AA - CHE324 - Principles of Transport Processes

CHE 324: Principles of Transport Processes
Reviewer for Principles of Transport Processes I. INTRODUCTION TO TRANSPORT

PHENOMENA
Table of Contents
Objectives:
I. Introduction to Transport Phenomena…1
A. Derivation of Transport Equations………..3  To differentiate Transport from Transfer,
B. Applications of Transport Equations……..3 Molecular from Turbulent transport
i. Applications on Mass Transport  To set up the equation for heat, mass and
Equation…………………………………………….4 momentum transport
ii. Applications on Momentum Transport  To apply the transport equations to
Equation…………………………………………….6 boundary value problems
iii. Applications on Heat Transport  To use Perry's Handbook to get transport
Equation…………………………………………….7 properties
II. Heat Transport by Conduction……………...7
A. Steady State Conduction………………………8
i. Evaluation of km…………………………………8 Transport – the motion of a certain property from
ii. Evaluation of Am…………………………………8 one point to another within a single phase (ex. milk
iii. Multiple Resistances………………………...10 and coffee)
a. In Series……………………………………..10
 Molecular Transport
b. In Parallel…………………………………...10
– The motion is through individual
B. Unsteady State Conduction………………..11
molecules.
III. Heat Transport by Convection…………….14
– It is due to collision.
A. Evaluation of Heat Transfer
 Turbulent Transport
Coefficient........................................................17
– The motion is through clusters of
i. No Phase Change………………………….19
molecules.
ii. With Phase Change……………………….22
– It is due to migration.
IV. Heat Transport by Radiation……………….23
A. Evaluation of View Factor……………………26 Transfer – refers to transport involving more than
B. Evaluation of hc (natural convection)…..27 one system; considers the over-all transport process
V. Mass Transfer Fundamentals……………....29 (ex. sugar and water)
A. Evaluation of Mass Diffusivity……………..29 Similarity of transport from transfer – both refer to
B. General Diffusion Flux Equation………….30 movement
C. Mass Transfer Coefficient……………………31
Printed Learning Resources:

- Perry’s Chemical Engineers Handbook (abbv. PHB) Phenomenon – something that can be observed and
- Transport Processes and Unit Operations 3rd edition by studied, and that typically is unusual/ difficult to
Geankoplis (abbv. Geankoplis) understand
“You don’t have to be great to start, but you have

to start to be great.”
UST ChES | Academic Affairs Committee ’17-’18 | Charlene Mae V. Tapit | page 1
Transport Mechanics Molecular Transport and the States of Matter
1. Mass Transport  Gases

– movement of components, usually due to – contain relatively few molecules per unit
difference in concentration volume
Applications: Distillation, Gas Absorption, Drying, – Each molecule has fewer neighbors to interact.
Liquid Extraction, Leaching, Drop of ink in water, – weak intermolecular forces of attraction
Perfume diffusing across the room, Transpiration, – Molecules are free to move before collision.
Wood Preservation
2. Heat Transport
– Thermal energy travels across the molecules
due to difference in temperature.
Applications: Conduction, Convection, Radiation
3. Momentum Transport
– Transport is due to difference in velocities
across the phase(s) involved.  Liquids
Applications: Fluid Flow, Sedimentation – higher concentration of molecules per volume
– more interaction opportunities
– stronger intermolecular forces than gases
Newtonian Fluids – the slower one layer slides over – slower velocity, but higher collision frequency
another, the lesser resistance there is; no difference
between the speeds = no resistance (ex. water and
gasoline)
Non-Newtonian Fluids – doubling the speed that the

layers slide past each other does not double the
resisting force; may be less than double or more
than double  Solids
a) Thixotropic fluids – closely packed molecules
– displays a decrease in viscosity over time at – restricted molecular motion
a constant rate (ex. gels and lotions) – strong intermolecular forces
b) Shear thinning fluid/ Pseudoplastic – almost no molecular migration
– displays decreasing viscosity with
increasing shear rate (ex. lava, ketchup,
whipped cream)
c) Rheopectic fluid
– displays an increase in viscosity with
increasing shear rate (ex. quicksand and
gravy)
Comparison of Transport Rates
 Mass Transport: Gases > Liquids > Solids

 Heat Transport: Solids > Liquids > Gases
 Momentum Transport: Liquids > Gases > Solids
General Molecular Transport Equation
Based on the Kinetic Theory of Model Gases:
 Gas molecules are perfect spheres of

diameter σ.
 Actual molecular volume is very much
smaller than the volume between molecules.
 All collisions are perfectly elastic.
 Each molecule has a random speed, c.
 Each molecule moves a distance l (mean free
Ψ2-1 = 1/6 Γ2(-c) Ψ = net flux = Ψ1-2 + Ψ2-1
path) between collisions.
 time between collisions: θ = l / c c = l/θ Ψ = 1/6 c [Γ1 - Γ2]
A. Derivation of Transport Equations
dΓ
dx
= concentration gradient; slope Γ vs x
dΓ Γ2 − Γ1
For 1 to 2: dx
= l−0
dΓ
Ψ = 1/6 c [Γ1 - Γ2] Ψ = (1/6 c) l dx
dΓ
Γ1 - Γ2 = -l dx
where:
Ψ = δ(-dΓ/dx) General Molecular Transport Equation
Γ (gamma) = concentration of transferent property
(amount of transferent property per volume)
Ψ (psi) = molecular flux (amount of transferent

B. Applications of Transport Equations
1. Mass Transport
property per time per area)
NA −dCA
Ψ = Γc where c is the molecule speed (distance per Fick’s Law: A
=D dx
time)
where NA = kgmol transported/time
Consider Planes 1 and 2: for the x direction A = transport area (normal to flow)
= ⊥ to the flow of mass

Ψ1 = total concentration of property from any plane 1
D = δ = mass diffusivity, m2/s
= Γ1c
CA = Γ in moles/volume
Ψ1-2 = 1/6 Γ1c (1/6 represents the +x contribution)
Ψ = NA/A
2. Heat Transport i. Applications on Mass Transport Equation
Fourier’s Law:
q
= −α
d(ρCp T) Other forms of CA:
A dx
dT Gases: Ideal Gas Law (A = solute; B = medium)

= −αρCp dx
PV = nRT
q dT
= −k dx
A P = nRT/V
where q = rate of heat transport
CA = nA/V = PA/RT
k = αρCp = thermal conductivity
NA −DAB dPA
unit: W/m-K; BTU/hr-ft-°F = ( dx ) (R = 0.08205 atm-m3/kgmol-K)
A RT
α = δ = thermal diffusivity Humidity: (A = H2O vapor; B = air)

ρCp T = Γ
Absolute Humidity
Ψ = q/A
kg H O PA 18 nA 18
H = kg dry2 air = ∙
PT −PA 29
= ∙
nB 29
3. Momentum Transport
Fy gc d(ρv) Relative Humidity
Newton’s Law: A
= τygc = -ν dx
P
RH = PA∘ x100
dv
τygc = -μ dx
A
nA P PA
Fy ma nB
= PA = PT −PA
(mole ratio = pressure ratio)
where τy = = = shearing stress B
A A
kg−m/s2 Evaluation of Diffusivity (DAB):

gc = 32.2 ft/s2 = 1
N
Gases at 1 atm: Table 2-324 (PHB)
ν (nu)= kinematic viscosity (m2/s)
μ = νρ = absolute viscosity (kg/m-s) Correction for Pressure and Temperature:
For Real Gases and Polar Gases

DAB P DAB P
Getting Transport Properties from PHB: ( ) = ( 3/2 )
T 3/2 T
Handbook Given
Mass Diffusivity (DAB and DL): Tables 2-324,325
For Gaseous Hydrocarbons
Thermal Conductivity (k): Tables 2-326,327
DAB P DAB P
( ) = ( 1.75 )
Viscosity (μ): Table 2-313/Chart 2-318 T 1.75
Handbook T Given
Specific Heat (Cp): Table 2-152
Density (ρ): Table 2-32
Normal Boiling Point: Tables 2-1,2
Example 1. Diffusion of solute vapor in gas
a) Calculate the mass flux of benzene vapor in air,

10 mm thick at 0°C and 1 atm. The partial
pressure at one side of the layer is 6 kPa and 2
kPa on the other side of the layer.
NA −D (P −P )
Soln = RTAB ( (xA2 −x A1) )
Given A – benzene T = 273K A 2 1
DAB P DAB P
( T1.75 ) = ( T1.75 )
B – air P = 1 atm HB Given
7.7x10−6 (101.325) DAB (80)

( 2731.75
) = ( 298 1.75 )
PHB Given
DAB = 1.14x10-5 m2/s
A = area ⊥ to the direction of motion
π π 1 2
= 4 d2 = (
4 1000
) = 7.85x10−7 m2
1.14x10−5 2−6
NA = -(7.85x10-7) ( )( )
8.314(298) 0.01−0
NA = 1.22x10-12 kgmol/s
Example 2. Diffusion of Liquids

Reqd NA/A = ?
Calculate the amount of methanol moving in water
NA −DAB dPA
Soln = ( dx ) at 30°C through a tube 1cm in diameter. The
A RT
concentrations of methanol at 2 points 1.2m apart
NA 0.01 −DAB 2
∫ dx = ∫ dPA R = 8.314 are 5M and 1M respectively.
A 0 RT 6
cm2 (1m)2 Given A – methanol T = 30°C

DAB = 0.077 s
∙ (100cm)2
= 7.7x10-6 m2/s
B – water d = 1cm
NA −DAB
A
(x2 − x1 ) = RT
(PA2 − PA1 )
NA −7.7x10−6 2−6
A
= 8.314(273) (0.01−0)
NA
= 1.36x10-6 kgmol/m2-s
A
b) If the total pressure is 600mm Hg and 25°C, find

the ratio of diffusion if the gas mixture is
diffusing through a tube 1mm in diameter. NA dCA
Formula A
= −DAB dx
Given T = 298K P = 600mm Hg = 80kPa
NA CA2 −CA1
= −DAB ( )
d = 1mm A x2 −x1
DL μ DL μ
( )
T PHB
= ( )
T Given
μ = viscosity of the solvent
Reqd NA ii. Applications on Momentum Transport

π π Equation
Soln A = 4 d2 = 4
(0.01)2 = 7.85x10−5 m2
Example 3. Two horizontal plates of 2m2 area are
-5 2 -9 2
DL = 1.6x10 cm /s = 1.6x10 m /s at 25°C spaced 10mm apart. The space is filled with
μ = 9.16x10−4 Pa-s at 25°C (from PHB) cyclohexane at 20°C. The lower plate is fixed and a
force of 1N is applied to the top of the plate.
μ = 8.22x10−4 Pa-s at 30°C (from PHB)
a) At what velocity (v1) does the top plate move?
1.6x10−9 (9.16x10−4 ) DL (8.22x10−4 ) b) What is the momentum flux (τygc) at the lower
=
298 303 plate?
DL at 30°C = 1.812884x10-9 m2/s Given
CA1 = 5 kgmol/m3
CA2 = 1 kgmol/m3
NA 1−5
7.85x10−5
= −1.81x10−9 (1.2−0)
NA = 4.74x10-13 kgmol/s
Soln
Fy gc v −v
a. = -μ [𝑥2 −𝑥1 ]
Practice Problems: A 2 1
μ = 9.785x10-4 Pa-s (from PHB using IPPR values)
Continue Example 1… m
1N 1kg − s 2 0 − v1
∙ = −9.875x10−4 kg/m − s [ ]
c) Solve (b) if CO2 is diffusing instead of benzene 2m 2 N 0.01 − 0
through a tube with an equilateral triangle cross v1 = 5.11 m/s2
section of side 1mm. D = 0.138 cm2/s at 0°C and Fy gc
1atm. Ans. NA = 1.394x10-12 kgmol/s b. A
= τygc = ½ = 0.5 kg/m-s2
d) Same as (b) but one side has an absolute
humidity of 0.04 and the other side a relative
Practice Problems:
humidity of 50%? Ans. NA = 8.24x10-13 kgmol/s
Continue Example 3…
c) Calculate the kinematic viscosity. (ρ = 777.724
b) Repeat the same for a tube with square cross-
kg/m3 from PHB)
section of side 1cm, concentrations of methanol
Ans. ν = 1.26x10-6 m2/s
at 2 points are 30% and 5% by weight.
d) What is the velocity of the fluid 4mm from the
ρ5% = 0.92g/mL; ρ30% = 0.88g/mL
fixed plate? Ans. v3 = 2.04m/s
Ans. NA = 1.03x10-12 kgmol/s
iii. Applications on Heat Transport Equation II. HEAT TRANSPORT BY CONDUCTION

Example 4. One end of an aluminum rod is heated Objectives:
to 400°C while the other end is maintained at 0°C in
 To differentiate Steady State from Unsteady
an ice-water bath. The rod has a triangular cross
State Conduction
section of side 10mm and 1m long. Calculate:
 To set up the equation for heat transport
a) the heat flux through the rod (q/A) through slabs, cylinders and spheres
b) the rate of heat loss in the rod (q  To solve the Fourier Equation in terms of
Resistances in parallel and series
Given
 To use Perry's Handbook to get thermal
conductivities
 To solve Unsteady state conduction
problems
Soln
a. Tave =
T1 +T2
= 200°C = 473K Modes of Heat Transfer
2
Interpolation (PHB) T 400K 473K 500K Heat Transfer – is thermal energy transfer that is
induced by a temperature difference (or gradient)
k 240 x 237
1. Conduction – occurs when a temperature
473−400 x−240
= x = k = 237.81 W/m-K gradient exists through a solid or a stationary
500−400 237−240
fluid (liquid or gas)
0−400
q/A = -273.81[ ] = 95124 W/m2 2. Convection – occurs within a moving fluid or
1−0
between a solid surface and a moving fluid, when
√3 2 √3
b. A = 𝑠 = (0.01)2 = 4.33x10-5 m2 they are at different temperatures (ex. smoke
4 4
q = 95124 W/m2 (4.33x10-5 m2) = 4.11W given off by the fire)
3. Thermal Radiation – occurs between two
surfaces (that are not in contact), often in the
absence of an intervening medium (ex. heat from
Practice Problems:
the fire)
c) the temperature 20cm from the hotter end

THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY
Ans. T3 = 320°C
d) the thermal diffusivity Ans. α = 237.81 W/m-K Matter is made up of particles that are in constant
vibration. When an object is heated, the particles
near the heated area vibrate faster and with larger
It’s not going to be easy, but it’s going to be worth amplitude. The faster moving particles collide with
slower moving neighboring particles, transferring
it.
energy to those particles, causing them in turn to
vibrate faster. As this process continues, heat is
transferred to other parts of the object. The process
is called conduction. Conduction can occur in solids,
liquids or gases but it cannot take place in a vacuum.
The Conduction Rate Equation a) If k is linear with T: k = a + bT

dT T T
 Heat rate in the x-direction: qx = -kAdx ∫T 1 kdT = ∫T 1(a + bT)dT
2 2
q dT
 Heat flux in the x-direction: qx = = -kdx T T
A = a∫T 1 dT+b∫T 1 TdT
2 2
T b
∫T 1 kdT = a(T1 − T2 ) + 2 (T12 − T22 )
2
b
a(T1−T2 )+ (T21 −T22 )
Therefore: km = 2
T1 −T2
T1 +T2
= a + b( )
2
 We assumed that T varies only in the x-direction, km = a + bTm

T=T(x). Direction of heat flux is normal to cross
sectional area A, where A is isothermal surface b) If k-T data is available: Use graphical
(plane normal to x-direction) integration.
T1 +T2
c) From tables and charts using Tave= 2
= Tm
ex. k = a + bT + cT2
A. Steady State Conduction
(Rate of heat flow = constant) T1 T1
∫ kdT = ∫ (a + bT + cT 2 )dT
Unidirectional Conduction – heat flow in one T2 T2
direction b c
k(T1 – T2) = a(T1 − T2 ) + 2 (T12 − T22 ) + 3 (T13 − T23 )
q dT
Fourier’s Law: A = -kdx c
k = a + bTm + 3 (T12 + T1 T2 + T22 )
T
∫T 2 −kdT −km (T2 −T1 )
q= 1
x dx = ∆x
∫x 2 A Am
1
∆𝑥 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
∆T
ii. Evaluation of Am: = ∫𝑥 2
𝐴𝑚 𝐴
∴q= -kmAm ∆x 1
a) Cylindrical Section
where km = mean thermal conductivity
Am = mean area
−∆T Driving Force

Other form: q = ∆x = Resistance
km Am
r2 r2
∆x r2 − r1 dr dr
= =∫ =∫
i. Evaluation of km: Am Am r1 A r1 2πrL
T 1 r dr 1
-km(T2 – T1) = ∫T 2 −kdT = 2πL ∫r 2 = 2πL [ln r2 − ln r1 ]
1 1 r
T ∆r 1 r
∫T 1 kdT = A = 2πL ln r2
km = 2
T2 −T1
Equation 1 m 1
2πL∆r
Am = r
ln 2
r1
x2
b) Spherical Section ∆x dx
=∫
Am x1 A
r2 r2
h hdr h dr
=∫ 2
= ∫
Am r1 ∆r(πr ) π∆r r1 r 2
1 1 1 r2 1 1 1 1 r2 −r1
= [− ] = [ − ]= [ ]
Am π∆r r r1 π∆r r1 r2 π∆r r1 r2
πD1 D2
Am = πr1r2 = 4
∆x x dx
= ∫x 2 Flow of heat is radial.
Am 1 A
∆r r dr d) Frustum of a square pyramid: Am = s1s2

Am
= ∫r 2 4π𝑟2 A = surface area = 4πr2
1
1 r dr
= 4π ∫r 2 r2 x = r (flow of heat)
1
1 1 𝑟2
= 4π [− 𝑟] Δx=Δr (thickness or solid part)
𝑟1
1 1 1
= 4π [𝑟 − 𝑟 ]
1 2
∆r 1 𝑟 −𝑟
Am
= 4π [ 𝑟2 𝑟 1 ] Am = 4πr1r2 = πD1D2
1 2
c) Frustum of a cone
𝑎2 𝑏2 −𝑎1 𝑏1
e) Frustum of a rectangular pyramid: Am= 𝑎 𝑏
ln 2 2
𝑎1 𝑏1
A = πr2
Δx = h (flow of heat)
By similar Δ’s:
x h h(r−r1)
=r x=
a 2 −r 1 ∆r Getting Transport Properties from PHB:
x h hdr
r−r1
= ∆r dx = ∆r
Properties of Steel Pipe: Tables 10-22
Thermal Conductivity (k): Tables 2-326,327
iii. Multiple Resistances a) Find the heat loss (q).

∆T
Review: q = -kA∆x =
Driving Force
=
∆T
∆x
Soln
Resistance
kA
∑ ∆T
q= RT
a. In Series
∑ ∆T 200−45
q= RT
=R
S +RLCM +RC
∆x ∆x
R= =
kA
D −D
kπL[ o D i]
ln o
Di
Steady State: q = q1 = q2
steel:
∑ΔT T1 − T2 T2 − T3
= = Do = 2.375in x
2.54cm 1m
x 100cm = 0.0603m
RT R1 R2 1in
∑ΔT = ΔT1 + ΔT2 Di = 2.067(0.0254) = 0.0525m
qRT = q1R1 + q2R2 Δx = 0.154(0.0254) = 0.0039m
RT = R1 + R2 + R3 +…… k = 45 W/m-K
0.0039
RS = = 0.000049 °C/W
0.0603−0.0525
45π(10)( 0.0603 )
Example 1. A 2-inch Sch 40 steel pipe 10m long is ln
0.0525
covered with 2 layers of insulation; 3 cm of light LCM:

carbonate magnesia followed by 2 cm of calcium
carbonate (CaCO3). The pipe carries steam that Di = 0.0603m
maintains the inside pipe wall at 200°C. The outside
Do = 0.0603 + 2(0.03) = 0.1203m
temperature of the calcium carbonate is at 45°C.
Thermal conductivity of steel is 45 W/mK Δx = 0.03m
Given k = 0.034(1.73) W/m-K

0.03
RS = = 0.1869 °C/W
0.1203−0.0603
0.034(1.73)π(10)( 0.1203 )
ln
0.0603
CaCO3:
Δx = 0.02m
k = 1.3(1.73) W/m-K
Di = 0.1203m
Do = 0.1203 + 2(0.02) = 0.1603m Example 2. A composite wall made up of (A): 2cm

0.02 layer of insulating wallboard (k= 0.3 W/mK),
RC = = 0.00203 °C/W (B): 2.5cm maple wood (k=3.4 W/mK); and (C): 1.8cm
0.1603−0.1203
1.3(1.73)π(10)( 0.1603 )
ln
0.1203 thick fir wood siding (k=8.5 W/mK). The fir wood and
200−45 maple wood are joined together by a 5cm uniform
q = 0.000049+0.1869+0.00203 = 820.20W
diameter iron nail (k=45 W/mK) while the insulating
b) Find the interfacial temperature (Ti) between the wallboard is glued to the maple wood by an
two insulation. adhesive of negligible resistance. The white fir wood
siding surface is at 50°C while the wallboard outer
Soln surface is at 25°C. Calculate the heat loss of the wall
T1 −T2 T2 −T3 is 70 cm high by 100 cm wide and the temperature
q= =
R1 R2 at the interface between A and B.
200−T′ T′ −Ti Ti −45
820.2 = = = Given
RS RLCM RC
Ti −45 T −45
820.2 = RC
i
= 0.00203
Ti = 46.67°C
Practice Problem:
c) Use asbestos instead of CaCO3 to find q and Ti.
Ans. q = 726.59W & Ti = 64.16°C
b. In Parallel
∑ ∆𝑇 50−25
Soln q = 𝑅𝑇
= 𝑅𝑇
Steady State: q = q1 + q2
T1 − T2 T1 − T2 T1 − T2 RT = RA + RBCD
= +
RT R1 R2 1
RBCD = 1 1
1 1 1 +
RBC RD
RT
= R1
+ R2
1
RBC = RB + RC
RT = 1 1
+ +⋯
𝑅1 𝑅2
A: Δx = 0.02m B. Unsteady State Conduction

A = 0.7m2 This happens when the temperature gradient
across the solid changes with time. This may be due
k = 0.028(1.73)
to unstable boundary temperatures at startup,
0.02
RA = 0.028(1.73)(0.7) = 0.5898 sudden temperature fluctuations during SSC/
internal generation of heat. (ex. startup of a
B: RB =
0.025
= 0.1882 furnace, heat treatment of solids, deep oil frying,
π 5 2
0.11(1.73)[0.7− (
4 100
) ] and change in weather)
C: RC =
0.018
= 0.2404 Uses:
π 5 2
0.062(1.73)[0.7− ( ) ]
4 100
Metallurgical Processes – heating/cooling metals
2.5+1.8
D: Δx = 100
= 0.043m but k varies with T so……… Food Processing – cooking, canning
Assume Ti = 29°C, Tave = 27°C ≈ 300K, k = 80W/m-K Paper Industry – wood logs are immersed in steam baths
0.043
RD = π 5 2
= 0.27375
80 ( )
4 100
𝛿 2 𝑇 𝛿 2 𝑇 𝛿 2 𝑇 𝑞̇ 1 𝛿𝑇
RBC = RB + RC = 0.4286 + + + =
𝛿𝑥 2 𝛿𝑦 2 𝛿𝑧 2 𝑘 𝛼 𝛿𝑡
1
RBCD = 1 1 = 0.167 General Unsteady State Equation
+
0.4286 0.27375
𝛿𝑇 𝛿 2𝑇
RT = RA + RBCD = 0.757 =𝛼 2
𝛿𝑡 𝛿𝑥
50−25
q= = 33.025W Unidirectional Unsteady Case with no heat
0.757
50−25 Ti −25
= Ti = 44.48°C – too far from the
0.757 RA
assumed value Getting Properties from Geankoplis:
Assume Ti = 44.48°C, Tave = 34.74°C ≈ 307.74K Gurney-Lurie Charts
k = 79.1486  Fig. 5.3-5/340 for large flat plate
RD = 0.2767  Fig. 5.3-7/343 for long cylinder
 Fig. 5.3-9/345 for sphere
RT = 0.7579
Heisler Charts
Ti = 44.46°C
 Fig. 5.3-6/341 for large flat plate
q = 32.99W  Fig. 5.3-8/344 for long cylinder
 Fig. 5.3-10/346 for sphere
Ave. Solid Temperature: Fig. 5.3-13/349
Semi-infinite solid: Fig. 5.3-3/337
Example 3. Cooling a Slab of Meat Interpolate:

1.53−1 𝑌−0.24
= 0.46−0.24
2−1
A slab of meat 25.4 mm thick originally at a uniform 177−T
Y = 0.3566 = 177−10 T = 117.5°C
temperature of 10°C is to be cooked from both sides
until the center reaches 121°C in an oven at 177°C. c) Determine the average temperature (Tave) after 10
The convection coefficient can be assumed constant minutes.
at 25.6 W/m2-K. Neglect any latent heat changes.
The thermal conductivity is 0.69 W/m-K and the Soln Geankoplis:
thermal diffusivity 5.85x10-4 m2/h. 177−T𝑎𝑣𝑒
X = 0.6 Y = 0.18 = 177−10
Tave = 146.94°C
Given
Practice Problems:
1. Cooling of a Steel Rod

t= 25.4 mm h=25.6 W/m2-K
A long steel rod 0.305 m in diameter is initially at a
T0=10°C k=0.69 W/m-K temperature of 588K. It is immersed in an oil bath
T=121°C (Center T) at x1 α=5.85x10-4 m2/h maintained at 311K. The surface convective
coefficient is 125 W/m2-K. Calculate the temperature
T1=177°C 10 cm from the center of the rod after 1 hr. The
a) Calculate the time (t) required. average physical properties of the steel are k=38
W/m-K and α =0.0381m2/h. Ans. T = 391K
Soln Heisler Chart: T (x = 0, t)
2. Temp. of Oranges on Trees During Freezing
T1 −T 177−121
Y= = = 0.34 Weather
T1 −T0 177−10
k In orange-growing areas, the freezing of the oranges

m= (relative resistance)
hx1 on the trees during cold nights is economically
0.69 important. If the oranges are initially at a
m = 35.6(0.0127) = 1.53
temperature of 21.1°C, calculate the center
αt 5.85x10−4 t temperature of the orange if exposed to air at –3.9°C
x = 2.2 = x2 = 0.01272
t = 0.6066 hr for 6 hr. The oranges are 102 mm in diameter and
1
the convective coefficient is estimated as 11.4 W/m2-
b) Determine the temperature (T) 8mm from the
K. The thermal conductivity, k is 0.431 W/m-K and
center after 30 minutes.
α= 4.65x10-4m2/h. Neglect any latent heat effects.
Soln Gurney-Lurie:
Ans. T = -2.65°C
30
5.85x10−4 ( )
x= 0.01272
60
= 1.81
𝑥 8
m = 1.53 n = 𝑥 = 12.7 = 0.63
1
“The expert in everything was once a beginner.”
From chart: m 1 1.53 2
n 0.63 ? 0.63
Y 0.24 ? 0.46
III. HEAT TRANSPORT BY CONVECTION Film Concept
Objectives:  When a rapidly moving fluid comes in contact

with a stationary phase, a thin film is formed.
 To differentiate convection from
 The thin film acts as a boundary layer between
conduction; forced from natural convection
the moving fluid and the wall. It contributes an
 To set up the overall heat transfer equation
additional resistance to heat flow.
based on Uo or Ui
 Heat Transfer occurs between a hot and cold
 To set up the Heat Transfer Equation
fluid separated by a wall (pipe).
 To solve heat transfer coefficients fluids
 In time and with continuous use, dirt and scales
flowing parallel to the heat transfer area
accumulate on the surface of the solid providing
 To use Perry's Handbook to get properties
additional resistance to heat flow.
of fluids
 To solve problems on double pipe heat
exchangers
CONVECTION
Liquids and gases are fluids. When a fluid is heated,

the part with a higher temperature expands more
and become less dense. This part thus rises while the
part lower in temperature sinks under the action of
gravity. This results in a bulk movement of hot and
cold fluid, whereby energy is transferred throughout
the fluid. This process is called convection.
Convection can only occur in fluids, i.e. liquids or gas.
It cannot take place in solids or in a vacuum. Heat is
transferred due to a mixing process between cold Steady State:
and hot portions of a fluid. ∑ ∆T
q= RT
Two types of Convection ∑ΔT = (T1 – TI) + (TI – TII) + (TII – TIII) + (TIII – TIV) + (TIV – T2)
1. Forced Convection ∑ΔT = T1 – T2
RT = Rinside film + Rinside dirt + Rwater + Routside dirt + Routside film

– mixing is due to mechanical means such as pumps,
compressions, agitators Conduction: R = kA
∆x
film: Δx is small.
∆x
=h
1
k
2. Natural Convection
h = individual heat transfer coefficient, W/m-K
– mixing is due to density difference arising from 1 1
temperature gradient Rfilm = hA dirt/scales: Rdirt = h
dA
hd = heat transfer coefficient for dirt/scales

(determined experimentally)
1 1 ∆x 1 1
RT = h A + h + kA + h +h
i i di Ai do Ao o Ao
Heat transfer in Pipes (cylinder) ex. Double Pipe Heat Exchanger
Heat Transfer Area:
Ai = πDiL
Ao = πDoL Concentric pipe system:

(𝐷𝑜 −𝐷𝑖 )𝐿
Am = π 𝐷 hot fluid - smaller tube
ln 𝑜
𝐷𝑖
cold fluid - annulus
1 1
RT = U =UA
o Ao i i Heat is transferred from the hotter fluid to the
1 1 1 ∆x 1 1 colder fluid.
= + + + +
Uo Ao hi Di hdi Ai kAlm hdo Ao ho Ao
2 Fluids:
1 Do Do ∆xDo 1 1
= + + + + Process Fluid – fluid needed later on in the process;
D
Uo hi Di hdi Di k o − D i hdo ho
Do flows through the inner tube.
ln D
i
Utility Fluid – flows through the annulus. Usually
1 1 1 ∆xDi Di Do water or steam.
= + + + +
Ui hi hdi kDlm hdo Do ho Do
For Heating:
∑ ∆T ∑ ∆T ∑ ∆T
q= = =
RT 1
Uo Ao
1
UiAi
Process Fluid – cold – inner tube
q = UoAo∑ΔT = UiAi∑ΔT Heat Transfer Equation Utility Fluid – hot – annulus
*Choice of whether to use Uo or Ui depends in the location In Cooling:

of the controlling resistance, where h is smaller.
Process Fluid – hot – inner tube
ex. ho = 1500  q = UoAo∑ΔT
Utility Fluid – cold – annulus
hi = 2400
Double Pipe Heat Exchanger
 made of concentric
pipes where cold and
hot liquid flows through
the tube or the annulus
 counter/ parallel flow
 SIMPLE STRUCTURE:
U-tube connects
straight pipes
∆T1 −∆T2
 heat transmission is ∆Tlm = ∆T1 Q = UAΔTlm
ln
∆T2
large
 easy to clean disassemble and assemble Thus, q =
Tlm
= UATlm q = UiAiΔTlm = UoAoΔTlm
RT
 used in medicine and food industry
NOTE: The values of hi and ho are dependent on the Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger
properties of the fluid and the type of flow.
Types of Flow
Co-current – the two fluids flow in the same

direction
 made of casing or shell with tubes arranged

inside
Counter current – opposite direction
 shell fluid and tube fluid flowing
 There are often baffles directing flow through
the shell.
Temperature Profile Example 1. Liquid benzene is to be cooled from

60°C to 20°C using water entering at 15°C and
Co-current: leaving at 25°C in a double pipe heat exchanger
composed of ¾ inch Sch 40 and 2” Sch 40 steel pipes.
Entering velocity of liquid benzene is 1.5 m/s. Flow
is counter current. If ho = 4400 and hi = 1800 W/m2-
K. Find the cooling water rate (w) and the length of
heat exchanger (L).
Given
(Thi − Tci ) − (Tho − Tco )

∆Tlm =
T −T
ln (T hi − Tci )
ho co
Counter current:
Do = 1.05”(0.0254) = 0.037m
Di = 0.824”(0.0254) = 0.021m
Δx = 0.113”(0.0254) = 0.00287m
ho = 4400 W/m2-K
hi = 1800 W/m2-K
(Tho − Tci ) − (Thi − Tco )
∆Tlm =
T −T
ln (Tho − T ci )
hi co
Soln wcpΔt = UiπDiLΔTlm
HTE: q = UiAiΔTlm = UiπDiLΔTlm (0.4457)(1790.4)(60-20) = 1366.2π(0.021)L(15.42)
= (wcpΔt)C6H6 = (WCpΔT)H2O L = 22.2m
w = vSρ
S = cross-sectional Area = ⊥ to flow of heat A. Evaluation of Heat Transfer Coefficient

A = πDL = heat transferred area = ⊥ to flow of heat
Properties of Benzene
t1 +t2 60+20
tave = 2
= 2
= 40°C
ρ = 857.936 kg/m3
Cp = 1790.4 J/kg-K
Properties of H2O
T1 +T2 15+25
T= = = 20°C
2 2
Cp = 4184 J/kg-K
π
w = vSρ = 1.5 ∙ 4 (0.0212 )[857.936] = 0.4457 kg/s
(0.4457)(1790.4)(60-20) = W(4184)(25-15)
Dimensionless Number in Heat Flow
W = 0.763 kg/s
1. Prandtl Number (Ludwig Prandtl – German
Physicist)
𝜈 Cp μ viscous diffusion rate
Pr = α = k
= thermal diffusion rate
where: ν = kinematic viscosity (m2/s)
α = thermal diffusivity (m2/s)
μ = dynamic viscosity (Pa-s)
k = thermal conductivity (W/m-K)
∆Tlm =
(60−25)−(20−15)
60−25 = 15.42 Cp = specific heat (J/kg-K)
ln( )
20−15
ρ = density (kg/m3)
1
Ui = 1 ∆xDi D
+ + i 2. Reynolds Number (Osborne Reynolds)
hi kDlm ho Do
=
1
= 1366.2 W/m2-K – gives a measure of the ratio of inertial forces to
1 0.00287(0.021) 0.021
+ +
1800
0.037−0.021
4400(0.037) viscous forces and consequently quantifies the
45[ 0.037 ]
ln
0.021 relative importance of these two types of forces for
given flow conditions.
ρvL vI gβ
Re = μ
= 𝑣
Flow in pipes L = D Rax = GrxPr = vα (TS − T∞ )x 3
where: v = mean velocity (m/s) where: T∞ = Quiescent temperature (fluid

temp far from the surface of the object)
L = hydraulic diameter
6. Graetz Number (Leo Graetz – Physicist)
3. Nusselt Number (Wilhelm Nusselt)
– characterizes laminar flow in conduit
– convection includes both advection and
conduction – useful in determining the thermally developing
flow entrance length in ducts.
– the conductive component is measured under the
same conditions as the heat convection but with a Gz ≤ 1000: thermally fully developed
stagnant fluid DH
Gz = RePr
L
hL Convective heat transfer coefficient hD
NuL = = Conductive heat transfer coefficient =
kf k
where: DH = diameter in round tubes/
where: kf = thermal conductivity of the fluid hydraulic diameter in arbitrary cross-section ducts
h = convective heat transfer coefficient 7. Stanton Number
4. Grashof Number (Franz Grashof – German – used to characterize heat transfer in forced
Engineer) convection flows
h Nu
– approximates the ratio of the buoyancy to viscous force St = C = RePr
p ρv
acting on a fluid; frequently in natural convection
gβ(TS −T∞ )L3

Heat Transfer Coefficient (hi and ho)
GrL = v2
for vertical flat plates
 hi and ho are needed to find Ui or Uo
gβ(TS −T∞ )D3
GrD = for pipes and bluff bodies  hi - heat transfer coefficient of the inner film.
v2
 ho - heat transfer coefficient of the outer film.
where: L and D = length scale basis  Discover formulas of h from the PHB.
g = acceleration due to Earth’s gravity To-do:
β = volumetric thermal expansion coefficient
Organize formulas (for hi and ho) to be used in
Ts = surface temperature convection.
(Obtained from pages 5-7 to 15 on PHB)
T∞ = bulk temperature
System of Classification:
L = length
1. Change in phase or no change in phase.
D = diameter 2. Forced, Natural Convection or Condensation
5. Rayleigh Number 3. Fluids inside or outside
4. Type of flow – turbulent, laminar or transition/
– product of Grashof and Prandtl numbers vertical or horizontal
– Nusselt # scales with Rayleigh rather than just
Grashof
i. No Phase Change Do = 1.05”(0.0254) = 0.037m
**Natural Convection will be tackled under Radiation. Di = 0.824”(0.0254) = 0.021m
Types of Flow Δx = 0.113”(0.0254) = 0.00287m
 Before getting into more about fluid flow we Soln

need to get a better understanding of what it is.
C6H6: μ = 4.327x10-4 Pa-s
Shear flow can be classified into two different
categories: Laminar and Turbulent. k = 0.139 W/m-K
 Laminar flow has motion that is very regular and
H2O: μ = 0.599 Pa-s
predictable. This can be seen when a water
faucet is turned on low. The water comes out in k = 1.025x10-3 W/m-K
straight lines and the motion is rather smooth.
 On the other hand, if the faucet is turned on high
the flow pattern becomes very irregular, with
chaotic trajectories which are no longer in
straight lines. This second type of flow is known
as turbulent flow.
Evaluation of hi (C6H6):
i. Forced Convection – No phase change
Turbulent Re≥10000 – Forced Convection
Laminar Re<2100 – Fluid flow in parallel to HTA
Transition 2100<Re<10000 – Round pipes

𝐷𝑖 ρv 0.021(1.5)(857.936)
Example 2. Unknown hi and ho (Turbulent) Re = =
μ 4.327𝑥10−4
Liquid benzene is to be cooled from 60°C to 20°C = 62456.63 > 10000 ∴ Turbulent
using water entering at 15°C and leaving at 25°C in
a double pipe heat exchanger composed of ¾ inch hi Di (f⁄2)[Re−1000]Pr
NuD = = f 2
k
Sch 40 and 2” Sch 40 steel pipes. Entering velocity of k 1+12.7( ) [Pr2/3 −1]
2
liquid benzene is 1.5 m/s. Flow is counter current.
Find the cooling water rate (w) and the length of f = 0.27 [0.79 ln(RD) – 1.64]-2 = 4.98x10-3
heat exchanger (L). Pr 0.11
k = ( Prb )
s
Given
Cp μ (1790.4)(4.327x10−4 )
Prb = k
= 0.139
= 5.57
Assume Ts = 30°C
Cp = 1761
μ = 5.643x10-4
k = 0.142
Prs =
1761(5.643x10−4 )
= 6.99 CHECK: Steady State
0.142
35−5
0.00498 q = qi = qo; ΔTlm = = 15.42°C
hi (0.021) 2
[62456.63−1000](5.57) 5.57 0.11 ln
35
0.139
= 0.00498 1/2
[6.99] 5
1+12.7( ) [5.572/3 −1]
2 ∆Tlm tb −ts 15.42 40−ts
1 = 1 1 = 1 ts = 29.29°C
 hi = 2334.01 W/m2-K UiAi hiAi 1545.52 2334.01
Evaluation of ho (Water): UiπDiLΔTlm = wcpΔt
– No Phase Change 1366.2π(0.021)L(15.42) = (0.4457)(1790.4)(60-20)
– Forced Convection L = 20.3m
– Parallel to HTA
– Annulus Example 3. Unknown hi (Laminar)
– Use Sieder-Tate Equation A hydrocarbon oil at 66°C enters inside a horizontal

pipe with an inside diameter of 0.925 cm and a
w = vSρ
length of 4.6 m with a flow rate of 36 kg/h. The inside
w
D[π 2 ]ρ
pipe surface is assumed constant at 177°C since
Re =
Dvρ
= 4
D ρ 4w
= πDμ steam is condensing outside the pipe wall and has a
μ μ
very large HTC. Neglect resistance of the steam and
ho Dh 4 1
μ 0.14 pipe wall. The properties of the oil are:
NuD = k
= 0.026Re5 Pr 3 ( μb )
s
Cpm= 2 kJ/kgK; km= 0.144 W/mK
4/5 μ D 0.6
= 0.026Re Pr1/3 [1 − 0.14 ( i ) ]
μs Do The viscosity of oil varies with temperature as
w follows:
Dh vρ Dh [ ]ρ
Re =
sρ
= outer tube heated
μ μ 66°C 93°C 121°C 149°C 177°C
π π
sannulus = (D2i − d2o ) = (0.0532 − 0.0372 ) 6.5cP 5.05cP 3.8cP 2.82cP 1.95cP
4 4
Dh = Di – do = 0.053 – 0.037 Find the exit temperature of oil.
4w 4(0.763) Given
Re = = = 10530
π(Di +do )μ π(0.053+0.037)(0.001025)
Cp μ 4184(0.001025)
Pr = k
= 0.599
= 7.16
Assume Ts = ts = 30°C
μs = 0.000822
Reqd t2
μb = 0.001025
t1 +t2
 ho = 3315.74 W/m2-K Soln tbulk = 2
HTE: q = UiAiΔTlm = UiπdiLΔTlm
Ui =
1
=
1 Temperature Profile:
1 xDi D 1 0.00287(0.021) 0.021
+ + i 2334.01
+ +
3316.74(0.037)
hi kDlm ho Do
0.037−0.021
45( 0.037 )
ln
0.021
UI = 1545.52
(177−66)−(177−𝑡2 ) (T−t1 )−(T−t2 )

UiπdiL[ 177−66 ] = [wcp(t2-t1)]oil CHECK: wcp(t2 – t1) = UiπdiL[ T−t1 ]
ln ln( )
177−𝑡2 T−t2
1 kg 1hr 2000J
Ui = 1 xDi D = hi (36 )( )( ) (t 2 − 66)
+ + i
hi kDlm ho Do hr 3600s kgK
Evaluation of hi: (177−66)−(177−t2 )
= 93.453π(0.00925)(4.6) [ 177−66 ]
ln( )
– No Phase Change 177−t2
– Forced Convection t2 = 117.56°C – too far from the assumed value
– Parallel to HTA Assume t2 = 117.56°C; tave = 91.78°C
– Round Pipe μ = 5.1155 Pr = 71.05
– Turbulent or Laminar?? Re = 269.08 hi = 84.44
Re =
di vρ 4w
= π𝑑 μ =
di G t2 = 113.87 – still a little bit far from the assumed value
μ 𝑖 μ
Assume t2 = 113.87°C; tave = 89.94°C
w/s = G (mass velocity)
μ = 5.2143 Pr = 72.42
NOTE: Properties must be based on the bulk
temperature. Re = 263.98 hi = 84.44
Assume t2 = 100°C t2 = 113.87
66+100
tave = 2
= 83°C
5.59𝑐𝑃
From the given: μ = 1000𝑐𝑃/𝑃𝑎−𝑠 = 0.00559 Pa-s Practice Problem: From Geankoplis
1. Heating of Air in Turbulent Flow

kg 1hr
4(36 )( )
Re = 0.925
hr 3600s
= 246.5 < 2100 (Example 4.5-1 page 240)
π( )(0.00559Pa−s)
100
∴ Laminar Flow (Fully Developed) Air at 206.8kPa and an average of 477.6K is being
heated as it flows through a tube of 25.4mm inside
h i Di 0.0668di /L RePr diameter at a velocity of 7.62m/s. The heating
= 3.66 + 2/3
k d medium is 488.7K steam condensing on the outside
1 + 0.04 ( Li RePr)
of the tube. Since the HTC of condensing steam is
Pr =
Cp μ
=
2000(0.00559)
= 77.64 several thousand W/m2-K and the resistance of the
k 0.144
metal wall is very small, it will be assumed that the
hi (0.00925) 0.0668(
0.00925
4.6
)(246.5)(77.64) surface wall temperature of the metal in contact with
= 3.66 +
0.144
1+0.04[(
0.00925
)(246.5)(77.64)]
2/3
the air is 488.7K. Calculate the HTC for an L/D > 60
4.6
and also the heat transfer q/A.
 hi = 93.453 = Ui
Ans. hL = 63.2 W/m2-K; q/A = 701.1 W/m2
ii. With Phase Change Example 4. Film Type Condensation
In any operation in which a material undergoes a A vertical condenser composed of ¾” (Do = 0.75”,
change of phase, provision must be made for the Di = 0.62” and x = 0.605”; k = 250 W/m-K) and 1”
addition or removal of heat to provide for the latent 16 BWG copper tubes will handle chlorobenzene
heat of the change of phase plus any other sensible vapor condensing at 1 atm. Assume water as the
heating or cooling that occurs in the process. Heat cooling medium at an average temperature of 80°C
may be transferred by any one or a combination of and heat transfer coefficient of 2270 W/m2-K.
the three modes—conduction, convection, and Assuming film type condensation, what is the mass
radiation. The process involving change of phase rate of chlorobenzene if the exchanger is 1.5m long?
involves mass transfer simultaneous with heat
Given
transfer. **Evaporation will not be discussed in this
course.
i. Condensation
 Heat Transfer Condensation - occurs when a

vapor is cooled and changes its phase to a liquid.
Reqd wF (kg/s)
Condensation heat transfer, like boiling, is of
great significance in industry. Soln
 During condensation, the latent heat of
q = wFλ = UiπdiLΔTlm
vaporization must be released. The amount of
the heat is the same as that absorbed during w
Γ = πdF Re =
4Γ
μ
vaporization at the same fluid pressure. i
Assume Re < 2100

Types of Condensation
1/4
hi L L3 ρ2 gλ
1. Film Type Condensation = 0.943(kμ(t )
k sv −ts )
2. Dropwise Condensation (will not be discussed in
this course) L=1.5 g=9.8 tsv = 132.1°C (Table 2-10 of PHB)
λ = 314400 twater = 80°C
Assume ts = 100°C
tf = tsv – 0.75(tsv – ts) = 108.025
From PHB: k = 0.177 ρ = 700.8 μ = 0.0003434
1/4
hi L
= 0.943(
L3 ρ2 gλ
) Don’t say you don’t have enough time. You have
k kμ(tsv −ts )
exactly the same number of hours per day that were
1/4
hi (1.5) (1.5)3 (700.8)2 (9.8)(314400)
= 0.943(0.177(0.0003434)(132.1−100)) given to Helen Keller, Pasteur, Michelangelo,
0.177
Mother Teresea, Leonardo da Vinci, Thomas
 hi = 795.915 Jefferson, and Albert Einstein.
1
Ui = 1 xd d – H. Jackson Brown Jr.
+ i + i
hi kdlm ho do
1
= 1 0.065(0.0254)2 (0.62) 0.62(0.0254)
+ +
795.915 2270(0.75)(0.0254)
0.177(
0.62(0.0254)−0.75(0.0254
0.75 ) IV. HEAT TRANSPORT BY RADIATION
ln
0.62
Objectives:
 Ui = 707.322
 To differentiate radiation from conduction
CHECK: Re
and convection
wFλ = UiπdiL(tsv – twater)  To identify the different types and properties
of bodies undergoing radiation
wF(314400) = 707.322π(0.62)(0.0254)(1.5)(132.1 – 80)
 To set up the radiant heat transfer equation
wF = 8.561x10-3 (we still have to check if all the in terms of view factors of surfaces in
assumptions are correct before concluding this as the radiation
answer)
w 8.561𝑥10−3
Γ = πdF = 𝜋(0.62)(0.0254)
= 0.173 THERMAL RADIATION
i
Re =
4Γ
=
4(0.173)
= 2.048x103 Thermal radiation is electromagnetic radiation
μ 0.0003434
generated by the thermal motion of charged
CHECK: ts at steady state particles in matter. All matter with a temperature
greater than absolute zero emits thermal radiation.
(tsv – ts)(hi) = (tsv – twater)(Ui) Some examples are visible light emitted by an
(132.1 – ts)(795.915) = (132.1 – 80)(707.322) incandescent light bulb infrared radiation emitted by
animals and detectable with an infrared camera. It is
ts = 85.799°C – too far from the assumed value different from convection and conduction. A person
Assume ts = 85.799 near raging bonfire feels radiant heating from the
fire, even if the surrounding air is very cold. Sunlight
Now, I challenge you to continue and finish this is thermal radiation generated by the hot plasma of
problem. Just follow what I did from the start. the sun. The earth also emits thermal radiation, but
C’mon! You got this!  at a much lower intensity and different spectral
distribution because it is cooler. The earth’s
absorption of solar radiation, followed by its
outgoing thermal radiation are the two most
important processes that determine the temperature
and climate of the earth.
Radiation Heat Transfer  Factors affecting α, ρ, τ include temperature,

nature of surface, wavelength, angle of incidence.
 The transfer of energy through space by
 Conduction and convection usually take place
electromagnetic waves
simultaneously with radiation.
 Radiation Wavelengths range from 0.5 to 50
 The net transfer rate by radiation is the
microns
difference between the emission rate (depends
 Examples: Rays emitting from the sun, hot stoves,
on temperature) and the absorbance rate
glowing furnaces
(depends on the other body).
 At a given temperature, the rate of thermal
emission varies directly with the state of
Basic Facts about Radiation
aggregation of the body.
 Thermal radiation results from the temperature
of a body.
 All bodies above absolute zero temperature emit Black Body
thermal rays.
Planck’s Law describes the electromagnetic radiation
 Thermal rays travel in straight lines from source
emitted by a blackbody in thermal equilibrium at a
to receiver.
definite temperature. It is a pioneering result of
 Only bodies within sight of each other can
modern physics and quantum theory. It also
exchange radiation.
describes the spectrum of blackbody radiation,
 The amount of emitted radiation from a body is which depends only on the object’s temperature.
independent of the amount emitted by another
body within sight. Special Types of Bodies:
 Incident Radiation (I) represents the total o Black Body: α = 1.0 or ρ, τ = 0
radiation from a source striking a receiver. This
o Gray Body: α is constant
has the following effects:
o Opaque Body: τ = 0 or α + ρ = 1.0
 Absorptivity (α): fraction of I absorbed
o Non-Black Body: α + ρ + τ = 1.0
 Reflectivity (ρ): fraction of I reflected
 Transmissivity (τ): fraction of I transmitted
through
Blackbodies vs. Gray Bodies
ex.
 Perfect emitters (or blackbodies) have an
emissivity of 1.0 for all wavelengths.
 Most real surfaces are gray bodies. Gray bodies
have 2 components: emissivity and reflectivity.
 Non gray bodies have 3 components: emissivity,
reflectivity, and transmissivity.
Factors affecting α, ρ, τ: Stefan Boltzmann Law
 Temperature The emissive power of a block body is

– bodies at low temperature – more rays are directly proportional to the 4th power of absolute
absorbed temperature.
– bodies at high temperature – increase
WB = αT4; α = 5.67x10-8 W/m2-K4
reflectivity rather than absorptivity
 Nature of Surface T
= 5.672(100) W/m2
4
 Wavelength
– strong wavelength – high transmissivity T 4
W = 5.672ε( ) W/m2
– weak wavelength – will be reflected 100
 Angle of Incidence qr = WA
– direct hit – ray will be absorbed
– with an angle – more reflection
Higher angle of incidence: Net Transfer Rate by Radiation
Reflectivity > Absorptivity
qr (radiant heat) = qre – qra (emitted-absorbed)
Between two gray bodies 1 and 2:

Wien’s Displacement Law states that the black body
radiation curve for different temperatures peaks at a qr(1-2) = σℱ 12A1 (T14 – T24)
wavelength inversely proportional to the ℱ 12 = overall interchange factor from 1 to 2
temperature.
1
ℱ12 =
1 1 A 1
+ ( − 1) + 1 ( − 1)
F12 ε1 A 2 ε2
Emissive/Total Radiating Power
F12 = view factor from 1 to 2
W = total radiation of all wavelengths emitted per
4 4
area per time (W/m2, BTU/hf-ft2) qr(1-2) = 5.672ℱ 12A1[(100
1 T 2
) − (100 ) ]
T
∞
W = ∫0 𝑊𝜆 𝑑𝜆
where Wλ = emissive power of single wavelength

Radiant Heat Transfer Coefficient
λ = wavelength
qr = hrA1 (T1 – T2) = σℱ 12A1(T14 – T24) σ = 5.672
Emissivity (ε) – ratio of emissive power of a body to
σℱ12 (T41 – T42 )
that of a black body hr (radiant htc, W/m2-K) = = hrbℱ 12
T1 −T2
ε = W/WB For a black body: ε = 1.0 = α T 4 T

5.672[( 1 ) −( 2 ) ]
4
100 100
hrb =
T1 −T2
Basic Laws of Radiation
Kirchoff’s Law Heat Loss from Pipe to Surroundings
At thermal equilibrium: W/α = constant Steady state: q = qinsidefilm = qpipewall = qins = qnatc + qrad
= UoAoΔTlm = UoπDsoL = hoAso(Ts – Ta)
W1/α1 = W2/α2; if 2 is black, ε1 = α1
3. Two rectangles with common side,

perpendicular to each other:
Fig. 15.30/372 (Foust)
4. Between radiating planes and rows of tubes: 5-
17/5-30 PHB
5. Two infinitely long planes of equal width w,
having common edge and included angle, .
 F12 = F21 = 1 - Sin /2
6. Two infinitely long planes of unequal widths h

and w, having one common edge,
perpendicular to each other.
H = h/w
w F12 
1
2

1 H  1 H2 
Controlling Resistance: air
h
hair = 10 – 20
7. Infinitely long plane of finite width to parallel
hr = 10 – 20 infinitely long cylinder
hwater = 1000 – 2000 r

hsteam = 5000 – 10000 c
qnatc = hcAso(Ts – Ta) b a

qrad = hrAso(Ts – Te)
r  b a
qnc + qr = (hc + hr)Aso(Ts – Ta) = hoAso(Ts – Ta) F12   Tan 1  Tan 1 
ba  c c
1
Uo = Do ∆xDso ∆xDso 1
hi Di
+ (pipe)+ (insulation)+
ho 8. Infinitely long parallel cylinders of the same
Do −D Dso −D
k( D i )
ln o
k( D i )
ln so
diameter
Di Di
1 2  1 
F12  F21   X  1  Sin 1    X
  X 
A. Evaluation of View Factor s
X  1
2r
1. Special cases: F = 1
9. Sphere of radius r1 to disk of radius r2, center-to-
a) Between infinitely long parallel planes of
center distance, h; normal to center of disk passes
equal areas
through center of sphere.
b) A body completely enclosed by another;
Area of enclosing body >>> Area of
r2 1 1 
enclosed body R2  F12  1  
h 2 1  R2 2 
2. Two parallel and equal planes: 
Fig. 5-13/5-23 PHB
10. Parallel circular disks of radius r1and r2 with ℱ12 = 1 1

1
1 = 0.6
+( −1)+0( −1)
centers along the same normal at distance h 1 0.6 0.8
r1 r2 1+ R22 ℱ12 = ε1 Body completely enclosed by another area

R1  R2  X = 1+
h h R1 2
of enclosed body is very small.
1  
2
 R2 
F12 = X - X 2  4  
2  R1   Practice Problems:
 
Getting Transport Properties from PHB:
c) Bodies 1 and 2 are parallel disks each with 4 cm
Normal Total Emissivity of Various Surfaces:
radius and 5 cm apart. Ans. F12 = 0.31
Table 5-4
d) Bodies 1 and 2 are similar squares 1m on a side
and 40 cm apart with reradiating wall.
Example 1. Evaluation of View Factor Ans. F12 = 0.45
Two gray bodies:
Body 1 at 200°C, ε = 0.6; Body 2 at 100°C, ε = 0.8 B. Evaluation of hc (natural convection)

Reqd the net heat transfer rate by radiation from Nux (Rax, Pr)
Body 1 to 2 per m2, if:
βΔTgx3 ρ2 Cp
horizontal: x = Dso Rax =
a) Both bodies are infinite parallel planes with μk
equal areas. vertical: x = L β = 1/T (gases)

T 4 T 4
hc x
Soln qr(1-2) = 5.672ℱ 12A1[(100
1 2
) − (100 ) ] Nu = ΔT = Ts – Tair g = 9.8m/s2
k
Example 2. An insulated 1” Sch 40 horizontal steel

pipe 25m long is carrying steam at 200°C. The
insulation is 5mm thick and has a k of 0.08W/m-K.
The insulation is painted with flat black lacquer. The
1
F12 = 1 ℱ12 = 1 1 1 = 0.52 surroundings are at 21°C. Assume hsteam as
+( −1)+1( −1)
1 0.6 0.8 40000W/m2-K. Determine the heat loss to the
qr(1−2) surroundings in W.
= 5.672(0.52)[(4.73)4 − (3.73)4 ]
A1
Given
= 906.4 W/m2
b) Bodies 1 and 2 are concentric spheres with radii

of 20 and 50 cm respectively.
r1 << r2
A1 4πr12
= ≈0
A2 4πr22
Reqd q T 4 T
5.672ε1 [( 1 ) −( 2 ) ]
4
100 100
hr =
T1 −T2
Soln Dso = Do +2xins x = (Do – Di)/2 k = 45
100+273 4 21+273 4
5.672(0.9824)[( ) −( ) ]
Pipe Do = 0.033m Di = 0.027 Dso = 0.043 =
100 100
= 8.38 W/m2-K
x = 0.034m 100−21
ho = hc + hr = 15.65 W/m2-K
q = UoAsoΔTlm = hoAso(Ts – Ta)
CHECK: q = qo
ΔTlm = ∑ΔT = 200 – 21
ΔTlm(UoAso) = (Ts – Ta)(hoAso)
Aso = πDsoL
Uo = 7.41
ho = hc + hr
(200 – 21)(7.41) = (Ts – 21)(15.65)
Evaluation of hc:
Ts = 105.74°C
Assume Ts = 100°C
Ts +Ta 100+21 q = UoπDso(Th – Ta) = 7.41π(0.043)(25)(200 – 21)
Tf = 2
= 2
= 60.5℃
q = 4480 W
PM 1(29) 3
ρ= RT
= 0.08205(60.5+273)
= 1.06kg/m
k = 0.02847 W/m-K Practice Problems: From Geankoplis

Cp = 1001.377 J/kg-K 1. Radiation between Parallel Planes
-5
μ = 2.009x10 Pa-s (Example 4.11-1 page 285)
βΔTgD3so ρ2 Cp
RaD = = 363081.93 Two parallel gray planes which are very large have
μk
emissivities of ε1 = 0.8 and ε2 = 0.7 and surface 1 is
β = 1/(60.5 + 273) at 1100°F (866.5K) and surface 2 at 600°F (588.8K).
Use English and SI units for the following. What is
g = 9.8 ΔT = 100-21 = 79°C
the net radiation from 1 to 2? Ans. 15010 W/m2
Cp μ
Pr = k
= 0.71 2. Radiation and Convection from a Steam Pipe
2
(Problem 4.10-3 page 324)
hc Dso 0.387Ra1/6
NuD = = [0.6 + ]
k
[1+(
0.559 9.16
) ]
8/27
A horizontal oxidized steel pipe carrying steam and
Pr
having an OD of 0.1683m has a surface temperature
hc = 7.27 W/m2-K of 374.9K and is exposed to air at 297.1K in a large
enclosure. Calculate the heat loss from 0.305m of
Evaluation of hr:
pipe from natural convection plus radiation. For the
Flat black lacquer: 100°F 0.96 steel pipe, use an ε of 0.79. Ans. q = 163.3W
200°F 0.98
100°C = 212°F 0.9824 (cal’d)
“There are no shortcuts to any place worth going. “
– Beverly Sills
V. MASS TRANSFER FUNDAMENTALS NOTE: The flux is also dependent on direction; If B is

moving in a direction opposite that of A, then
Objectives:
NB = -NA.
 To relate the meaning of diffusion with
Molecular Diffusion Equation is based on Fick’s Law:
several unit operations
 To differentiate between the basic types of For unidirectional transfer in the z direction:
diffusion −dCA −dCB
 To derive a general equation for molar flux JA = DAB dz
JB = DBA dz
for a binary system where DAB is mass diffusivity of A in B
 To apply the general equation to:
Unimolecular diffusion (UMD) and Equimolar unit of DAB: L2/time
diffusion (EMD)
QUESTION: When is DAB = DBA?
 To obtain mass diffusivities from available
data and formulas from the Handbook
A. Evaluation of Mass Diffusivity

Diffusion – is the movement of the quantity of a Gaseous Systems
component(s) through a medium.
Using Tables from PHB (Table 2-234/ pg. 2-454)
Using Formulas from PHB and in textbooks

Basic Types of Diffusion
Liquid Systems
Molecular Diffusion (Ji) – the movement is due to
Using Tables from PHB (Table 2-235/ pg. 2-456)
difference in concentration (Ji is the rate of molecular
diffusion of component i in mole/area-time) Using Formulas from PHB and in textbooks
Convective Diffusion (Ei) – the movement is due to
mechanical means/ velocity difference (Ei is the
convective diffusion rate, same unit as Ji) Getting Transport Properties from PHB:
Magnitude Range of DAB: Table 5-9
Diffusion Rate – is also called Molar Flux (Ni) Pertinent Equations: Table 5-10 and Table 5-14
Table 5-10: P in atm, T in K, V in cm3/g-mol, M in
Ni = Ji + E i g/g-mol, DAB in cm2/s
Table 5-14: T in K, V in cc/mol, DAB in cm2/s, μB in cP
Atomic Diffusion Volume: Table 5-12

Binary Diffusion – involves a system composed of
only two components, A and B.
N A = JA + E A Common Equations
N B = JB + E B 1. Fuller-Schettling-Gillings Equation (Non-Polar

Gases)
Net Molar Flux: N = NA + NB = J + E
1/2
0.001T1.75 MAB
DAB = 1/3 1/3 2
P[(∑ V)A +(∑ V)B ]
MAB = 1/MA + 1/MB Example 2. Using Wilke-Chang Equation
2. Gilliland Equation (Polar Molecules) Find the diffusivity of n-propyl alcohol in liquid
1
1.38x10−7 √T3 ( + )
1 water at 45°C.
MA MB
DAB = 1/3 2
1/3
P(VA +VB ) Given A = C3H7OH T = 45 + 273
3
units: V in m /g-mol B = H2O MB = 18
P in Pa
Soln Use Wilke-Chang Equation for Liquids
M in kg/g-mol
DAB in m2/s DAB =
7.4x10−8 (ϕB MB )1/2 T
μB V0.6
3. Wilke-Chang Equation (Dilute, non-electrolyte A
Liquid Mixtures) ΦB = 2.26 μH2O = μB VA = 1/ρm at normal BP

7.4x10−8 (ϕB MB )1/2 T
DAB = Boiling Point = 97.8°C
μB V0.6
A
DIPPR: ρ = 731.31 kg/m3

ΦB = association factor for solvent B
m3 60kg (100cm)3 kg−mol
VA = 731.17kg x kg−mol x (1m)3
x 1000 g−mol
H2O: μB = 6.132x10-4 Pa-s = 0.6132 cP

1
7.4x10−8 (2.26(18))2 (45+273)
DAB = 60x1000 0.6
= 1.74x10-2 cm2/s
(0.6132)( )
731.13
Example 1. Using Gilliland Equation Practice Problem:

Find the diffusivity of CO2 in N2 at 30°C and 740mm 1. Using Fuller-Schettling-Gillings Equation
Hg.
Find the diffusivity of CH4 in air at 30°C and 1atm.
Given A = CO2 T = 30+273 MA = 44/1000
Ans. 1.22 cm2/s
740
B = N2 P= 760
x101325 MB = 28/1000
Soln Use Gilliland Equations for Polar Molecules

B. General Diffusion Flux Equation
1 1
1.38x10−7 √T3 ( + )
MA MB For components A and B:
DAB = 1/3 1/3
P(VA +VB )
N A = JA + E A N B = JB + E B N = NA + N B
3 -6 3
CO2: VA = 26.9 cm /gmol = 26.9x10 m /g-mol dCA
N2: VB = 17.9x10-6 m3/g-mol Molecular flux: JA = DAB [− dz
] (Fick’s Equation)
dCB
1.38x10−7 √3033 (
1
+
1
0.044 0.028
) JB = DBA [− dz
]
DAB = 740 2
( x101325)(0.00002691/3 +0.00001791/3 )
760
Convective flux: EA = NxA = (NA + NB) xA
DAB = 5.3x10-3 m2/s (double check this)
EB = NxB = (NA + NB) xB
x = C/ρm where ρm is the molar density of the system

assumed as constant
NA = DAB [−
dCA
] + (NA + NB)(CA/ρm) Other Equation Forms
dz
dCA 1. Ideal Gaseous Systems

NAρm = DAB ρm [− dz
] + (NA + NB)CA
ρm = P/RT Mole fraction = y
By separating variables:
DAB P 1−yA2
UMD NA = ln
−dCA dz RTΔz 1−yA1
=
NA ρm − (NA + NB )CA DAB ρm In terms of partial pressures, PA = PyA
The above equation may be integrated in order to DAB P P−P DAB P P
NA = ln P−PA2 = ln PB2
arrive at the general equation. RTΔz A1 RTΔz B1
DAB (CA1 −CA2 ) DAB (PA1 −PA2 )

Exercise: Apply integration methods and derive the EMD NA = Δz
= RTΔz
general diffusion equation
2. Liquid Systems
The resulting equation is:
ρs1 ρs2
ρm = 0.5| + | ρs = density of solution
DAB ρm R−x Ms1 Ms2
NA = Δz
R ln R−xA2 General Diffusion Flux Equation
A1
Ms = MW of solution
NA
where R = NA +NB
C. Mass Transfer Coefficient

Diffusion Cases NA (mass flux) = mass transfer coefficient x driving
1. Unimolecular Diffusion of A (UMD) force = k x DF
– B is stationary (R = 1) Mass Transfer Coefficient will have many symbols,

depending on its partner DF, and the diffusion case.
– NB = 0
Case 1: One-Way Diffusion (UMD)
DAB ρm 1−x
NA = Δz
ln 1−xA2
A1
2. Equimolal Counter Diffusion (EMD)
–N=0
DAB (CA1 −CA2 ) DAB ρm (xA1 −𝑥A2 )
NA = Δz
= Δz
Methods of Expressing Composition Case 2: Equimolal Counterdiffusion (EMD)
Gases: y = mole fraction
yA = PA/P
CA = concentration in gas phase
Liquids: x = mole fraction
CA = concentration in liquid phase
Mass Transfer Equations Evaluation of MTCs
Case 1: Wetted Wall Column (a.k.a. falling-film column) is a

chemical equipment used to achieve mass and heat
transfer between two fluid phases (in general one
gas phase and one liquid phase).
 Evaporation of a Liquid to a Gas
Use Gilliland and Sherwood Equation: Table 5-18B PHB

Case 2:
Sherwood Equation:
k G RTD PBLM 0.83 0.44
( ) = 0.023NRe NSc = NSh
DAB P
Reynolds Number:
NRe = DG/μ
Schmidt Number:
Sample Derivation for UMD, Gas
NSc = μ/ρDAB
DAB P
NA = (P
RTΔzPBm A1
− PA2 ) = kG(PA1 – PA2)
 Absorption of a Pure Gas by a Liquid
D P
kG = RTΔzP
AB
Treybal Equation:
Bm
Sample Derivation for EMD, Gas 3μΓ 1/3

δ=( 2 )
ρ g
DAB (PA1 −PA2 )
NA = RTΔz
= k’G(PA1 – PA2)
4Γ
NRe = < 100: kL = 3.41 DAB/δ
μ
DAB
k’G =
RTΔz
6D Γ 1/2
> 100: kL = ( πρδL
AB
)
Relating MTC with Cases:

D P Example 3. Pure carbon dioxide will be absorbed in
kG = RTΔzP
AB
Bm a wetted wall column, 1m long using water at 25°C.
D The liquid film shall flow at 0.05kg/s-m wetted
k’G = RTΔz
AB
perimeter. Determine the mass transfer coefficient of
PBm CO2 in the liquid. Diffusivity of CO2 in water is
k’G = kG = kGyBm
P 1.96x10-9 m2/s.
Given CA1 = 0 L=1 Γ = 0.05
T = 298 μ = 0.95(0.001) ρ = 997.05
DAB = 1.96x10-9
Reqd kL
4Γ 4(0.05)
Soln Re = = = 210 > 100
μ 0.95(0.001)
3μΓ 1/3 3(0.00095)(0.05) 1/3

δ = ( ρ2 g ) =[ 997.052 (9.8)
] = 2.45x10-4m
6D Γ 1/2
kL = ( πρδL
AB
) = 2.771000x10-5 kgmol/s-m2-Pa
Practice Problem: From Geankoplis
1. Mass Transfer from a Flat Plate
(Example 7.3-2 page 444)
A large volume of pure water at 26.1°C is flowing

parallel to a flat plate of solid benzoic acid, where
L = 0.244m in the direction of flow. The water
velocity is 0.061m/s. The solubility of benzoic acid in
water is 0.02948 kgmol/m3. The diffusivity of benzoic
acid is 1.245x10-9 m2/s. Calculate the flux NA.
Ans. 1.726x10-7 kgmol/s-m2
“Some people dream of accomplishing great things.

Others stay awake and make it happen.”
Congratulations! You just made it happen. I

did my best to summarize it. I do hope you
learned something. Just let me know if you
need the solutions for some of the problems.
However, try answering it alone first to test
your knowledge. God bless on your journey,
Future Thomasian Chemical Engineer. 
For comments, corrections, suggestions,

and/or questions about the reviewers, you
may email UST ChES Academic Affairs
Committee at ustchesacadaffairs@gmail.com.

AA - CHE324 - Principles of Transport Processes

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

AA - CHE324 - Principles of Transport Processes

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

CHE 324: Principles of Transport Processes

Reviewer for Principles of Transport Processes I. INTRODUCTION TO TRANSPORT

Printed Learning Resources:

“You don’t have to be great to start, but you have

Transport Mechanics Molecular Transport and the States of Matter

1. Mass Transport  Gases

Non-Newtonian Fluids – doubling the speed that the

 Mass Transport: Gases > Liquids > Solids

General Molecular Transport Equation

Based on the Kinetic Theory of Model Gases:

 Gas molecules are perfect spheres of

A. Derivation of Transport Equations

Ψ (psi) = molecular flux (amount of transferent

= ⊥ to the flow of mass

2. Heat Transport i. Applications on Mass Transport Equation

dT Gases: Ideal Gas Law (A = solute; B = medium)

α = δ = thermal diffusivity Humidity: (A = H2O vapor; B = air)

kg−m/s2 Evaluation of Diffusivity (DAB):

μ = νρ = absolute viscosity (kg/m-s) Correction for Pressure and Temperature:

For Real Gases and Polar Gases

Specific Heat (Cp): Table 2-152

Density (ρ): Table 2-32

Normal Boiling Point: Tables 2-1,2

Example 1. Diffusion of solute vapor in gas

a) Calculate the mass flux of benzene vapor in air,

7.7x10−6 (101.325) DAB (80)

DAB = 1.14x10-5 m2/s

A = area ⊥ to the direction of motion

Example 2. Diffusion of Liquids

cm2 (1m)2 Given A – methanol T = 30°C

b) If the total pressure is 600mm Hg and 25°C, find

Reqd NA ii. Applications on Momentum Transport

iii. Applications on Heat Transport Equation II. HEAT TRANSPORT BY CONDUCTION

c) the temperature 20cm from the hotter end

The Conduction Rate Equation a) If k is linear with T: k = a + bT

 We assumed that T varies only in the x-direction, km = a + bTm

−∆T Driving Force

∆r r dr d) Frustum of a square pyramid: Am = s1s2

Thermal Conductivity (k): Tables 2-326,327

iii. Multiple Resistances a) Find the heat loss (q).

∑ΔT = ΔT1 + ΔT2 Di = 2.067(0.0254) = 0.0525m

qRT = q1R1 + q2R2 Δx = 0.154(0.0254) = 0.0039m

covered with 2 layers of insulation; 3 cm of light LCM:

Given k = 0.034(1.73) W/m-K

Do = 0.1203 + 2(0.02) = 0.1603m Example 2. A composite wall made up of (A): 2cm

c) Use asbestos instead of CaCO3 to find q and Ti.

Ans. q = 726.59W & Ti = 64.16°C

A: Δx = 0.02m B. Unsteady State Conduction

Ave. Solid Temperature: Fig. 5.3-13/349

Semi-infinite solid: Fig. 5.3-3/337

Example 3. Cooling a Slab of Meat Interpolate:

1. Cooling of a Steel Rod

k In orange-growing areas, the freezing of the oranges

III. HEAT TRANSPORT BY CONVECTION Film Concept

Objectives:  When a rapidly moving fluid comes in contact

Liquids and gases are fluids. When a fluid is heated,

1. Forced Convection ∑ΔT = T1 – T2

RT = Rinside film + Rinside dirt + Rwater + Routside dirt + Routside film

hd = heat transfer coefficient for dirt/scales

Heat transfer in Pipes (cylinder) ex. Double Pipe Heat Exchanger

Heat Transfer Area:

Ao = πDoL Concentric pipe system:

q = UoAo∑ΔT = UiAi∑ΔT Heat Transfer Equation Utility Fluid – hot – annulus