WRITING – A

DEFINITION
a. Definition of Writing
Writing skill is one of the most taxing jobs around, especially if you want to do it
skillfully. However, writing well is also one of the most useful crafts you can develop-
essential, even-and valuable to prospective employers (Mahan and Day.3.1984). Writing
skill, at least at rudimentary levels, is a necessary condition for achieving employment in
many walks of life and is simply taken for granted in literate cultures. In the field of second
language teaching, only a half-century ago experts were saying that writing was primarily
a convention for recording speech and for reinforcing grammatical and lexical features
and conventions. With such a monumental goal, the job of teaching writing has occupied
the attention of papers, articles, dissertations, books, and even separate professional
journals exclusively devoted to writing in a second language (Brown.218.2004).
b. Genre of Written Language
Here to include the most common genres that a second language writer might
produce, within and beyond the requirements of a curriculum. Even though this list is
slightly shorter, you should be aware of the surprising multiplicity of options of written
genres that second language learners need to acquire (Brown.219.2004).
There are Three Genres of Writing, First Academic Writing such as: (papers and
general subject reports; essays, compositions; academically focused journals; short-
answer test responses; technical reports (e.g., lab reports); theses, dissertations), Second,
Job-related writing such as: (messages (e.g., phone messages); letters/emails; memos
(e.g., interoffice); reports (e.g., job evaluations, project reports); schedule, labels, signs;
advertisements, announcements; manuals), Third, Personal Writing, such as: (letters,
emails, greeting card, invitations; messages, notes; calendar entries, shopping list,
reminders; financial documents (e.g., checks, tax forms, loan applications); forms,
questionnaires, medical reports, immigration documents; diaries, personal journals;
fiction (e.g., short stories, poetry)).
c. Types of Writing Performance
There are four types of written performance that the range of written production
are considered here. Each category resembles the categories defined for the other there
skills, but these categories, as always, reflect the uniqueness of the skill area. First,
Imitative. To produce written language, the learner must attain skills in the fundamental,
basic tasks of writing letters, words, punctuation, and very brief sentences. These category
includes the ability to spell correctly and to perceive phoneme-grapheme
correspondences in the English spelling system. Second, Intensive (controlled), beyond the
fundamentals of imitative writing are skills in producing appropriate vocabulary within a
context, collocations and idioms, and correct grammatical features up to the length of a
sentence. Third, Responsive, here, assessment tasks require learners to perform at a
limited discourse level, connecting sentences into a paragraph and creating a logically
connected sequence of two or three paragraphs. Fourth, Extensive, extensive writing
implies successful management of all the processes and strategies of writing for all
purposes, up to the length of an essay, a term paper, a major research project report, or
even a thesis (Brown.220.2004).
d. Micro skills and Macro skills of writing
The earlier micro skills apply more appropriately to imitative and intensive types of
writing task, while macro skills are essential for the successful mastery of responsive and
extensive writing. Micro skills of writing, such as: produce graphemes and orthographic
patterns of English; produce writing at an efficient rate of speed to suit the purpose;
produce an acceptable core of words and use appropriate word order patterns; use
acceptable grammatical system (e.g., tense, agreement, patterns, and rules); express a
particular meaning in different grammatical forms; use cohesive devices in written
discourse. In addition, Macro skills of writing, such as: use the rhetorical forms and
conventions of written discourse; appropriately accomplish the communicative functions
of written texts according to form and purpose; convey links and connections between
events, and communicate such relation as main idea, supporting idea, new information,
given information, generalization, and exemplification; distinguish between literal and
implied meanings when writing; correctly convey cultural specific references in the
context of the written text; develop and use a battery of writing strategies, such as
accurately assessing the audience’s interpretation, using prewriting devices, writing with
fluency in the first drafts, using paraphrases and synonyms, soliciting, peer and instructor
feedback, and using feedback for revising and editing (Brown.221.2004).

1.2 Genre of Paragraph

Paragraph are the essential building blocks of your writing. They mark the flow of
your argument, with each paragraph focusing on one main idea and a cluster of connected
sentences to expound upon and amplify it (Svobodova.7.2000). A paragraph can give
information, tell opinion, explain something, or even tell a short story. The sentences are
arranged logically, so the reader can easily understand what the writer wants to say
(Zemach and Islam.9.2005). Nevertheles, Zemach and Rumisek (11.2005), definition of
paragraph is a group of sentences about single topic, together, the sentences of the
paragraph explain the writer’s main idea about the topic.
There are several ways to organize sentences in paragraph; The arrangement of
sentences and details depend on writer’s purpose. Moreover, based on Competence
Based Curriculum (47-49.2004) there are twelve genre of writing: Narrative, Recount,
Description, Report, Explanation, News Item, Procedure, Anecdote, Discussion, Analytical
Exposition, Hortatory Exposition, and Review.
Narrative paragraph is used to amuse, entertain and to deal with actual or
vicarious experience in different ways. In addition, Narrative deals with problematic
events which lead to a crisis or turning point of some kind, which in turn finds a resolution.
In stead of these , narrative texts come in subcategories such as realistic fiction, historical
fiction, folk stories, fantasies, legends, and works of magical realism or science fiction
(Crawford et.at. 43.2005). The characteristic of Narrative paragraph are focusing on
specific and usually individualized participants, using material processes, using relational
processes and metal processes, using temporal conjunction and temporal circumstances,
and using past tense. Narrative paragraph has generic structure such as:
 Orientation (sets the sense and introduces the participants);
 Complication (a crisis arises);
 Resolution (the crisis is resolved, for better or worse); and
 Re-orientation (closing the narration by using personal comment or opinion; it is
optional).
Recount is a paragraph that the social function is used to retell events for the
purpose of informing or entertaining. Moreover, the characteristics of recount paragraph
are focusing on specific participants, using materials processes, circumstance of time and
place, using past tense and focusing on temporal sequence, this paragraph has generic
structure such as: orientation (provides the setting and introduces participant), Events
(tell what happened and what in what sequence), and Reorientation (optional closure of
events).
Description is paragraph that is used to describe a particular person, place or
thing. A descriptive paragraph explains how something or someone looks of feels (Zemach
& Rumisek.11.2005). Moreover, characteristics of description paragraph are focusing on
specific participants, using attribute and identifying processes, frequently using epithets
and classifiers in nominal groups, and using simple present tense. Description paragraph
has generic structure such as: Identification that identifies phenomenon to be described
and Description that describes parts, qualities, and characteristic.
Report is used to describe the way things are, with reference to a range of natural,
man, mode and social phenomena in our environment. In addition, Characteristics of
Report are focusing on generic participants, using simple present tense (unless extinct),
and using no temporal sequence. Generic Structure of this paragraph are General
Classification and Description. General classification tell what the phenomenon under
discussion is and Description tells what the phenomenon under discussion is like in terms
of parts, qualities, and habits or behaviors.
Explanation paragraph is used to explain the processes involved in the formation
or workings of natural or socio cultural phenomena ; Characteristics of this paragraph are
focusing on generic non human participants, using mainly of material and relational
processes, using mainly of temporal and causal circumstances and conjunction, and using
some of passive voice to get a right theme. In addition, Generic structure of explanation
paragraph is a general Statement to position the reader and a sequence of explanation of
why or how something occurs.
News Item is used to inform readers, listeners or viewers about events of the day
which are considered newsworthy or important ; The characteristic of this paragraph is
short telegraphic information about story captured in headline, using material processes
tom retell the event, using projecting verbal processes in sources stage, and focusing on
circumstance. Moreover, Generic structure of News Item such as : Newsworthy Event
consist of recounts the event in summary form, Background Events elaborate what
happened, to whom, in what circumstances, and sources are comments by participants in,
witnesses to and authorities’ expert on the event.
 Procedure is used to describe how something in accomplished through a sequence
of actions or steps. The characteristics of procedure are focusing on generalized human
agents, using simple present tense, often imperative, using mainly temporal conjunctions,
and using mainly material processes ; Generis Structure of procedure is Goal (showing the
purpose), Material (telling the needed material), and Steps (describing the steps to
achieve the purpose).
Anecdote is used to share with others an account of unusual or amusing incidents.
It has some characteristic in writing such as: using exclamations, rhetorical questions and
intensifier (really, very, quite, etc) to point up the significance of the events, using
materials processes to tell what happened, and using temporal conjunction. Furthermore,
Generic Structure of Anecdote are Abstract (signals the retelling of an unusual incident),
Orientation (sets the scene), Crisis (provides details of the unusual incidents), Reactions
(reactions to crisis), and Coda (optional-reflection on or evaluation of the incident).
Discussion paragraph is used to present at least two points of view about an issue.
The significant lexicon grammatical features of this paragraph as follows:
 Focusing on generic non-human participants;
 Using material processes (e.g. has produced, have developed, to feed), relational
processes (e.g. could, have, cause, are), and mental processes (e.g. feel);
 Using comparative;
 Reasoning expressed as verb and nouns (abstraction)
Moreover, Generic Structure of Discussion paragraph are Issue (consists of statement
and preview), Argument (argument for and against statement of differing points of views
that consist of the point and elaboration), and Conclusion or Recommendation (consist of
the conclusion of the discussion and recommendation for the issue).
Analytical Exposition Paragraph is used to persuade the reader or listener. The
Characteristics of this paragraph are focusing on generic human and non human
participants, using simple present tense, using relational processes, using internal
conjunction to state argument, and reasoning through casual conjunction or
nominalization; The Generic Structures of Analytical Exposition Paragraph are Thesis,
Arguments, and Reiteration, thesis consist of position (introduces topic and indicates
writer’s position) and preview (outlines the main arguments to be presented). Arguments
consist of point (restates main arguments outlined in preview) and elaboration (develops
and supports each point/arguments). Reiteration restates writer’s position.
Hortatory Exposition is used to persuade the reader or listener that something
should or should not be the case. Characteristic of this paragraph can be explained as
follows:
 Focusing on generic human and non human participants, except for speaker or
writer referring to self;
 Using mental processes to state what writer thinks or feels about issue (e.g.
realize, feel, appreciate), material processes to state what happens (e.g. is
polluting, drive, travel, spend, and should be treated), relational processes to state
what is or should be (e.g. doesn’t seem to have been, is); and
 Using simple present tense
In Stead of these the Generic Structure of hortatory exposition is Thesis (an
announcement of issue concern), Argumentation (consist of reasons for concerning and
leading to recommendation), and Recommendation (statement of what should not
happen).
Review is a paragraph that has social function to criticize an art work, event for
public audience. In addition, such works arts include movies, TV shows, books, plays,
operas, recordings, exhibitions, concert, and ballets; Characteristics of review are focusing
on particular participants, direct expression of options through using attitudinal epithets
in nominal groups; qualitative attributive affective mental processes, using elaborating
and extending clause and group complexes to package the information, and using
metaphorical language. Moreover, Generic Structures of review can be explained by
follows:
 Orientation: places the work in its general and particular context, often by
comparing it with others of its kind or through analogue with a non-art object or
event;
 Interpretive recount: summaries the plot and/or provides as account of how the
reviewed rendition of the work came into being: is optional, but present, often
recursive; and
 Evaluative Summation: provides a kind of punch line which sums up the reviewer’s
opinion of the art event as a whole is optional.

2.3 Conception of Descriptive

Descriptive is paragraph that is used to describe a particular person, place or thing.
A descriptive paragraph explains how something or someone looks of feels (Zemach &
Rumisek.11.2005). Moreover, characteristics of description paragraph are focusing on
specific participants, using attribute and identifying processes, frequently using epithets
and classifiers in nominal groups, and using simple present tense. Description paragraph
has generic structure such as: Identification that identifies phenomenon to be described
and Description that describes parts, qualities, and characteristic.

2.4 Teaching Writing through English Grammatical Transformation-based Learning

In the heyday of structural paradigms of language teaching with slot-filter
techniques and slot substitution drills, the practice of making grammatical
transformations-orally or in writing – was very popular. To this day, language teachers
have also used this technique as an assessment task; ostensibly to measure grammatical
competence. Numerous versions of the task are possible:
 Change the tenses in a paragraph
 Change full forms of verbs to reduced forms (contractions)
 Change statements to yes/no or wh-questions
 Change questions into statement
 Combine two sentences into one using a relative pronoun
 Change direct speech to indirect speech
 Change from active to passive voice
The list of possibilities is almost endless. The tasks are virtually devoid of any meaningful
value. Sometimes test designers attempt to add authenticity by providing a context
(Today Doug is doing all these things. Tomorrow he will do the same things again. Write
about what Doug will do tomorrow by using the future tense) but this is just a backdrop
for a written substitution task. On the positive side, grammatical transformation tasks are
easy to administer and are therefore practical, quite high in scorer reliability, and
arguably tap into knowledge of grammatical forms that will be performed through writing.
If you are only interested in a person’s ability to produce the forms, then such tasks may
prove to be justifiable.

2.5 Assessment of Descriptive Paragraph Writing

Formative assessment is generally defined as taking place during a course with
express purpose of improving pupil learning (Pryor and Torrance.8.2000). the process of
formative assessment could be largely teacher controlled, with teacher providing
feedback to pupils on how well they have achieved particular objectives at a particular
point in time, and what else they might need to do in order to improve. English teachers
need to assess what they already inculcated to their students so that they will know to
what extent the student have achieved the previously formulated instructional objectives.
Pedagogically valid and reliable assessment can give a lot of informative feedback to the
English teacher, in the sense they are well informed concerning the weakness and the
strengths of their teaching. Realizing the drawbacks and the strengths of their instruction
they can take more effective attempts and measure in dealing with the unsolved problems
faced by the students’ writing skill. Since writing is a complex activity, it may be hard to
evaluate.
Writing skill is difficult to score because it includes some subjective judgments
from the teachers. In order to increase the objectivity and to increase the reliability of
scoring, the student’s paragraph writing should be co-scored or co-marked. The scores
given by three markers are considered to be more valid and reliable than the score given
by a single scorer.
The main features of different forms of writing are used appropriately, beginning
to be adapted to different readers (Toalan.149.2009). Sequences of sentences extend
ideas logically and words are chosen for variety and interest, the basic grammatical
structure of sentences is usually correct. Spelling is usually accurate, including that of
common, polysyllabic words. Punctuation to mark sentences-full stop, capital letters and
question marks-is used accurately. Handwriting is joined and legible. Pupil’s writing in a
range of forms is lively and thoughtful. Ideas are often sustained and developed in
interesting ways and organized appropriately for the purpose of the reader. Vocabulary
choices are often adventurous and words are used for effect. Pupils are beginning to use
grammatically complex sentences, extending meaning. Spelling, including that of
polysyllabic words that conform to regular patterns, is generally accurate. Full stop, capital
letters and question marks are used correctly, and pupils are beginning to use punctuation
within the sentence. Handwriting style is fluent, joined and legible.
 In this study the researcher uses a subjective test to measure the student’ ability in
writing a descriptive paragraph. The researcher asks the students to write a paragraph
according to the topic and then they collect their work to their teacher.

Introduction
Writing is the productive skill in the written mode. It, too, is more complicated than
it seems at first, and often seems to be the hardest of the skills, even for native
speakers of a language, since it involves not just a graphic representation of speech,
but the development and presentation of thoughts in a structured way.
Micro-skills
Here are some of the micro-skills involved in writing. The writer needs to:
 use the orthography correctly, including the script, and spelling and
punctuation conventions.
 use the correct forms of words. This may mean using forms that express the
right tense, or case or gender.
 put words together in correct word order.
 use vocabulary correctly.
 use the style appropriate to the genre and audience.
 make the main sentence constituents, such as subject, verb, and object,
clear to the reader.
 make the main ideas distinct from supporting ideas or information.
 make the text coherent, so that other people can follow the development of
the ideas.
 judge how much background knowledge the audience has on the subject
and make clear what it is assumed they don't know.

Purpose of Writing

When we communicate with other people, we are usually guided by some purpose, goal, or aim.
We may want to EXPRESS our feelings. We may want simply to EXPLORE an idea or perhaps
ENTERTAIN or AMUSE our listeners or readers. We may wish to INFORM people or EXPLAIN an
idea. We may wish to ARGUE for or against an idea in order to PERSUADE others to believe or act in
a certain way. We make special kinds of arguments when we are EVALUATING or
PROBLEM SOLVING. Finally, we may wish to MEDIATEor NEGOTIATE a solution in a tense or
difficult situation. Remember, however, that often writers COMBINE PURPOSES in a single piece
of writing. Thus, we may, in a business report, begin by informing readers of the economic facts
before we try to persuade them to take a certain course of action.