried
out. This is where an issue-based safety risk assessment fits in. Examples of the
application of this type of issue-based safety risk assessment are when:
• a new machine with new operating procedures is introduced
• a system of work is changed or operations change
• an employee is appointed and needs safety training
• new knowledge comes to light and information is received that may
influence the level of safety risks. An example is when the scientific
knowledge about the toxicity of a substance changes and therefore renders
previous safety risk assessment exercises incomplete, or valid issue-based
safety risks need to be applied to determine the nature and threatening
potential of the safety risks of the innovation.
49
Issue-based safety risk assessment represents a need for more intensive and
extensive safety risk assessment. This need flows from the overall general baseline
safety risk assessment. Issue-based safety risk assessment concentrates on specific
needs to gain information on the safety of specific machinery or materials in
specific situations or areas in the business operations. In determining the nature of
safety risk, issue-based safety risk assessment follows the procedure for analysing
the origin of safety risks through the interaction and energy exchange of safety
hazards and the contributions of their characteristics. The issue-based safety risk
assessment can be best performed by informed and experienced people; however,
it depends on the extensiveness of such an activity.
Issue-based safety risk assessment is of particular importance in the case of
performing an incident analysis (also called an accident investigation) after harm or
damage occurred as a result of an accident. The application of issue-based safety risk
assessment will indicate the safety risk levels with regard to each separate situation
in which the interaction and energy exchange of safety hazards occurred.
50
control measures to prevent any unwanted outcome of the interaction and energy
exchange of safety hazards in the workplace, whether in the immediate or distant
environment.
Continuous safety risk assessment needs to be applied in every section in
business operations where there is a need to keep in touch with current running
states of safety risks that can change easily and that require immediate action to
maintain and ensure continuous, successful safety risk control.
51
52
53
54
the sun, floods, wind and earthquakes. Likewise, business operations can impact
elements in the environment, for example, water, air and soil pollution.
55
The different forms of safety risk assessment determine the depth of the assessment
of the efficiency of safety control measures.
The extent and need to know determines the frequency of the implementation
of safety risk assessment and the application of the different forms of safety
risk assessment (Blunden & Thirlwell 2013:89). However, the sequence of the
assessment of safety risks of a business starts with a baseline safety risk assessment
to get an overview of the standard of safety risks in general. Issue-based safety
risk assessment follows on a baseline safety risk assessment to obtain specific
details about the status of safety risks in specific sections, safety hazard interaction
and energy exchange and activities. Continuous safety risk assessment is applied
in the last instance with the need to know about the state of safety risks on a
continuous basis. Multidisciplinary safety risk assessment must as far as possible be
used whenever the need arises during baseline, issue-based and continuous safety
risk assessment.
All forms of safety risk assessment must consider all legislative requirements
concerning the safety of business operations (Fuller & Vassie 2004:200). The
minimum guideline in this regard is legal compliance under all conditions, coupled
with the need for continual improvement (Stranks 2010:66).
5.6 Conclusion
The explanation in this chapter focused attention on the different forms of safety risk
assessment. The contexts of safety risk assessment as well as the scope that listed
a range of sections and facilities in business operations were also closely analysed.
Self-assessment questions
1. Explain the different forms of safety risk assessment.
2. Describe the context of safety risk assessment.
3. List the different sections in the scope of safety risk assessment.
4. Describe any five sections in the scope of safety risk assessment.
5. Explain the difference between baseline and issue-based safety risk assessment.
6. Compare suitable safety risk assessment and sufficient safety risk assessment.
56
References
Blunden T & Thirlwell J. 2013. Mastering Operational Risk. 2nd ed. Harlow: Pearson.
Fuller CW & Vassie LH. 2004. Health and Safety Management. London: Prentice Hall.
Goetsch DL. 2010. The Basics of Occupational Safety. New Jersey: Prentice Hall.
Grimaldi JV & Simonds RH. 1989. Safety Management. 5th ed. Homewood: Irwin.
Manuele FA. 1993. On the Practice of Safety. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold.
Reese CD. 2009. Occupational Health and Safety Management: A Practical Approach. 2nd ed.
Boca Raton: CRC Press.
Ridley J. 2008. Health and Safety in Brief. 4th ed. Amsterdam: Elsevier.
Smit SJ & Esterhuyzen E. 2014. The Basics of Safety Hazards and the Origins of Safety Risk.
Pretoria: Business Print.
Stranks J. 2006 The Manager’s Guide to Health and Safety at Work. 8th ed. Derby: Kogan Page.
Stranks J. 2010. Health and Safety at Work: An Essential Guide for Managers. 9th ed.
London: Kogan Page.
Legislation
Acts
Occupational Health and Safety Act 85 of 1993.
57
Learning outcomes
After studying this chapter, you should be able to:
• be conversant with the multidisciplinary approach
• explain the selection of a cross-functional team (CFT)
• discuss the compilation of a CFT
• explain the role of the safety practitioner.
Key terms
Chemical engineering Industrial hygiene
Cross-functional team (CFT) Mechanical engineering
Electrical engineering Mining engineering
Environmental engineering Multidisciplinary approach
Ergonomics Nuclear engineering
Health profession Safety engineering
Industrial engineering Safety practitioner
6.1 Introduction
Safety risk has its origins in the interaction and associated energy exchange of
safety hazards. All substances (things) that are made of matter and are tangible are
safety hazards. All safety hazards have a range of characteristics that contribute to
the generation of a safety risk. The main characteristics that contribute to a safety
risk are the interaction and energy exchange capability of all safety hazards.
The natures of safety hazards are as numerous as the existence of all visible
and non-visible things on earth and in the universe. Many fields of study have
been created to understand and use safety hazards for almost every single need
and purpose. In the process of interacting with safety hazards, people have come
to realise that dealing with safety hazards always involves some threats to well-
being. In the process of using or interacting with safety hazards, many people have
realised that understanding safety risks is a prerequisite to maintaining well-being.
Many people have accepted that they are also safety hazards because they share the
same basic characteristics that all other safety hazards have.
Assessing a safety risk that originates from the interaction and energy exchange
of safety hazards is essential in order to deal with safety hazards successfully.
Chapter 5 dealt with the different forms, context and scope of safety risk assessment.
This chapter intends to discuss the use of the different fields of study when performing
a safety risk assessment.
60
that are complementary to the challenge that has to be addressed. In this case, the
challenge is to perform a safety risk assessment.
61
chairperson (or presiding member) of a CFT (Goetsch 2014:64). The safety manager
needs to have an appropriate level in the business to report directly to the CEO of
the business.
The safety manager has the responsibility to select the members of the CFT
with specific criteria that the business sets (see Section 6.3). The safety manager in
the particular business needs to decide on the focus and purpose of the safety risk
assessment. The time and venue of a meeting to inform the selected members on
the focus and purpose of the safety risk assessment need to be communicated by the
safety manager. All necessary preparation that will ensure the effective outcome of
the assessment is essential. The chairperson (safety manager) needs to explain why the
different members of the CFT were invited to participate. The chairperson needs to take
the lead and guide the discussions. Ample practical or experimental demonstrations
of the real issues that will be analysed in the safety risk assessment must be presented
in the meeting. Depending on the extensiveness of the safety hazard interaction and
energy exchange as well as the difficulty levels of the assessment, more than one
meeting of the CFT may be necessary. The chairperson must ensure that all the CFT
members deliver meaningful input in the effort. A report has to be prepared on the
final outcome of the risk assessment meeting. The final report must indicate the safety
risk levels the safety hazards present as a result of interaction and energy exchange.
The safety hazard interaction and energy exchange may involve any number of
human and non-human safety hazards. The safety practitioner of the area or specific
operations that are in focus may also attend the meeting. The safety practitioner can
validate the reality and completeness of the focus of the safety risk assessment.
6.4.2 Engineers
Engineering presents a wide range of fields of study. Different engineering fields
are responsible for creating or forming different safety hazards that businesses use
to conduct their business. Engineering is involved in the design of the hardware to
make business processes happen. This also applies to the processes of the assembly
line, for example engineers designed the physical hardware elements of the vehicle
assembly line. Such processes (also called software) include the involvement of
people to ensure that the assembly line runs effectively.
Engineers are responsible for selecting safety hazards that need to interact and
for the nature of the energy exchange that needs to take place during the exchange
with the purpose of meeting business objectives, for example manufacturing
products. Along the way, the interaction and energy exchange may include any
number of single, compound or multiple safety hazards. Engineers design the
circumstances under which the interaction and energy exchange take place. This
applies to all situations in the workplace. The engineering input may not occur at
the workplace itself, but the engineering input lies behind almost all safety hazard
interaction and energy exchange. However, this only applies to man-made safety
hazard interactions and energy exchange. The natural safety hazard interaction
and energy exchange in the majority of cases does not have human input.
62
63
• Nuclear engineer
The nuclear engineer focuses on safety risks associated with nuclear energy systems
and radiation energy. These safety risks result from safety hazard interaction and
energy exchange processes in various types of industries (Goetsch 2010:63). The
attention of nuclear engineers is directed to ensure that human and non-human
safety hazards are exposed to nuclear energy within the framework of acceptable
tolerable safety risks.
• Electrical engineer
The electrical engineer addresses the safety risks involved with electrical power and
processes of energy exchange during safety hazard interaction. Different types of
electrical power, such as from electrical circuits, electronics and so on, and their
uses are analysed when safety risk assessment is conducted (Goetsch 2014:73).
• Mining engineer
The mining engineer focuses on the safety risk assessment of all aspects of mining.
One of the main points of focus of safety risk assessment for a mining engineer
includes guidelines for implementing safety controls on shaft sinking, drilling,
ventilation, hoisting, excavation, and the fall of ground. This applies to both
underground and opencast mining.
• Industrial engineer
The contribution to safety risk assessment of the industrial engineer comprises
input on different aspects, such as the design, implementation and operation, of
integrated systems (Goetsch 2014:73). The focus of risk assessment for an industrial
engineer includes people, equipment and production processes of energy exchange
during safety hazard interaction.
• Environmental engineer
The environmental engineer addresses the safety and health risk that concerns
the health of people and the well-being of the environment. Issues of concern
for a safety risk assessment of an environmental engineer are environmental
biology and chemistry, waste management, as well as air, soil and water pollution
(Goetsch 2010:66–67).
• Safety engineer
The safety engineer is a person with postgraduate qualifications in safety management
and who focuses on dealing with safety system challenges in the workplace (Goetsch
2014:75). The responsibility of a safety engineer is to ensure that the safety programme
of a business complies with legal safety requirements, and applicable operating
principles and practices. During the process of a safety risk assessment, the safety
engineer uses different advanced safety risk assessment analytic tools to determine
the levels of safety risks in different situations in the workplace. The identification
and analysis of safety risks addresses the origins of safety, the severity of effects, the
exposure and the likelihood of the occurrence of unwanted interactions and energy
exchanges of safety hazards in the working environment. All these aspects relate
64
6.4.5 Ergonomist
The ergonomist is skilled in identifying, analysing and assessing safety risks
that relate to the man–machine–interface. The design of workstations and the
integration of employees and working conditions serve as the main focus of a
safety risk assessment (Goetsch 2014:84). Addressing safety hazard interaction and
energy exchange serves as the centre of attention in the risk assessment process.
65
6.5 Conclusion
The explanation in the chapter reiterated the contribution of CFTs to effective safety
risk assessment. It is quite clear that the compilation of the CFT greatly depends
on the focus and purpose of safety risk assessment. For the purpose of safety risk
assessment, the CFT concentrates on the origins of, effects of and possible control
measures for safety risks in different situations and activities in the workplace.
Although each member of the CFT focuses from the context of a specific field
of study, the main attention is on the interaction and energy exchange of safety
hazards in the workplace.
66
Self-assessment questions
1. Explain the nature of a cross-functional team (CFT) for safety risk assessment.
2. Describe the selection of members for a CFT for safety risk assessment.
3. List the possible members of a CFT for safety risk assessment.
4. Explain the input of the engineering fields of study in a CFT for safety risk
assessment.
5. Discuss the multidisciplinary approach to safety risk assessment.
References
Acutt J & Hattingh S. 2013. Occupational Health: Management and Practice for Health
Practitioners. 4th ed. Claremont: Juta.
Blunden T & Thirlwell J. 2013. Mastering Operational Risk. 2nd ed. Harlow: Pearson.
Brown CA. 2012. Best practices. In JM Haight (ed). The Safety Professional’s Handbook: Tech
nical Applications. 2nd ed. Park Ridge: American Society of Safety Engineers. 619–656.
Goetsch DL. 2010. The Basics of Occupational Safety: A Guide for Safety Management. New
Jersey: Prentice Hall.
Goetsch DL. 2014. Occupational Safety and Health for Technologists, Engineers, and Managers.
7th ed. Harlow: Pearson.
Grimaldi JV & Simonds RH. 1989. Safety Management. 5th ed. Homewood: Irwin.
Mansdorf SZ. 2012. Best practices. In JM Haight (ed). The Safety Professional’s Handbook: Tech
nical Applications. 2nd ed. Park Ridge: American Society of Safety Engineers. 827–836.
Miller K. 2006. Values, attitudes and job satisfaction. In Robbins SP, Odendaal A and Roodt
G. (eds). Organisational Behaviour: Global and African Perspectives. 6th ed. Cape Town:
Pearson Education.
Mroszczyk J. 2012. Basic safety engineering. In JM Haight (ed). The Safety Professional’s
Handbook: Technical Applications. 2nd ed. Park Ridge: American Society of Safety
Engineers. 163–204.
Reason J. 2005. Managing the Risk of Organisational Accidents. Burlington: Ashgate.
Reason J. 2007. Human Error. Cambridge: University Press.
Smit SJ & Esterhuyzen E. 2014. The Basics of Safety Hazards and the Origins of Safety Risk.
Pretoria: Business Print.
Thompson AA, Strickland III AJ & Gamble JE. 2005. Crafting and Executing Strategy: A
Quest for Competitive Advantage – Concepts and Cases. Boston: McGraw-Hill/Irwin.
67
Learning outcomes
After studying this chapter, you should be able to:
• explain the concept of evaluating safety risks
• discuss evaluating safety risks
• rank safety risk levels
• identify safety control measures
• explain the hierarchy of controls
• identify appropriate safety control measures
• assign responsibilities to implement safety control measures.
Key terms
Administrative guidelines Personal protective equipment (PPE)
Consequence Ranking safety risks
Evaluating safety risks Safety behaviour
Hierarchy of controls Safety control measure
Likelihood
7.1 Introduction
This chapter is about determining the potential of the effects of safety risks, in
particular situations in the working environment. Providing guidelines to effectively
control safety risks in working conditions and work activities forms part of evaluating
the outcome of safety risk assessment. This chapter explains these issues.
Definition
Safety risk evaluation assesses the values or quality of the safety risks with
regard to the potential hazardousness of their effects in situations in the working
environment.
70
Definition
Likelihood is a qualitative measure of the frequency of occurrence of harm or
damage (Fuller & Vassie 2004:267; Blunden & Thirlwell 2013:97).
The focus is on the frequency of the unwanted and unsafe interaction and energy
exchange between safety hazards. These frequencies can be rated with values allocated
to frequencies. Higher numbers are allocated to higher frequencies of occurrences.
The following table suggests a rating scale for the likelihood of occurrence.
71
This table scores a numerical value for the possible likelihood of occurrence and has a
basic description of what each value means (Blunden & Thirlwell 2013:98). Different
types of systems and tables are used to measure the likelihood of occurrence of unwanted
energy exchanges of safety hazards that create safety risks (Manuele 1993:205). Based
on the fact that safety hazards interact and exchange energies that generate safety
risks, there are always safety risks in all situations in the workplace. Therefore, there is
no zero value for the likelihood of occurrence. Evaluating the likelihood of occurrence
is based on a comparison of frequency to which a numerical value is allocated.
5 Fatality Catastrophic
72
The potential severity of the safety risk applies irrespective of how many people are
involved. The number of people only aggravates the extent of the loss, but not the
severity. The meaning of the rating for harm to people could be specified in more
precise detail. For example, a lost-time injury could refer to an injury that results in
losing one work shift by the person or people involved. A near miss may imply an
occurrence that happened but resulted in no significant loss. A major trauma may
refer to the adverse results relating to mental, psychological or emotional stress
that a person may suffer. A major injury may represent structural harm to the body
or biological functioning of the person.
More specific detail on the rating of damage to property or the environment
may be qualified by the business. These values may be based on or coupled with the
cost of the damage (Blunden & Thirlwell 2013:220; Reese 2009:104). Each business
may have its own bases for rating the nature of the severity of loss. Whatever
the basis of decision, evaluating the level of severity is rated by comparing the
hazardousness of consequences to which a numerical value is allocated.
The number of people who are exposed to a safety risk in a situation does not
really affect the decision about the consequences of severity. The severity implies
that the consequences are the same, irrespective of how many people suffer as
a result of the exposure. However, when costs of consequences serve as a rating
value, it would imply that that the potential of severity will be rated higher as
a result of the exposure of more people to safety risk. The duration of exposure
affects the potential severity of safety risk. However, the potential severity as a
result of the duration of exposure can more effectively be handled by controlling
the duration and frequency of exposure to the safety risk.
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Table 7.3: Matrix for determining and ranking safety risk levels
Consequences
Harm
5 Fatality
4 Major injury
3 Major trauma
2b Lost-time injury
2a Minor injury
1 Near-miss
incident
Damage
5 Catastrophic
4 Major
3 Moderate
2 Minor
1 Insignificant
1 2 3 4 5
Likelihood
The matrix provides the opportunity to plot the consequences and likelihood of
the occurrence (Fuller & Vassie 2004:268). The plotting indicates where the co-
ordinates meet (Goetsch 2010:222–223). The spot where the co-ordinates meet
indicates the level of safety risk associated with the particular interaction and
exchange of energies during hazard interaction. Different businesses may use
different matrices to rank the safety risk levels in situations in the workplace. See
Stranks (2010:110) for information on the different matrices.
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Example
Applying the matrix
The disintegration of the disc of an electric angle grinder could be hazardous. What
level of safety risk would the explosive energy cause? To determine the safety risk
level of this occurrence, the following steps apply:
1. Determine the worst-case scenario of the effects of the exploding grinder disc.
This effect would be a fatality, rated as 5.
2. On the likelihood–scale, this occurrence can be regarded as likely, rated a 4.
3. Link or plot the two values of the co-ordinates (consequences and likelihood) on
the table.
4. Multiply the two values 5 × 4 = 20.
5. The highest ranking that can be achieved is 5 × 5 = 25.
6. The occurrence of the explosion of the grinder disc deserves concern because it
is rated relatively high ( 20
25
× 100 = 80%).
7. Both of these safety risk values require an urgent plan and urgent action to
prevent the discs from disintegrating.
In order to ensure that the ranking of safety risk through the plotting of co-ordinates
is addressed objectively, it is advisable to have the ranking performed by a team of
people who can give acceptable and valued input. It is quite evident that the final
rating of an incident would differ from business to business. A business may use
any values, terms and descriptions of terms, which will result in a different ranking
of possible incidents.
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Table 7.4: Evaluating the safety risk level and determining mitigating action
Safety risk ranking score
Evaluation with action plan
Value Meaning
1–4 Acceptable No further action is required.
Continue to manage the organisational safety risk through
5–9 Tolerable good practices and review it.
A detailed action plan is required to reduce the level of safety
10–19 High risk to the level of residual risk.
Urgent action is required to avoid a potentially major disaster
20–25 Very high for the organisation.
The final evaluation score is determined by calculating the product of the position
where the horizontal and vertical co-ordinates meet. The values range from
1 × 1 = 1 to 5 × 5 = 25. The matrix also indicates the levels of risk assessment
and risk evaluation where safety control measures become necessary. Once again,
it needs to be accepted that businesses may use their own values and definitions.
These values and definitions will inevitably change the final values as well as the
decisions to act upon the outcome of the evaluation of safety risk levels.
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Definition
Safety risk management represents using management policies, practices and
work processes in order to identify, assess, evaluate, treat and monitor safety risks
(Fuller & Vassie 2004:7).
The responsibility for managing safety risks lies in the hands of every line manager
(employer) who has been entrusted with authority to manage a section in a business.
This manager has the power to enforce legal safety regulations and safety rules of
the business to ensure safe working conditions and safety task performance.
The safety practitioner of a business or section in a business has no line authority
to control or enforce safety practices in the business. The safety practitioner
performs a staff function and is, therefore, always only engaged in safety risk
management in an advisory capacity (Mintzberg 1979:2; Stranks 2010:119). The
manager may use any one or all members of a cross-functional multidisciplinary
team to provide assistance in managing safety risks effectively (Glendon et al
2006:278). (See Chapter 6 for information on the role of cross-functional teams in
safety risk assessment.)
Supervisory managers must develop and implement safety control measures
that will ensure that the safety risk levels in the working conditions and tasks in all
sections of the business consistently remain at an acceptable level. The criteria for
developing and implementing safety control measures need to fall under a specific
hierarchy (Fuller & Vassie 2004:301–302).
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1. directive safety controls that provide direction on the way forward, for
example safety policy
2. preventative safety controls that prevent the likelihood of occurrence
of unwanted or unplanned energy exchange between safety hazards, for
example machine guards
3. detective safety controls that provide information on the causes of the
occurrence of the unwanted or unplanned interaction of safety hazards, for
example warning sensors
4. corrective safety controls that specify action to correct the energy exchange
between safety hazards that went wrong, for example retraining.
The hierarchical preferences of safety controls apply fully when considering and
implementing all safety controls. The application of hierarchical criteria implies
the following:
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to what extent the safety risk it poses exceeds the competence and threshold limits
of the people and other substances involved.
Substituting safety hazards with safety hazards that are less hazardous is an
effective practice to reduce the severity effects of unwanted or unplanned safety
hazard interaction (Stranks 2010:101).
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Definition
Administrative control measures refer to controls that are administratively
enforced. Examples of these are the wearing of gloves when any form of hammering
is part of a task. These are intangible rules that are administered by observing
employee behaviour. Some form of punitive action should be taken against the
employee, should non-compliance to the rules be observed. Employees should be
given recognition for consistent compliance.
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switch off the power, lock the unit in which the supply unit is contained and set
a tag on the unit that contains the supply unit indicating that they are operating
on the power supply. Interaction or contact with this energy or these energies
exceeds the physical threshold limit of the employee, which will definitively result
in serious harm, like impairment or death. High safety risk energy or energies need
to be locked out or rendered dead, and need to remain in this state for as long as
the work related to such energies is in progress. To ensure that nobody tampers
with the lock-out tag-out procedure, the lock-out needs to be tagged to indicate
that work related to the energies is in progress. Written procedures play important
roles in this regard (Stranks 2010:114).
• Training
It is imperative that the employee or employees who are responsible for performing
the task as well as the individuals who are knowledgeable about all aspects of the
task be involved on an integrated basis to ensure that the designing of safe work
procedures related to critical tasks meets the safety requirements set. They should do
this by performing the task as completely as possible. The world’s best practice sets
the basic guidelines that need to be followed in all instances. Effective appropriate
training in working methods and applicable precautionary procedures ensures
employee competence to deal with safety risks in the workplace (Ridley 2008:45).
• Safety signs, safety colouring and safety signals
Administrative control measures also include issues such as safety signs, safety
colouring and safety signals (Stranks 2010:114). Adhering to these control
measures is directly related to understanding the nature, meaning and purpose of
these control measures. Employees need to adhere to these control measures on
a voluntary basis, because of their concern for the safety of themselves and their
caring for their colleagues. These safety control measures are administrative in
nature. Employees only adhere to these safety control measures to the extent that
they deem them necessary and meaningful.
• Supervision
Leadership and monitoring by means of supervision forms an important part of
introducing and maintaining safety control measures in the workplace (Stranks
2010:114). Managing safety risks according to the safety goals and objectives
that flow from the business safety policy forms the basis of supervision (Manuele
1993:252). These business goals and objectives need to be clearly specified
(Reese 2009:360).
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to ensure that no part of the person’s body that can be adversely affected by the
interaction with one or more hazards and the associated exchange of energies is
contactable by any of these energies (Stranks 2010:114).
The PPE can protect parts of the person’s body or the complete body, from head to
toe. The emphasis on wearing PPE is to:
• choose PPE wisely
• train people on all elements of PPE
• issue PPE purposefully
• use PPE consistently
• use PPE correctly
• maintain PPE effectively
• replace depleted PPE as required.
It is important to realise that PPE is the last resort. It should only be introduced
once all other control measures do not meet basic safety requirements.
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will ensure that management meets the challenge to make these safety control
measures work at all times. Developing a safety culture that demonstrates the
effective application of safety control measures to prevent organisational factors
that create loss is essential to sustain safety and to enhance the achievement of
organisational objectives related to production and service delivery.
7.8 Conclusion
It is quite clear from the explanation of the evaluation of safety risks in a business
that very careful consideration and planning is required. The same applies to
making recommendations to manage safety risks by developing and implementing
appropriate safety risk control measures. Whatever the approach, it must be
remembered that evaluating safety risks and the application of safety risk controls
needs to comply with regulatory requirements. Notice has to be taken of different
acts that are relevant to managing safety risks in different industries, for example
the Occupational Health and Safety Act 85 of 1993 as amended, and the Mine
Health and Safety Act 29 of 1996 as amended.
Self-assessment questions
1. Explain the difference between assessment and evaluation in safety risk
assessment.
2. Motivate the importance of safety risk assessment in a business.
3. Differentiate between likelihood and severity in safety risk assessment.
4. Explain how you will rank the safety risk in a specific situation in the workplace.
Refer to applicable tables, including the matrix.
5. State who is responsible for managing safety risks in a business.
6. Complete the following table on implementing the hierarchy of safety risk
controls.
Step No. Title Basic focus
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5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
6.
7.
8.
References
Blunden T & Thirlwell J. 2013. Mastering Operational Risk. 2nd ed. Harlow: Pearson.
Fuller CW & Vassie LH. 2004. Health and Safety Management. London: Prentice Hall.
Geller ES. 1996. Working Safe: How to Help People Actively Care for Health and Safety.
Boca Raton: CRC Press.
Germain GL, Bird DJ & Labuschagne CJ. 2011. Safety, Health, Environment and Quality.
Georgia: International Risk Control America and IRCA Global.
Glendon AI, Clarke SG & McKenna EF. 2006. Human Safety and Risk Management. 2nd ed.
Boca Raton: Taylor & Francis Group.
Goetsch DL. 2010. The Basics of Occupational Safety. New Jersey: Prentice Hall.
Killen R. 2000. Teaching Strategies for Outcomes-Based Education. Lansdowne: Juta.
Manuele FA. 1993. On the Practice of Safety. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold.
Mintzberg H. 1979. The Structure of Organizations. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall International.
Reese CD. 2009. Occupational Health and Safety Management: A Practical Approach.
2nd ed. Boca Raton: CRC Press.
Ridley J. 2008. Health and Safety in Brief. 4th ed. Amsterdam: Elsevier.
Smit SJ & Esterhuyzen E. 2014. The Basics of Safety Hazards and the Origins of Safety Risk.
Pretoria: Business Print.
Stranks J. 2010. Health and Safety at Work: An Essential Guide for Managers. London:
Kogan Page.
Legislation
Acts
Mine Health and Safety Act 29 of 1996.
Occupational Health and Safety Act 85 of 1993.
84
Learning outcomes
After studying this chapter, you should be able to:
• understand the nature of the safety risk assessment report
• motivate the necessity of completing a safety risk assessment report
• describe the contents and format of a safety risk assessment report.
Key terms
Ablution facilities Heat operations
Building facilities Lifting operations
Chemical operations Machinery operations
Childminding operations Office situations
Electrical operations Recreational facilities
Environmental elements Safety risk assessment report
Explosive operations Transportation operation
Feeding operations
8.1 Introduction
Safety risk assessment must be interpreted within the context of the business in
which the analysis is performed. The context applies to baseline, issue-based and
continuous safety risk assessment as well as the purpose, process and outcome
of safety risk assessment. The nature of the business influences all aspects of the
safety risk assessment that are performed on the activities and conditions relevant
to a specific working environment. Performing safety risk assessment concerns all
employees and other parties who have interests in a business. This chapter presents
the format and content of a safety risk assessment report that is used to inform
people who have interests in the business.
86
87
The safety risk assessment must also apply to all shifts. The role and effects of the
safety culture and safety climate of the business, which includes latent conditions
as well as active failures, must be included in the safety risk assessment report
(Blunden & Thirlwell 2013:285).
88
89
• Indicate the final levels of safety risks in all different working conditions and
work activities in the total business operations as a result of issue-based and
continuous safety risk assessment.
• Identify all situations in the workplace in which the interaction and energy
exchange of safety hazards are claimed to be at an acceptable level as an
outcome of issue-based and continuous safety risk assessment.
• List situations in the workplace in which the interaction and energy
exchange of safety hazards resulted in unacceptable safety risk levels.
• Motivate why each of the different situations in which the risk levels are
unacceptable falls short on the necessary safety objectives of the business.
• Elicit the role and effects of business safety culture, including latent
conditions and the active failures that flow from these conditions regarding
the contribution of unacceptable safety risks in working conditions and work
activities. Latent conditions represent issues such as gaps in supervision,
undetected manufacturing defects, unworkable procedures, unavailable
necessary tools and more (Reason 2005:10). Active failures represent different
types of unsafe acts such as not wearing prescribed personal protective
equipment, or taking shortcuts instead of using prescribed safe working
procedures (Reason 2005:10).
• Distinguish the difference between the outcomes of pre-incident and post-
incident safety risk assessment.
Stipulating the outcomes of the safety risk assessment report is of specific
significance because it creates understanding to develop recommendations and
implement appropriate safety risk controls.
90
the environment must focus on ensuring that the safety risk levels in all working
conditions and work activities of the business are within the acceptable safety risk
range. The emphasis lies on introducing appropriate safety controls to ensure that
the interaction and energy exchange of safety hazards under all circumstances
exposes people, property and the environment to acceptable safety risk levels.
Recommendations must specify the nature of safety risk controls that have to be
developed and implemented to ensure safety in all business operations at all times.
The effective consideration of the hierarchy of safety risk controls in this regard
is self-evident (Stranks 2010:114; Fuller & Vassie 2004:301). Enhancing safety in
working conditions and work activities in a business using recommendations from
safety risk assessment must include regulatory requirements. All safety risk controls
to enhance safety in business operations must comply with legal directives. Both
the Occupational Health and Safety Act 85 of 1993 as amended, and the Mine
Health and Safety Act 29 of 1996, as amended set requirements that businesses
must follow.
Safety risk assessment recommendations are primarily information for the
management of a business. Members of management, who are legally considered to
be employers, are responsible and accountable for ensuring the safety of employees
by applying the recommendations of the safety risk assessment. Employees also
have legal responsibilities in this regard (Occupational Health and Safety Act 85
of 1993 as amended, and the Mine Health and Safety Act 29 of 1996 as amended).
Other than managers, the safety practitioner or practitioners in a business have
no legal authority to control or monitor implementing safety risk assessment
recommendations. Safety practitioners have a staff function and can only serve in
an advisory capacity (Mintzberg 1979:2).
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2.
3.
4.
5.
The focus should be to list only the most significant people who made meaningful
contributions.
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8.14 Conclusion
All employees and interested groups in a business need to be familiarised with
the outcomes of safety risk assessment. They need to understand the necessity for
and changes necessary to ensure safety in all business operations. The safety risk
assessment report is the main instrument for serving this purpose. This chapter
explained the format and contents that should appear in the safety risk assessment
report of a business.
Self-assessment questions
1. Explain the purpose and necessity of a safety risk assessment report.
2. Briefly list the main aspects of a safety risk assessment report.
3. Outline the scope of a safety risk assessment report.
4. Briefly clarify the focus of a safety risk assessment report.
5. State the recommendations that should be in a safety risk assessment report.
6. Explain how a safety risk assessment report should be applied.
7. Motivate the necessity to present a safety risk assessment report to all
employees in a business.
References
Acutt J & Hattingh S. 2013. Occupational Health: Management and Practice for Health
Practitioners. 4th ed. Claremont: Juta.
Blunden T & Thirlwell J. 2013. Mastering Operational Risk. 2nd ed. Harlow: Pearson.
Fuller CW & Vassie LH. 2004. Health and Safety Management. London: Prentice Hall.
Glendon AI, Clarke SG & McKenna EF. 2006. Human Safety and Risk Management. 2nd ed.
Boca Raton: Taylor & Francis Group.
Mintzberg H. 1979. The Structure of Organizations. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall Inter
national.
Reason J. 2005. Managing the Risk of Organisational Accidents. Cornwall: Ashgate.
Smit SJ & Esterhuyzen E. 2014. The Basics of Safety Hazards and the Origins of Safety Risk.
Pretoria: Business Print.
Stranks J. 2010. Health and Safety at Work: An Essential Guide for Managers. London:
Kogan Page.
Legislation
Acts
Mine Health and Safety Act 29 of 1996.
Occupational Health and Safety Act 85 of 1993.
93