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Arching within hydraulic fill stopes

Article  in  Geotechnical and Geological Engineering · January 2007

DOI: 10.1007/s10706-006-0003-6

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Geotech Geol Eng (2007) 25:25–35
DOI 10.1007/s10706-006-0003-6
ORIGINAL PAPER
Arching within hydraulic fill stopes
Kandiah Pirapakaran Æ Nagaratnam Sivakugan
Received: 11 July 2005 / Accepted: 14 March 2006 / Published online: 21 October 2006
Ó Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2006
Abstract Arching is a well known phenomenon,
which effects stress developments which were inves-
tigated and compared using analytical and numerical
solutions. Marston’s (1930) solution was extended to
a generalised 3-dimensional rectangular stope and
later modified for square and circular stopes for
comparison with FLAC results. Aubertin et al. (2003)
& Li et al. (2003) models were improved significantly
by placing the backfill within narrow stopes as lifts or
layers in numerical modelling where the normal stress
variation with depth were found to be more realistic.
The FLAC results were compared with analytical
solutions which were developed by previous
researchers and modified by the authors to evaluate
the arching effects in backfilled placed in narrow and
circular stopes. It appeared from the investigation
herein that d = 0.67 / and K = Ko condition gives a
very close match with the numerical model solutions
obtained from FLAC. Many laboratory tests were
conducted to find out friction angles for four Austra-
lian mines, which were between 30 and 49 degrees.
Keywords Arching Æ Overburden Æ Backfill Æ
Stopes Æ Numerical modelling Æ Mining
K. Pirapakaran (&) Æ N. Sivakugan
School of Engineering, James Cook University,
Townsville, Queensland 4811, Australia
e-mail: Kandiah.Pirapakaran@jcu.edu.au
Introduction
The large underground voids created in the process of
mining are generally backfilled by mill tailings that
are left over from processing of mineral ore. The
underground voids that are backfilled are known
as stopes, and can be approximated as rectangular
prisms, which can have heights exceeding 100 m.
Hydraulic fills, cemented hydraulic fills and paste fills
are some of the more popular backfills currently used
world-wide. Hydraulic fills are typically defined as
deslimed mill tailing slurries, with densities over 70% cw
(solids by weight) and not more than 10% less than
10lm in size. The primary advantage of hydraulic
backfill is the simplicity and low cost of production
and delivery.
Recent developments in hydraulic filling of und-
erground mine stopes were discussed by Sivakugan
et al. (2005) and Rankine et al. (2005). Arching typ-
ically occurs when portions of frictional material yield
while the neighboring materials stay in place. As the
yielding material moves between stable unyielding
zones, the relative movement within the former is
opposed by shear resistance along the interface and
the shear stress generated along the contacted area
tends to retain the yielding material in its original
position. This has the effect of reducing the vertical
normal stresses within the yielding material leading to
a phenomenon known as arching. Therefore, it is very
important to investigate the effects of arching while
doing backfilling comprehensively, to be able to
123
26 Geotech Geol Eng (2007) 25:25–35

estimate the vertical stresses within the backfill that from the self-weight pressure which is obtained
accurately. by multiplying the depth by unit weight (Marston
Arching is a well known phenomenon which has 1930, and Terzaghi 1943). The following analytical
been identified in different applications, including solutions account for frictional sliding along the side
earth pressure on retaining walls (Handy 1985, Take & walls and/or the existence of cohesion at the fill-side
Valsangkar 2001), vertical stress and support walls interface.
requirements above tunnels and other underground
situations (Terzaghi 1943, Ladanyi & Hoyaux 1969,
Limit equilibrium wedge
and Iglesia et al. 1999), piled embankments (Low
et al. 1994), and loading on conduit (Spangler 1962,
Mitchell et al. (1982) modelled the failure of a single
Handy 1985, and McCarthy 1988). There are cur-
exposure 3-D fill mass as shown in Fig. 1. A shear
rently five different methods to investigate the arch-
plane for sliding failure was defined within the
ing effects analytically such as (a) Free Standing
‘block’. By assuming that there exists some shear
Vertical Face (Grice 2001), (b) Vertical Slope (Grice
resistance between the fill and stope walls due to
2001), (c) 3-D Sliding Wedge Failure (Mitchell et al.
the fill cohesion, the design uniaxial compressive
1982), (d) Simple Arching Theory and its Modifica-
strength required to maintain stability with safety
tions (Marston 1930, Terzaghi 1943, Aubertin et al.
factor of F can be evaluated by using following
2003, and Li et al. 2003), and (e) Modified Simple
relationship (Mitchell et al. 1982):
Arching (Winch 1999).
The objective of this paper is to review the current
c h w i
UCS ¼ c
2 h
tan a sin aðF Þ ð1Þ
state-of-the-art on stress development within mine l 2
fill stopes, with particular reference to arching,
where c is the Fill bulk unit weight (kN/m3), / is
extend the current models to more generalized
the friction angle of fill (Degree), a is the angle of
stopes, and carry out numerical modeling using
failure plane from horizontal (= 45° + //2), c is
FLAC and to make comparison between the predic-
the cement bond strength of fill (kPa), l is the
tions from numerical modeling and those from ana-
length of block (m), w is the width of block (m),
lytical solutions. The numerical modeling work
h is the height of the block (m), h* is the height
reported herein is limited to granular mine backfills
of block from top to the centroid of the triangular
with no cohesion.
section of the sliding wedge (m), F is the Factor
of safety
In the long term, the compressive strength of the
Current-state-of-the-art
fill material is mainly due to binding agents and
strength contributed by friction can be neglected (i.e.
General

Traditionally, cemented hydraulic fill and paste fill

stopes are designed as free standing walls and the
Ore or previous fill
requirement at a specific depth is to have significant
w l
strength to sustain the overburden pressures due to g lwh* Rock
self weights. Conservatively the uniaxial compressive block weight wall
cb (wh*)
strength, obtained under no lateral confinement, is
used as design strength (Grice 2001). However, in constant
wall shear
reality due to confinement by the surrounding rock h h*
resistance
w
and the resulting arching effects, the adjacent rock Cos a wtan a
walls help more to support the fill, which was clearly
explained through confined block mechanism by Plane of sliding
Mitchell et al. (1982). Some arching theories have α = 45° + f/2
suggested that when arching occurs the vertical stress
at bottom of the filled stope is significantly less than Fig. 1 Confined block mechanism (Mitchell et al. 1982)

123
Geotech Geol Eng (2007) 25:25–35 27

/ = 0). For a frictionless material, cohesion is 1

K¼ ð9Þ
considered as half of the uniaxial compressive 1 þ 2 tan2 /
strength (UCS) (i.e. c = UCS/2). Therefore, Eq. (1)
where c is the fill cohesion, tan / is the coefficient of
can be modified as:
internal friction of fill which is same as l used
 
UCS
w F by Marston but with d=/, K is the earth pressure
UCS ¼ c
h
pffiffiffi ð2Þ coefficient.
l 2 2
Further simplifications were made by allowing the Modified Marston’s theory
height of the stope to be much greaterpffiffithan
ffi the length
and assuming the factor of safety as 2. The required For cohesionless backfills, Aubertin et al. (2003)
strength (UCS) of frictionless fill is given by; modified the 2-dimensional Marston’s theory based
on status of stope wall during the filling operation
ch such as active, at-rest and passive. He assumed that
UCS ¼ ð3Þ
h=l þ 1 l ¼ tan / as in the case with Terzaghi’s arching
theory. Three different earth pressure coefficients
Marston’s theory have been introduced from the soil mechanics theory.
The following equation shows the modified version
Marston (1930) proposed a 2-dimensional plane for predicting the vertical (rv) and horizontal (rh)
strain theory on arching and developed equations to stresses within the backfilled stopes.
compute the vertical (rv) and horizontal (rh) stresses   
cw 2Kh tan /
within the cohesionless mine fill stope as follows: rv ¼ 1
exp
ð10Þ
2K tan / w
  
cw 2Ka lh
rv ¼ 1
exp
ð4Þ
2lKa w rh ¼ rv K ð11Þ
where / is the effective frictional internal friction of
rh ¼ rv Ka ð5Þ the fill (degree), K is the earth pressure coefficient
which varies depending on given by following
Ka ¼ tan2 ð45
/=2Þ ð6Þ relationships:

where / is the frictional angle of the backfill, d is the Active pressure coefficient K ¼Ka ¼tan2 ð45
/=2Þ
angle of wall friction (between 1/3/ and 2/3/),
Passive pressure coefficient K ¼KP ¼tan2 ð45 þ/=2Þ
l ¼ tan d is the frictional coefficient between rock
and fill, Ka is the active earth pressure coefficient. Rest pressure coefficient K ¼Ko ¼1
sin/
ð12Þ

Terzaghi’s theory In fact, Eq. (10) is simply derived from Eq. (7), by
substituting c = 0. The main difference from Ter-
zaghi’s equation is the different values used for K.
Terzaghi (1943) has included the effect of cohesion
into Marston’s theory, enabling these equations to be
used for any soils to predict the vertical (rv) and
horizontal (rh) stresses within the stope region, given Extended Marston’s theory
by:
   The analytical solution presented above by Marston
ðcw
2cÞ 2Kh tan / (1930), Terzaghi (1943) and Aubertin et al. (2003)
rv ¼ 1
exp
ð7Þ
2K tan / w are for a 2-dimensional stope where the fill is sub-
jected to plane strain loading. In reality, mine stopes
rh ¼ rv K ð8Þ are rarely 2-dimensional, and therefore it is quite

123
28 Geotech Geol Eng (2007) 25:25–35

useful to extend these theories to three dimensions. The shear force S is defined as:
An attempt is made here to extend the above theories
and develop expressions for vertical and horizontal dS ¼ 2ðw þ lÞdhrh tan d ð15Þ
stresses within a 3-dimensional mine fill stope. These
are also extended to circular and square stopes. While For the equilibrium of the small element,
stopes with circular cross sections are uncommon,
V þ dV þ dS ¼ V þ dW ð16Þ
they are quit easy to model using finite element or
finite difference packages as axisymmetric problems. Here, it is assumed rv uniformly distributed over
Square stopes can only be approximated as axisym- the entire width w;
metric problems.
V
A schematic diagram of a 3-dimensional stope is i.e.; rv ¼ ð17Þ
shown in Fig. 2(a) with the dimensions. Figure 2(b) wl
shows the free body diagram of the forces acting on Earth pressure coefficient from soil mechanics theo-
an infinitesimal horizontal layer within a vertical ries is defined as;
stope, where h is the backfill height, w the stope rh
width, dh the thickness of the layer element, W is the K¼ ð18Þ
rv
weight of the backfill above the layer element. dC is
the lateral compressive force, dS is the shearing force The following relationships can be found out from
at the fill- rock interface and V and V+dV are vertical equations (13)–(18);
forces at the position h and h+dh respectively.
Weight of the element V
dV ¼ cbldh
2ðw þ lÞK tan d dh ð19Þ
wl
dW ¼ cwldh ð13Þ

Compressive forces acting on the vertical faces Zh Z V

1
dh ¼

wþl dV ð20Þ
dC ¼ 2ðw þ lÞdhrh ð14Þ 0 2 wl KV tan d
wlc
0

Fig. 2 Schematic diagram

of a 3-dimensional stope (a)
and the free body diagram V
with forces (b)
dC
h dC
dS
dh dS dh

dS dC
dC dS

w
l

V+dV

w
l

(a) (b)

123
Geotech Geol Eng (2007) 25:25–35 29

By integrating Eq. (20), vertical and horizontal minimized or even avoided through the use of
stresses which are acting within the stope can be numerical modelling.
found out as follows; Numerical models are generally employed to solve
      more complex problems that can not be solved ana-
cw l lþw lytically. With appropriate boundary conditions and
rv ¼ 1
exp
2 Kh tand
2K tand lþw lw appropriate constitutive models as well as correct
ð21Þ input parameters, numerical models can give realistic
predictions of the material behaviour, including
      stresses and displacements. Bloss (1992) developed a
cw l lþw
rh ¼ 1
exp
2 Kh tand TVIS model for cemented hydraulic fills at Mount Isa
2tand lþw lw
Mines where a finite element program was used to
ð22Þ predict the stress distribution and exposure stability
For a square stope w = l and the above equations of the fill mass by three-dimensional modelling of
become, different stages of the history of the fill mass, such as
filling, exposing and re-supporting. Pierce (2001) and
  
cw 4Kh tan d Rankine et al. (2001) used the FLAC3D to develop
rv ¼ 1
exp
ð23Þ numerical models for paste fill at the Brunswick Mine
4K tan d w
in North-eastern in New Brunswick, Canada to gen-
   erate a series of exposure design charts relating fill
cw 4Kh tan d
rh ¼ 1
exp
ð24Þ strength and exposure dimension and at BHP
4 tan d w Cannington mines in Australia to study the arching
These are also valid for circular stopes. For a very mechanism through a full mining sequence and with
long stope, w/l=0, equations (21) and (22) reduce to respect to various base to height and width to depth
Eqs. (10) and (11), given by Aubertin et al. (2003). ratios. Aubertin et al. (2003) and Li et al. (2003)
Typically, rock is around two orders of magnitude developed 2-D models by using PHASE2 and FLAC
larger in stiffness stiffer than back fill materials, for the hydraulic fills.
therefore authors expect the wall movement is very Numerical models developed using FLAC, an
small and once backfill is put in place, it would be at explicit finite difference package, for a long stope
rest condition (K=Ko). In addition, from geotechnical representing plain strain situation and circular stope
consideration during loose backfilling it is suitable to representing axisymmetric situations are presented in
consider the angle of wall friction is 2/3 of the this paper. The paper describes the numerical models
backfill frictional angle. In the numerical modelling developed using FLAC to study the stress develop-
work by the authors, based on several FLAC runs, ments within an infinitely long stope representing a 2-
show that K=Ko and d=0.67 / in the above equations dimensional plane strain problem, and a circular
give predictions that compare better with FLAC. stope representing an axisymmetric problem. The
predictions from the numerical models are compared
with those from the analytical methods.

Numerical modelling Improved model from Li et al. (2003)

General
The analytical methods presented above are based on
several approximations and simplifications. For
example, the vertical normal stress distribution within
the fill, at any depth, is assumed to be uniform in all
of them. It was also necessary to assume an earth
pressure coefficient such as Ko, Ka or Kp. Reliance
on these assumptions and simplifications can be
and Aubertin et al. (2003)
General
Aubertin et al. (2003) and Li et al. (2003) developed
2-dimensional models to study stress developments
within mine fills using PHASE2 and FLAC respec-
tively for a relatively narrow stope with dimension of
6 m width and 45 m height. Li et al. (2003) found out
that the vertical stress at the bottom of the stope is

123
30
lower than the overburden pressure of the fill, com-
puted as the product of fill height and unit weight.
Moreover, the vertical stress peaked around mid-
height of the stope and at that location; the vertical
stress is larger than the overburden pressure (Auber-
tin et al. (2003)). Vertical exceeding overburden
pressure is unrealistic, and it may be due in part to the
model construction, and how the fill is placed. Aub-
ertin et al. (2003) and Li et al. (2003) assumed that
the entire fill is placed instantaneously, as one whole
body of Mohr-Coulomb mass. Placing the fill in
layers, is more realistic and models the actual situa-
tion in the mine, and also gives better prediction of
the vertical normal stress. To show the improvement
on previous models the same dimensions of the
opening (h = 45 m and w = 6 m) have been used
during the modelling. Rock region was included in
the model with E = 30 GPa, c = 26.5 kN/m3 and
m ¼ 0:3, while doing backfilling operation in order to
represent the actual conditions and the natural in situ
stresses in the rock mass was obtained by considering
self weight of the rock (200 m deep from the top of
the stopes) above the stope. In the absence of any in
situ measurements, a horizontal to vertical stress ratio
of 0.5 was assumed.
Assumptions and modelling techniques
For numerical modelling, the rock mass was assumed
to be homogeneous, isotropic and linear elastic and
the backfill as Mohr-Coulomb material. No interface
elements were used in the model construction. Fig-
ure 3 shows the stope dimensions and material prop-
erties of rock and backfill region. Initially rock region
was allowed to attain equilibrium under its self weight
and then stope was excavated with calculations per-
formed with FLAC to an equilibrium state. Backfill is
placed in number of layers varying from one to several
in order to show the improvement from Li et al.
(2003) model. Displacements and stresses were ini-
tialised to zero at the end of excavation when calcu-
lation performed to investigate the effect of filling
methods. An attach command was used to connect sub
grids (Rock and backfill region) to obtain more
accurate results within the stope region by creating
reasonably fine grid arrangements. For further mod-
eling studies, dimension of 10 m width and 60 m
height were used, but with same material properties.
123
Geotech Geol Eng (2007) 25:25–35
0.5
Fig. 3 Vertical stope with backfill (not to scale); the main
properties of the rock and backfill are given based on
geotechnical notations
Improved results
Figure 4 shows the vertical (a) and horizontal (b) stress
distribution within the stope and surrounding region
when the entire fill was placed instantaneously. These
results are very similar or almost identical to those
from Li et al. (2003) and show a non uniform profile
across the stope width. Further, Fig. 5 shows the effect
of filling layers on vertical stress with depth along the
stope center such as one layer, half portions, quarter
portions and 1 m layers. It can be seen that during
filling the stope in one layer, the vertical stress exceeds
the overburden stress, especially within the one-third
upper stope regions. However, this effect has reduced
significantly while filling as two layers and then has
completely corrected by considering many layers.
Therefore, these results have improved significantly
from Aubertin et al. (2003) & Li et al. (2003) models,
where the vertical stress does not exceed the overbur-
den pressure when filled in more than four layers in the
numerical modelling. Therefore, in all studies below,
filling was conducted in 1 m thick layers.
Figure 6 shows the variation of vertical normal
stress with depth based on Modified Marston’s theory
(Aubertin et al. 2003) with K=Ko and K=Ka, the
overburden stress which is simply the product of
depth and the unit weight of the fill, the numerical
model results from FLAC, and finally the solution
suggested by the authors where Marston theory is
used with K=Ko and d=0.67/. The lateral wall
movements on excavation were investigated in
Geotech Geol Eng (2007) 25:25–35 31

a) 40 kPa deformation and the fill is in at rest state with K=Ko.

80 kPa Therefore, K=Ko and d=0.67 / are more realistic
160 kPa assumptions for using Marston’s equation, and it is
280 kPa evident from Fig. 6 that gives estimates of rv that
match numerical model better.
The lateral variation of vertical stresses across the
320 kPa
stope width was computed from FLAC are compared
with overburden stresses at depths of 0.25 h, 0.5 h,
0.75 h and h (Fig. 7). One can notice that around
400 kPa
17%, 35%, 48% and 56% reduction of vertical nor-
mal stresses along stope center line when compared
to the overburden pressure during numerical model-
ling results at depths of 0.25 h, 0.5 h, 0.75 h and h.
b) These results give clear ideas to mining industries the
20 kPa
importance of the arching effects in the backfill
60 kPa designs.

Modelling on circular stopes

80 kPa

FLAC was used for circular stopes to compare the

100 kPa
120 kPa
140 kPa
Fig. 4 Normal stress distribution contours within backfill and
surroundings from FLAC (a) Vertical stresses (b) Horizontal
stresses
FLAC, and were found to be significantly less than
0.002 h required to produce active state. Further,
along the center line of the stope, there is no lateral
proposed analytical solution (equations (22) and (23))
with numerical modelling for the axisymetric cases.
Even though, square or rectangular stopes are more
common in the mines, it is useful to investigate the
stress variations in order to verify the results with
3-dimensional models. A circular stope with dimen-
sion of 10 m radius and 60 m height was considered
for the numerical modelling, where assumptions and
modelling techniques similar to the narrow stopes
discussed previously.
Figure 8 shows the variation of vertical normal
stress with depth based on K=Ko & d=/ and K=Ka&

Fig. 5 Comparison of Vertical stress σv (kPa)

vertical normal stresses ðrv Þ
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900
along the narrow stope 0
centre line by varying filling
thickness 5

10 HF
45 m
Depth within the fill h (m)

45 m layer
15

20
11.25 m layers
6m
25
22.5 m layers overburden pressure (=rh)
30

35
1 m layers
40

45

50

123
32 Geotech Geol Eng (2007) 25:25–35

Fig. 6 Comparison of Vertical Stress σv (kPa)

vertical normal stresses ðrv Þ
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
from analytical, Numerical 0
solutions and overburden
stress along the vertical 10

Depth within the fill h (m)

centre line
HF 60 m
20

30

10 m
40
Aubertin (δ = φ & K = Ko) FLAC
Overburden pressure ( = γh)
50
Proposed (δ = 0.67φ & K = Ko)
Aubertin (δ = φ & K = Ka)

60

70

Fig. 7 Variation of vertical 1200

normal stresses across the
narrow stope width at 4
different levels of stope 1000
heights with corresponding
Vertical stress σv (kPa)

overburden pressures
800

600

400

200

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Stope width w (m)

1/4-FLAC 1/2-FLAC 3/4-FLAC Bottom-FLAC

1/4-Overberden 1/2-Overberden 3/4-Overberden Bottom-Overberden

d=/ cases, the overburden stress which is the product stress across the stope width from FLAC is compared
of the unit weight of fill and corresponding depth, with overburden stress at depths of 0.25 h, 0.5 h,
FLAC results, and the proposed solution by the au- 0.75 h and h (Fig. 9). There was around 10%, 28%,
thors with K=Ko and d=0.67/. The lateral wall 43% and 60% reduction of vertical normal stress
movements on excavation were investigated in along stope centre line when compared to the over-
FLAC, and were found to be less than 0.002 h re- burden pressure at above depths respectively.
quired to produce active state. Moreover, there is no
lateral deformation along the stope centre line and the Effects of friction angles on stress developments
fill is rest state with K=Ko. Therefore, the proposed within the stopes
solution K=Ko and d=0.67/ is more realistic
assumption similar to real situation and it is evident Laboratory tests were carried out on four different
from Fig. 8 that gives very closer to numerical types of mine tailings to investigate the variation of
modelling results. The lateral variation of vertical friction angles with relative densities at the James

123
Geotech Geol Eng (2007) 25:25–35 33

Fig. 8 Comparison of Vertical stress σv (kPa)

vertical normal stresses ðrv Þ 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
from analytical, Numerical 0
solutions and overburden
stress along the circular 10
stope centre line

Depth within the fill h (m)

HF 60 m
20
K = Ko & δ = φ

30
Overburden pressure ( = γh)
20 m
40
K = Ka & δ = φ FLAC
50
Proposed (δ = 0.67φ & K = Ko)
60

70

Fig. 9 Variation of vertical 1200

stresses across the circular
stope width at different
level of stope heights with 1000
corresponding overburden
Vertical stress σv (kPa)

pressures
800

600

400

200

0
-10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10
Stope width w (m)

1/4 FLAC 1/4 Overburden 1/2 FLAC 1/2 Overburden

3/4 FLAC 3/4 Overburden Bottom-FLAC Bottom-Overburden

Table 1 Experimental
No Name of Hydraulic fills Friction angles with status of the samples (Degrees)
results of friction angle
from different mining Very loose Loose Medium Dense Very dense
samples
1 A1 27.6 29.2 31 36.6 38.4
2 A2 28.2 29.4 32.3 38.2 –
3 C 29.7–31.1 30.4–33.1 31–36.3 33.6–38.7 –
4 D 29.9–35.2 30–36.2 33.4–38.5 36.7–43.6 43.6–49.2

Cook University, Australia. Table 1 outlines the fric- angles on stresses, both the narrow and circular stopes
tion angles for all mine samples at different packing, were considered in the modelling. Friction angles of
where friction angles vary from 30 to 49 depends on the 30, 35, 40 and 45 degrees have been used in studying
sample packing. To investigate the effect of friction the stress profile along the stope centre line.

123
34 Geotech Geol Eng (2007) 25:25–35

Fig. 10 Effect of friction Vertical stress σv (kPa)

angle of the backfill on 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
vertical stress ðrv Þ within 0
the narrow stopes
10

Depth within the fill h (m)

HF 60 m
20 30°
45°
30
Overburden pressure ( = γh)
10 m
40
40° 35°

50

60

70

Fig. 11 Effect of friction Vertical stress σv (kPa)

angle of fills on vertical
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
stress ðrv Þ along the stope 0
centre line within the
circular stopes 10
Depth within the fill h (m)

60 m
HF
20

30
45° 35°
20 m
40
30° Overburden pressure ( = γh)
40°
50

60

70

The effect of friction angles of the hydraulic fills on
vertical stresses was investigated for the narrow and
circular stopes along those centre lines using FLAC,
which are shown in Figs. 10 and 11 respectively. As
can be seen, within the upper third of the stope, the
vertical stresses are approximately same for all the
angles. Moreover, these values are nearly equal for 30
and 35 degrees from 1/3 to 4/5 stope height but these
are slightly reduced for 40 and 45 degrees. However,
closer to the stope floor region the vertical stresses
differ significantly for all angles, especially for larger
friction angles. There was around 50–100 kPa in-
crease in stress close to bottom of the stope when the
angles are 40 and 45, and the trend of a marked in-
crease in rv at the bottom of the stope is totally dif-
ferent compared to analytical solutions. Therefore,
further research is required to investigate this shape of
stress variation in order to receive full knowledge of
stress developments within the stopes for various
frictional angles at stope floor and closer regions.
Summary and conclusion
Marston’s (1930) analytical solution to estimate the
average normal vertical stress at any depth within the
mine fill were later extended by Terzaghi (1943) and
Aubertin et al. (2003). These were specifically for
long stopes that can be approximated as 2-dimen-
sional plane strain problems. These were extended to
a generalised 3-dimensional rectangular stope, which
are more common in the mines. The proposed gen-
eralised Marston theory is then extended to square
and circular stopes, mainly for comparison with
numerical models.

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Geotech Geol Eng (2007) 25:25–35
In Li et al. (2003) numerical model, at low friction
angles, the normal vertical stress exceeded the over-
burden pressure, which is unrealistic. It is shown that
such numerical problem occurs when the entire fill is
placed instantaneously with the sides fixed. When the
fill is placed in lifts or layers, the normal stress var-
iation with depth is more realistic.
Aubertin et al. (2003) suggested assuming d=/
and K=Ka, Ko or Kp. It appears from the investiga-
tion herein that d=0.67/ and K=Ko gives a very
close match with the numerical model solutions
obtained from FLAC. Infinitively, and as evident
from FLAC runs since there is very little lateral
deformation of the stope wall, at-rest (Ko) situation
should be more appropriate than active (Ka) or
passive (Kp) conditions. The angle of wall friction
(d) at the rock-fill interface is better taken as 0:67/
than as /.
The vertical stress distribution at different depths
was investigated using FLAC. While these can be
significantly less than the overburden stress, it is
reasonable to assume that there is no significant
variation laterally, across the stope.
Finally, the friction angles were found for four
different Australian mining samples at the James
Cook University laboratory, which were between 30
and 49 degrees. Further, the influence of friction
angles of the filling materials on stress development
investigated through numerical modelling. Stresses
were same values within the upper third of the stope
for all angles but reduced slightly for 40 and 45 de-
grees between 1/3 and 4/5 stope height. At the stope
bottom, the stress variation was completely different
shapes when compared to analytical solutions and
further research is required to investigate the stress
development fully within the stope region during the
filling operations.
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