ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to take this opportunity to express my deep sense of

gratitude to all those people without whom this project could have
never been completed. First and foremost I would like to thank my
parents for their inexhaustible source of inspiration.

I would also like to thank Ms. Aruna Ma’am, Principal, Tagore Academy
Public School, Faridabad for her constant encouragement and moral
support who is a supporter to make me a an independent one .

I would like to thank Ms. Swati Ma’am, Tagore Academy Public School,
Faridabad for her keen interest in my work and for their kind
supervision.

Their gratitude and supervision was very helpful in bringing this work to
conclusion.

SURAJ
NAME & SIGNATURE OF STUDENT

Date:
 CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the CHEMISTRY project titled ‘CLEANING
ACTION OF SOAP & DETERGENT’ has been successfully
completed by SURAJ of Class-XII in partial fulfillment curriculum
of CENTRAL BOARD OF SECONDARY EDUCATION (CBSE)
leading to the award of annual examination of the year 2019-
20.

INTERNAL EXAMINER TEACHER IN-

CHARGE

PRINCIPAL
 CONTENTS

S.No. Topics
1. Introduction of Soap

2. Mechanism of Cleaning Soap

3. Liquid Soap

4. Soap Making Process

5. Detergent

6. Chemical Classification of Detergent

7. Major Application of Detergent

8. Cleaning Action of Soap & Detergent

9. Bibliography
 Introduction of Soap
In chemistry, a soap is a salt of a fatty acid. Household uses for soap include,
bathing and other types of housekeeping, where soaps act as surfactants,
emulsifying oils to enable them to be carried away by water. In industry they
are also used in textile spinning and are important components of some
lubricants.

Soaps for cleaning are obtained by treating vegetable or animal oils and fats
with a strong base, such as sodium hydroxide or potassium hydroxide in an
aqueous solution. Fats and oils are composed of triglycerides; three
molecules of fatty acids attach to a single molecule of glycerol. The alkaline
solution, which is often called lye (although the term “lye soap” refers
almost exclusively to soaps made with sodium hydroxide), brings about a
chemical reaction known as saponification.

In this reaction, the triglyceride fats first hydrolyze into free fatty acids and
then they combine with the alkali to form crude soap: an amalgam of
various soap salts, excess fat or alkali, water, and liberated glycerol(glycerin)
are useful by-product, can remain in the soap product as a softening agent
or the isolated for other uses.

Soaps are key components of most lubricating greases, which are usually
emulsions of calcium soap or lithium soap and mineral oil. Many other
metallic soaps are useful, including those of aluminium, sodium, and
mixtures of them. Such soaps are also used as thickeners to increase the
viscosity of oils. In ancient times, lubricating greases were made by the
addition of lime to olive oil.
 MECHANISM OF CLEANSING SOAPS
Action of Soaps:
When used for cleansing, soap allows insoluble particles to become soluble in
water, so they can then be rinsed away. For example: oil/fat is insoluble in water,
but when a couple of drops of dish soap are added to the mixture, the oil/fat
solubilizes into the water. The insoluble oil/fat molecules become associated
inside micelles, tiny spheres formed from soap molecules with polar hydrophilic
(water-attracting) groups on the outside and encasing a lipophilic (fat-attracting)
pocket, which shields the oil/fat molecules from the water making it soluble.
Anything that is soluble will be washed away with the water.

Effect of the Alkali:

The type of alkali metal used determines the kind of soap product. Sodium soaps,
prepared from sodium hydroxide, are firm, whereas potassium soaps, derived
from potassium hydroxide, are softer or often liquid. Historically, potassium
hydroxide was extracted from the ashes of bracken or other plants. Lithium soaps
also tend to be hard-these are used exclusively in greases.

Effects of Fats:
Soaps are derivatives of fatty acids. Traditionally they have been made from
triglycerides (oils and fats). Triglyceride is the chemical name for the trimesters of
fatty acids and glycerin. Tallow, i.e., rendered beef fat, is the most available
triglyceride from animals. Its saponified product is called sodium tallowate.
Typical vegetable oils used in soap making are palm oil, coconut oil, olive oil, and
laurel oil. Each species offers quite different fatty acid content and hence, results
in soaps of distinct feel. The seed oils give softer but milder soaps. Soaps made
from pure olive oil is sometimes called Castile soap or Marseille soap, and is
reputed for being extra mild. The term “Castile” is also sometimes applied to
soaps from a mixture of oils, but a high percentage of olive oils.
Structure of a micelle, a cell-like structure formed by the
aggregation of soap subunits (such as sodium stearate): The
exterior of the micelle is hydrophilic (attracted to water) and
the interior is lipophilic (attracted to oils).
Fatty acid content of various fats used for soap making
Lauric Myristic Palmitic Stearic Oleic acid LinoleicLenol
acid acid acid acid acid eic
acid
Fats C12 C14 C16 C18 C18 C18 C18
satur saturat saturat monosatu monosat monosat mono
ated ed ed rated urated urated satur
ated
Tallow 0 4 28 23 35 2 1

Cocon 48 18 9 3 7 2 0
ut Oil

Palm 46 16 8 3 12 2 0
kernel
Oil
Laurel 54 0 0 0 15 17 0
Oil

Olive 0 0 11 2 78 10 0
Oil

Canola 0 1 3 2 58 9 23
Oil
 LIQUID SOAP

Liquid soap was not invented until the nineteenth century; in 1865, William
Shepphard patented a liquid version of soap. In 1898, B.J. Johnson developed a
soap (made of palm and olive oils); his company (the B.J. Johnson Soap Company)
introduced “Palmolive” brand soap become popular rapidly, and to such a degree
that B.J. Johnson Soap Company changed its name to Palmolive.

In the early 1900s, other companies began to develop their own liquid soaps.
Such products as Pine-Sol and Tide appeared on the market, making the process
of cleaning things other than skin, much easier.

Liquid soap also works better for more traditional/non-machine washing

methods, such as using a washboard.
 SOAP-MAKING PROCESSES

The industrial production of soap involves continuous processes, such as

continuous addition of fat and removal of product. Smaller-scale production
involves the traditional batch processes. The three variations are: the ‘cold
process’, wherein the reaction takes place substantially t room temperature, the
‘semiboiled’ or ‘hot process’, wherein the reaction takes place near the boiling
point, and the ‘fully boiled process’, wherein the reactants are boiled at least
once and the glycerol is recovered. There are several types of ‘semiboiled’ hot
process methods, the most common being DBHP (Double Boiler Hot Process)

And CPHP (Crock Pot Hot Process. Most soapmakers, however, continue to prefer
the cold process method